Centralized Class Specific Dictionary Learning for

wearable sensors based physical activity recognition

Sherin M Mathews Chandra Kambhamettu Kenneth E. Barner
Department of Electrical Department of Computer Department of Electrical
and Computer Engineering and Information Sciences and Computer Engineering
University of Delaware University of Delaware University of Delaware
Newark, Delaware Newark, Delaware Newark, Delaware
sherinm@udel.edu chandrak@udel.edu barner@udel.edu

AbstractWith recent progress in pervasive healthcare,
physical activity recognition with wearable body sensors has
become an important and challenging area in both research and
industrial communities. Here, we address a novel technique for
a sensor platform that performs physical activity recognition by
leveraging a class specific regularizer term into the dictionary
pair learning objective function. The proposed algorithm jointly
learns a synthesis dictionary and an analysis dictionary in
order to simultaneously perform signal representation and
classification once the time-domain features have been extracted.
Specifically, the class specific regularizer term ensures that the
sparse codes belonging to the same class will be concentrated
thereby proving beneficial for the classification stage. In order
to develop a more practical approach, we employ a combination
of an alternating direction method of multipliers and a l1 ls
minimization method to approximately minimize the objective
function. We validate the effectiveness of our proposed model
by employing it on two activity recognition problem and an
intensity estimation problem, both of which include a large
number of physical activities. Experimental results demonstrate
that classifiers built in this dictionary learning based framework
outperforms state of art algorithms by using simple features,
thereby achieving competitive results when compared with
classical systems built upon features with prior knowledge.
Keywords Body sensor networks, Wearable Sensors, Hu-
man Activity Recognition, Physical Activity Monitoring, In-
tensity Estimation of Physical Activity, Inertial sensor, Heart
Rate, Sensor localization, Sparse Representation, Dictionary
Pair Learning
I. I NTRODUCTION AND R ELATED W ORK
The classification of basic physical activities (walk, run,
cycle) and basic postures (lie, stand, sit) is well researched
[1], [2], [3], [4], and good recognition performance can
be obtained using a single 3D-accelerometer and simple
classifiers. Moreover, recent studies have focused on
estimating the intensity of an activity (i.e., light, moderate or
vigorous) ( e.g., in [5], [6]) by means of metabolic equivalent
(MET), a parameter that attributes to the energy expenditure
of a physical activity.
Over the years, many studies have analyzed both simple
and complex human activities reported by wearable sensors.
A large number of these have focused on determining which
features in this activity data are the most significant, and
how these data can be most effectively employed to classify
the activities [3], [4], [7], [8]. Other research has focused on
which computational model is the most relevant to represent
human activity data [9], [10], [11]. Despite such research
efforts, the scalability of handling large intra-class variations
and the robustness of many human-activity recognition
techniques to the model parameters remains limited.
To make physical activity monitoring practicable in
everyday life scenarios, an activity-recognition framework
must be able to manage a wide range of everyday, household,
or sport activities and must handle a variety of potential
users. Although current research has focused on increasing
the number of activities that are recognized, each increase in
the number of activities causes the classification performance
to fall off. Secondly, recording and using only a small set of
a few activities in basic activity recognition, without having
simultaneous background activities, limits the applicability of
the developed algorithms. Recently, infilling of missing pixels,
and image and speech classification problems have been
successfully addressed by dictionary learning particularly
because of its robustness towards missing data and noise. Real-
time scenarios might include activity switching, thus requires
testing on a wider range of activities than were used for
training [12]. Thus, successful activity-recognition requires
dictionary learning frameworks [12] that are sufficiently
robust for classification even with limited training data.
In this paper, we present a unified dictionary pair learning
framework by incorporating a centralized class specific
regularizer term to solve the wearable sensor based
classification problem. In the dictionary pair learning
framework, the training samples of each class contribute
identically to the dictionary, thus generating a dictionary
having training samples corresponding to each class. This
can result in instability and high residual error, which is
detrimental to the recognition performance. Using traditional
class specific dictionary learning approaches [35] does
allow learning a dictionary for each class, but might
result in interdependence in sparse codes and erroneous

978-1-5090-4780-2/17/$31.00 2017 IEEE

discrimination. Thus, the main contribution is to explicitly
incorporate centralized class specific sparse codes to the
dictionary pair learning objective function to obtain superior
classification performance by making sparse codes in the same
class concentrated. A new alternate minimization algorithm
incorporated with a l1 ls minimization method is developed
to facilitate convergence of the non-convex objective function.
To the best of our knowledge, dictionary learning frameworks,
and specifically centralized class dependent dictionary pair
learning frameworks, have not to date been used in wearable
sensor-based applications. Consequently, our novel dictionary
learning-based framework algorithm will instigate future
research on this methods potential applicability for accurate
sensor-based data classifications and for other physiological-
signal classifications.
II. P ROPOSED M ETHODOLOGY
The proposed framework involves two steps: data process-
ing and recognition. Data processing incorporates preprocess-
ing, segmentation and feature extraction stages. In the prepro-
cessing stage, raw sensory data is synchronized, timestamped,
and labeled; 3D-acceleration and heart rate data are acquired.
During segmentation, this collected data is segmented with a
sliding window, using a window size of 512 samples. During
the feature extraction stage, signal features extracted from
the segmented 3D-acceleration data are calculated for each
of the three axis separately and for the 3 axes together.
Inclusion of Heart Rate (HR) monitor with the commonly
used inertial sensors proved specifically useful for physical
activity intensity estimation. Mean and gradient are calculated
on both the raw and normalized heart rate signals from the HR
data. Overall, a total of 137 basic features are computed : 133
features from Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) acceleration
data and 4 features from HR data.
A. Dictionary Pair Learning Framework
Dictionary Pair Learning classification algorithm jointly
learns a synthesis dictionary and an analysis dictionary to
attain the objective of signal representation and discrimination
[13]. To explain discriminative dictionary learning, a set of p-
dimensional training samples from K classes can be defined
as X = [X1 , ........, Xk , ...., XK ], where Xk Rpn is the
training sample set of class k, and n is the number of samples
of each class. Discriminative dictionary learning (DL) methods
intents to learn an efficient data representation model from X
for classification by employing the class label information of
training data, and can be formulated as:
min kX DAk2F + ||A||p + (D, A, Y) (1)
D,A
Here > 0 is a scalar constant; Y denotes the class label
matrix of samples in X; D is the synthesis dictionary to be
learned; and A is the coding coefficient matrix of X over
D. The data fidelity term kX DAk2F in the training model
(equation (1)), ensures the representation ability of D; ||A||p
is the lp -norm regularizer on A; and (D, A, Y) represents
discrimination promotion function that ensures discrimination
power of D and A [13]. Using an analysis dictionary defined
by P RmKp , the code A can be analytically represented
as A = PX, thereby making the representation of X efficient.
Based on this concept, the DPL model learns an analysis
dictionary P together with the synthesis dictionary D, leading
to the following DPL model [13]:
P , D = arg min kX DPXk2F + (D, P, X, Y) (2)
P,D
Here (D, P, X, Y) represents the discrimination function;
D and P form a dictionary pair where the analysis dictionary
P is used to analytically code X, and the synthesis dictionary
D is used to reconstruct X. The learned structured synthesis
dictionary D = [D1 , ..Dk , ., DK ] and the structured analysis
dictionary P = [P1 , ....., Pk ......PK ] form a sub-dictionary pair
corresponding to class k. Thus incorporating the structured
analysis dictionary P , we ensure that the sub-dictionary Pk
projects the samples from class i,i 6= k to a nearly null
space thereby making the coefficient matrix PX nearly block
diagonal. By adopting variable matrix A to relax the non-
convex problem, the following DPL model can be defined as:
X
K
P , A , D = arg min kXk Dk Ak k2F
P,A,D
k=1
(3)
+ kPk Xk Ak k2F + ||Pk , Xi ||2F
Here Xk represents the complementary data matrix of Xk in
the training set X, > 0 denotes a scalar constant, and di is
the ith atom of synthesis dictionary D.
B. Dictionary Pair Learning model based on centralized class
specific regularizer term
The objective is to incorporate a centralized class specific
regularizer term [14] to obtain a unified dictionary pair
learning framework. In DPL model, training samples of each
class contribute equivalently to the dictionary, thus generating
a dictionary consisting of training samples in corresponding
class, resulting in instability and higher residual error. The
main contribution here is to explicitly incorporate centralized
class specific sparse codes [21] to the dictionary pair learning
objective function, thereby, making sparse codes in the same
class concentrated.
To attain this objective,we denote the mean of each row of
sparse code A as E(A). The regularizer term can be formulated
as : XN
R(Ak ) = k(Ak ) n E(Ak )k22 (4)
n=1
where is the tradeoff parameter between the reconstruction
error and the degree of deviation from the sparse code to their
centers and A n represent the nth column of a sparse matrix
A. Incorporating the class specific regularizer term to the DPL
objective function, equation (3) can be formulated as:
 X
K
P , A , D = arg min kXk Dk Ak k2F + kPk Xk Ak k2F
P,A,D
k=1 X
N X
N
A = 2 tn (Ak )n + (Ak )
n S(Ak )n +
X
N
+||Pk , Xi ||2F + k(Ak ) n E(Ak )k22 n=1 n=1

n=1 X N 1
N
N 1 X
N
2
(5) [( ) (Ak )n (A k )n 2 (A k )n (Ak )m ]
N N2
n=1 m=1,m6=n
In order to solve this equation, we integrate alternating (12)
direction method of multipliers with l1 ls method to
facilitate convergence. The alternating direction method of The objective function now reduces to equation (13)
multipliers (ADMM) solve convex optimization problems
by fixing some variables and solving for the other variable, N 1 2 X
R

thereby decomposing the problem into smaller sub-problems f (Ak )ln = (Ak )2ln (Sll + [ ] ) + 2(Ak )ln ( Slq (Ak )qn )
N
q=1q6=l
making each of them easier to handle. The minimization can
N 1 X
N
be alternated between the following steps :
2(Ak )ln [ (Ak )mn ] 2(Ak )ln tTln
N2
m=1,m6=n
1:Fix A, update P and D (13)
XK
P = arg min kPk Xk Ak k2F + ||Pk , Xi ||2F (6) Here (Ak )ln denotes all elements in Ak except the element in
P
k=1 XK the l th row and the n th column. Defining
D = arg min kXk Dk Ak k2F N 1 X
(7) N
D
k=1 dln = tTln + [ (Ak )lm ] (14)
N2
m=1,m6=n

The closed form solution for P can be obtained as: f (Ak )ln becomes a piece-wise parabolic function as in
P = A X T ( X X T + X XT + Y I)1
k k k k k k (8) [21]. Adopting the convexity and monotonic property of the
parabolic function and the problem transformation defined in
The closed form solution for D can be obtained by intro-
[21] , we have the closed-form solution as function reaches
ducing a variable S as in [13]
the minimum at the unique point.
XK
Dr+1 = arg min kXk Dk Ak k2F + kDk Srk + Trk k2F ln
dln [S(Ak )]ln
D (Ak )ln = (15)
k=1
(9) Sll + [ NN1 ]2
The solution for D and P are the same as in the DPL In the testing phase, the analysis sub-dictionary Pk is
framework [13] using ADMM algorithm. trained to produce small coefficients for samples from classes
other than k, and thus can only generate significant coding
2. Fix D and P, update A coefficients for samples from class k. Meanwhile, the synthesis
X
K
sub-dictionary Dk is trained to reconstruct the samples of
A = arg min tr[(Xk Dk Ak ) (Xk Dk Ak )]
A class k from their projective coefficients Pk Xk , i.e residual
k=1
will be small. Conversely, since Pk Xi will be small and
+tr[ (Pk Xk Ak ) (Pk Xk Ak )] (10) Dk is not trained to reconstruct Xi , the residual ai will be
X
N
much larger. Thus, if the query sample y is from class k, its
+ k(Ak )n E(Ak )k22 projective coding vector Pk will more likely be large, while its
n=1
projective coding vectors Pi will be small. Therefore, class-
Here, tr represents the trace of a matrix. We use l1 ls specific reconstruction residual are used to identify the class
optimization method to solve for A. Ignoring the constant label of testing sample.
terms, the function can be simplified using l1 ls optimization
method. III. E XPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
XK
A. PAMAP2 Database
A = arg min tr[2(Xk Dk + Xk Pk )Ak
A The proposed algorithm is evaluated over the activity
k=1
X
N recognition and intensity estimation classification problems
+Ak (Dk Dk + I)Ak ] + k(Ak ) n E(Ak )k22 defined on the recently released PAMAP2 Physical Activity
n=1 Monitoring Data Set. Briefly, this dataset captures 18 physical
(11) activities performed by 9 subjects wearing 3 IMUs (Inertial
measurement unit) and a HR (heart rate) monitor. Here, the
Defining t = (Xk Dk + Xk Pk ) and
activity classification task consists of 15 different activity

S = (Dk Dk + I) and using property tr(A BA) =
P classes represented as lie, sit, stand, walk, run, cycle, Nordic
N
n=1 An B(An ), equation 11 can be rewritten as walk, drive car, ascend, descend stairs, vacuum, iron, fold
 Annotated Class Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4 Class 5 Class 6 Class 7 Class 8 Class 9 Class 10 Class 11 Class 12 Class 13 Class 14 Class 15
Predicted Class 1 1660 2 3 19 12 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 30 0 1
Predicted Class 2 1 1257 134 73 18 4 0 4 0 3 1 0 130 25 5
Predicted Class 3 0 83 1262 126 33 1 4 0 6 2 2 0 156 20 8
Predicted Class 4 1 29 128 1379 103 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 506 40 0
Predicted Class 5 0 0 10 170 693 5 0 5 0 2 8 0 634 11 19
Predicted Class 6 0 0 0 0 0 409 49 199 101 0 0 0 15 0 6
Predicted Class 7 0 0 0 0 0 73 358 49 102 7 0 1 41 0 0
Predicted Class 8 0 0 0 0 0 77 35 1825 224 28 0 0 4 0 0
Predicted Class 9 0 0 0 0 0 4 21 111 1568 0 0 0 2 0 3
Predicted Class 10 0 4 1 3 10 8 7 25 78 1312 0 0 19 0 5
Predicted Class 11 0 0 0 0 14 0 0 0 6 0 791 0 18 0 6
Predicted Class 12 0 0 0 0 30 0 33 0 35 0 0 2668 2 0 0
Predicted Class 13 0 9 43 208 350 12 6 1 9 10 2 0 1056 34 8
Predicted Class 14 0 1 21 322 145 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 353 57 0
Predicted Class 15 0 0 0 0 18 43 2 16 46 0 8 3 17 0 242

TABLE I: Confusion matrix using proposed framework on PAMAP2 -AR dataset.

Annotated activity Class 1 Class 2 Class 3
Predicted Class 1 11655 1338 331
Predicted Class 2 621 6539 402
laundry, clean house, play soccer and jump rope. This
classification task is referred to as the PAMAP2 Activity Predicted Class 3 5 741 1368
Recognition (PAMAP2-AR) task. The intensity-estimation TABLE II: Overall confusion matrix using dictionary pair learning framework on
PAMAP2-IE dataset. The table shows how different annotated activities are classified
classification task aims to distinguish activities of light, into different classes.
moderate, and vigorous effort based on the MET of the
Method Proposed Adaboost C4.5 Decision Tree
various physical activities, as provided by [15] and is referred Accuracy 85.89% 73.93% 70.07%
to as the PAMAP2 Intensity Estimation (PAMAP2 - IE) TABLE III: Recognition results on PAMAP2-IE Dataset.
task. Therefore, intensity classes are defined as activities of
Method Proposed Adaboost C4.5 Decision Tree
light effort (< 3.0 METs) (lie, sit, stand, drive a car, iron, Computation time 0.24s 10.82s 2.39s
fold laundry, clean house, watch TV, work at a computer), TABLE IV: Computation time for classifying one query activity on PAMAP2-IE Dataset.
moderate effort (3.0-6.0 METs) (walk, cycle, descend stairs,
vacuum and Nordic walk), or vigorous effort (> 6.0 METs)
(run, ascend stairs, jump rope, play soccer). 2) PAMAP2 - Results on Activity Recognition Task:
To investigate the proposed frameworks performance on
PAMAP2 AR task, we computed its performance on 15
Using these two defined classification tasks, the proposed classes based activity-recognition tasks. We find that our
method is compared with C4.5 Decision Tree [16] and framework outperforms the C4.5 decision tree with an accu-
Adaboost algorithms [16]. For the evaluation procedure, racy of 73.17% versus 71.59%, and it gives competitive results
we randomly selected 75% of the data for training and when compared to an AdaBoost classifier on the PAMAP2 AR
25% for testing and averaged recognition results over 10 task (Table V).
repetitions. Aside from providing classification accuracy, we
also report on the average computation time for classifying Method Proposed Adaboost C4.5 Decision Tree
Accuracy 73.17% 71.78% 71.59%
one query activity of competing algorithms in the experiments.
TABLE V: Recognition results on PAMAP2-AR Dataset.

1) PAMAP2 -Results on Intensity Estimation Task: First

presented are classification results over a intensity estimation
task defined on PAMAP2 datset. In [16], the C4.5 decision tree
algorithm and Adaboost classifier were tested on the PAMAP2
dataset and demonstrated an accuracy of 70.07% and 73.93%.
The overall confusion matrix using the proposed framework
for the three intensity estimation tasks (i.e., light (Class 1),
moderate (Class 2) and vigorous (Class 3) tasks) is given
in Table II. An independent performance assessment of the
proposed framework results in an accuracy of 85.89% on the
AR-IE task, demonstrating that our framework outperforms
the C4.5 decision tree and AdaBoost classifiers (Table III).
As shown in Table III, the proposed framework achieves the
highest recognition rate of 85.89%. As shown in Table IV, the
proposed algorithm is approximately more than 5 times faster
than Adaboost. Clearly, the proposed approach outperforms
other methods.
Method Proposed Adaboost C4.5 Decision Tree
Computation time 1.52s 11.25s 9.39s
TABLE VI: Computation time for classifying one query activity on PAMAP2-AR
Dataset.
In addition to competitive accuracy, our framework provides
the additional advantages of lower computation time for clas-
sifying a query activity(Table VI). Further examination of our
results indicate that averaged over 10 test runs, the confusion
matrix of the best-performing classifier on the PAMAP2-
AR task yields an overall accuracy of 73.17%, showing that
some activities are recognized with high accuracy, such as
lying, walking, or even distinguishing between ascending
and descending. Overall, misclassifications, where activities
belonging to one class are mistakenly classified as belonging
to its neighboring classes, are lower. In [16] and [17], the eval-
uation technique was leave-one-activity-out (LOAO) where an
 Reference/Algorithm Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4 Class 5 Class 6
Class 1 1877 29 0 0 0 0
Class 2 572 1190 15 0 0 0
Class 3 4 17 1918 0 0 5
Class 4 1 2 1 1588 51 79
Class 5 0 8 0 10 1320 68
Class 6 0 12 0 18 19 1495
TABLE VII: Overall confusion matrix using proposed framework on SBHAR dataset.
The table shows how different annotated activities are classified into different classes.
Our approaches consistently outperform all the competing
Method Proposed Multi-Class NaivesDecision approaches and the basic reason for the good recognition
SVM [18] Tree [19] performance, even with only a few training examples, is
Bayes [19]
Accuracy 91.31% 89.0% 82.5% 86.8% that the new regularizer constraint encourages the input
TABLE VIII: Recognition results on SBHAR Dataset.
signals from the same class to have similar sparse codes and
those from different classes to have dissimilar sparse codes
thereby maintaining a high classification accuracy even using
activity monitoring system is used on a previously unknown a smaller training set.
activity. Our framework also takes in data randomly.
Thus evaluation is based on a completely unknown activity IV. C ONCLUSION
from an unknown user, while training is performed using a
We present a novel dictionary learning framework to evalu-
different activity with a different user in our random 75%-
ate the robustness of activity recognition and intensity estima-
25% validation approach. These types of subject-independent
tion of aerobic activities using data from wearable sensors. The
and activity-independent validation techniques are preferred
main contribution is integrating class specific centralized regu-
for physical activity monitoring since they provide results with
larizer term into objective function for dictionary pair learning.
more practical meaning. Using our framework, we can not only
The proposed objective function is efficiently optimized by
achieve good classifier performance but also eliminate the need
combination of alternating direction method of multipliers
of pre-training a particular activity for classification. Thus, our
and l1 ls minimization method. Experimental results show
proposed method makes it possible to design a robust physical
that the classifiers built in this framework achieves impressive
activity monitoring system that has the desired generalization
classification performance over two recognition tasks and
characteristics.
outperforms state-of-the-art methods along with being trained
activity and subject independent. Both of these are important
B. SBHAR considerations for developing systems that must be robust,
This is a dataset built from the recordings of 30 subjects scalable and must perform well in real world settings. Based
performing activities of daily living (ADL) while carrying a on our promising results, we will further extend this work by
waist-mounted smartphone with embedded inertial sensors. incorporating an unsupervised feature learning framework that
This dataset includes six activities (walking, walking upstairs, learns multiple representation layers, thus capturing features at
walking downstairs, sitting, standing and laying) performed a variety of abstraction levels while simultaneously preserving
wearing a smartphone (Samsung Galaxy S II) on the waist. the spatial smoothness between similar activities. We will
The 3-axial linear acceleration and 3-axial angular velocity also consider implementing this framework in exergaming
at a constant rate of 50Hz was captured using the phones environments, thus testing it on large-scale group datasets
embedded accelerometer and gyroscope. The sensor signals containing more types of human activities. Our system will
are pre-processed by applying noise filters and then sampled be useful in a variety of healthcare applications, including
in fixed-width sliding windows of 2.56 sec and 50% overlap calculating energy expenditures, determining context aware-
(128 readings/window). From each window, a vector of ness, and making accurate classifications in activity based
features was obtained by calculating variables from the time environments.
and frequency domain (e.g. mean, standard deviation, signal
magnitude area, entropy, signal-pair correlation, etc.)

We evaluate our proposed approach and compare with

Naives Bayes Classifier [18], Decision Tree [18], Multiclass
SVM [18] and other state-of-the-art approaches. Our
approaches outperform the state-of-the-art approaches as
illustrated in Table VIII and the confusion matrices for the
CSCDPL approach is illustrated in table VII.
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