Geomorphology 87 (2007) 322 336

www.elsevier.com/locate/geomorph

The geomorphological significance of airf low patterns

in transverse dune interdunes
M.C. Baddock a , I. Livingstone a,, G.F.S. Wiggs b
a
The University of Northampton, School of Applied Sciences, Park Campus, Northampton, NN2 7AL, UK
b
Oxford University Centre for the Environment, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QY, UK
Received 21 March 2006; received in revised form 20 September 2006; accepted 4 October 2006
Available online 21 November 2006

Abstract

The interdunes between aeolian dunes have been relatively ignored when compared with the research attention on the
morphodynamics of the dune bodies themselves. This neglect is in spite of the possible significance of interdune dynamics for the
geomorphology of the sand dune system as a whole, especially with regard to dune spacing. This paper considers the mean airflow
within four relatively simple transverse dune interdunes. The study locations were chosen in order to sample interdunes with
different size and surface characteristics, the dynamics of which were investigated for when incident flow was normal to the
upwind crest. The findings confirm existing models of flow reattachment length and recovery for aeolian dune lee-side flow, and
show a consistent pattern of increasing near-surface velocity downwind of reattachment that supports a mechanism for interdunes
as sand-free features. Flow dynamics are characterised for the different types of interdune observed, where two groups are
recognised. The flow patterns in relatively short interdunes (where dunes are closely-spaced) with a sandy surface were accordant
with those of the flow response model. In extended interdunes, where bounding dunes were spaced with a length well over that
for flow separation, evidence at the downwind edge of the interdunes suggested that flow reacted to the subsequent dune. For the
case of these extended interdunes, a new descriptive model is presented to characterise their dynamics. In this model, the variation
in near-surface flow allowed process zones to be identified through the interdune. The geomorphological significance of the
processes dominating each zone is discussed, and comparisons are made between the flow response case and the new interdune
model from this study. In a discussion on the controls of spacing between dunes, where reattachment length exerts a fundamental
control, the role of sediment availability is also highlighted as a significant factor. The presence of a sandy bed can, in some
circumstances, determine whether dune development, and therefore spacing, is controlled primarily by elements of flow response.
2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Sand dune; Interdune; Aeolian processes; Bedform spacing; Flow reattachment; Flow recovery

1. Introduction

In the work towards an improved understanding of

Corresponding author. Fax: +44 1604 720636.
E-mail addresses: m.c.baddock@lboro.ac.uk (M.C. Baddock),
ian.livingstone@northampton.ac.uk (I. Livingstone),
giles.wiggs@ouce.ox.ac.uk (G.F.S. Wiggs).
0169-555X/$ - see front matter 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2006.10.006
aeolian sand dune dynamics, the interdune spaces within
dune areas have been largely ignored. The spatial extent
and form of interdunes can vary with dune type, with
mean values of 60% and 10%, respectively, for the
proportion of linear and transverse dune areas that are
 M.C. Baddock et al. / Geomorphology 87 (2007) 322336
Fig. 1. The generalised pattern of flow in the lee of dunes under perpendicular incident flow. Letters refer to identifiable flow layers. A) Interior B)
Upper wake C) Lower wake D) Internal boundary layer (from Frank and Kocurek, 1996b).
made up by interdunes in parts of the Namib Sand Sea
(Lancaster and Teller, 1988).
Studies of the effect of dune bodies on flow have
considerably increased our knowledge of aeolian dune
morphodynamics, and have led to an appreciation of the
interaction between flow and form as the primary
control on variations in sand transport. These patterns of
differential transport, in turn, control dune form and
behaviour, and this understanding now exists for all the
main types of dune. For transverse dunes, which make
up around 40% of the global desert dune extent (Breed
and Grow, 1979), the majority of work has been
undertaken on the windward slope of dunes (Lancaster,
1985; Tsoar, 1985; Frank and Kocurek, 1996a; Lan-
caster et al., 1996; Wiggs et al., 1996; McKenna
Neuman et al., 1997, 2000). Research attention into the
lee-side flow over dunes saw early studies consider the
controversial nature of the lee eddy (e.g. Cooper, 1958;
Hoyt, 1966). More recently, focus has returned to the lee
side of transverse dunes and there have been notable
successes in obtaining a detailed insight into the
secondary flow patterns (Sweet and Kocurek, 1990;
Frank and Kocurek, 1996b; see also Walker and
Nickling, 2002) and the associated sediment transport
patterns (Walker, 1999). Particular difficulties exist
where investigations are undertaken in the lee side of
dunes. Here, complex wind patterns affected by the
upwind dune result in non-log-linear vertical velocity
profiles (Walker and Nickling, 2002, 2003). Such
disruption of the log-linear nature of the velocity profile
excludes the use of the commonly applied law-of-the-
wall to determine local shear velocities and hence
sediment transport (Wiggs, 2001).
The majority of previous empirical dune studies have
concentrated on the flow over isolated dunes. Most
dunes however do not exist in isolation, but in a repeated
form. Despite this, the enquiries that have reported any
323
data on the properties of flow in the entire space between
successive dunes are relatively few (e.g. Livingstone,
1986; Lancaster, 1989; Sweet and Kocurek, 1990; Ha
et al., 1999). Interdunes have often been considered
simply as extensions of the lee side of the upwind dune
and only recently has the interdune begun to be treated
as a feature in its own right, especially in terms of
monitoring its flow dynamics.
For transverse dunes, the flow between closely-
spaced reversing dunes has been measured through
paired studies in the field (Walker, 1999) and wind
tunnel (Walker and Nickling, 2003), the latter contain-
ing measurements of surface stress. In their key work on
the structure of lee-side airflow, Frank and Kocurek
(1996b) also examined the development of the wake
through the interdunes downwind of transverse dunes
(Fig. 1).
The investigation by Frank and Kocurek (1996b) was
the first to relate the structure of lee-side airflow for
aeolian dunes to that already incorporated in a detailed
model for the development of sub-aqueous bedforms
(McLean and Smith, 1986). This flow response-based
model accounted for the distribution of boundary shear
stress in the lee of bedforms over which flow becomes
separated. It proposed that downwind of reattachment,
the shear stress exerted at the surface is controlled by the
interaction between the wake and the internal boundary
layer (IBL) growing beneath it (Fig. 1). Initially, the
flow is dominated by an increase in velocity and surface
shear stress as the IBL adjusts to momentum received
from the turbulent wake above. With increasing distance
downwind, the flow adjusts to the effect of the growing
boundary layer thickness and a point is reached where
surface stress no longer increases.
Downwind of the point where maximum surface
stress is established, the flow-response model suggests
that deposition is possible, so allowing for the initiation
324 M.C. Baddock et al. / Geomorphology 87 (2007) 322336
of the next dune downwind. Furthermore, where
successive dunes are already in place, the spacing of
the existing dunes is controlled by this variation in stress
that is established by the interplay between the wake and
IBL (McLean and Smith, 1986; Nelson and Smith,
1989). The variation in shear stress proposed in the
model also has several implications for the dynamics of
the interdune. For example, in observing acceleration
within the near-surface IBL downwind of reattachment,
Frank and Kocurek (1996b) noted that this allowed
potential for erosion of sediment throughout the
interdune. Dynamics such as these could therefore
explain the common occurrence of bare surfaces within
interdunes where no sediment is deposited.
The extent of the functional role of flow within
aeolian interdunes remains an important research
question. One of the most striking aspects of dunefield
morphology is the repetition of form and arrangement
that for aeolian contexts has been termed replication
(Cooke et al., 1993). The McLean and Smith (1986)
model accounts for a control on dune spacing, and holds
that the flow pattern established within the interdune is
Fig. 2. Location of the two study areas within Namibia.
highly relevant to the mechanism governing the distance
between dunes. The noted neglect of interdunes in
aeolian research is therefore in spite of their possible
importance for the spacing of dunes, one of the least
understood aspects of the sand dune system.
Progressing from the many informative studies of
single dunes, the fact that most dunes do not exist in
isolation means that there is a further requirement to
investigate the dynamics of the relationship between
replicated bedforms. This is reflected in current research
trends that now include the modelling of dunes on a
dunefield scale and the interactions between the
bedforms (e.g. Schwmmle and Herrmann, 2004).
Data on the airflow patterns between dunes are of
further benefit to success in this direction.
This study therefore aims to investigate the char-
acteristics of airflow within interdunes, and the
geomorphological role played by interdune dynamics
within the transverse dune system, as part of a wider
study of interdunes (Baddock, 2005). Particular atten-
tion is paid to the role of the flow response model in
characterising airflow recovery across the interdunes.
 M.C. Baddock et al. / Geomorphology 87 (2007) 322336
2. Methods
2.1. Study areas
Airflow patterns were measured in four different
interdune settings between dunes of crescentic-ridge
type according to the classification of McKee (1979),
with practical considerations restricting the number of
sample interdunes that could be studied in requisite
detail. A series of criteria were established to define
interdunes that were suitable for the study. The bounding
dunes were of a manageable height (b7.0 m), simple
form and aligned with the general wind conditions.
Interdune length was not too extensive (b 40 m) in order
to permit a high resolution of sampling, and interdunes
with different surfaces (sandy and bare) were chosen to
be investigated.
Two study interdunes, each with a bare, flat gravel
surface, were selected in the Skeleton Coast dunefield of
Namibia. The second pair of interdunes had sand-
covered surfaces, and were located near the delta of the
Kuiseb River in the northern part of the Namib Sand
Sea. Both field areas are shown in Fig. 2.
The Skeleton Coast dunefield in north-western
Namibia is a thin belt (up to 15 km wide) of transverse
and barchanoid dunes that stretches parallel with the
Atlantic coast for around 150 km. The geomorphology
and climate of the hyperarid region were described in a
detailed study by Lancaster (1982). A particular feature
is the coastal setting with its strongly unimodal south to
south-south westerley onshore wind regime which is
responsible for the dominantly transverse bedforms.
The two relatively simple interdune settings that were
studied in the Skeleton Coast dune field lay between
Table 1
A summary of the studied interdunes, with the morphometries of each case at the beginning of the study
Name Dune crest height (m) Dune basal length (m)
Upwind dune D/wind dune Upwind dune
B1 6.67 4.99 82.92
B2 5.39 4.39 47.05
S1 4.38 1.99 23.20
S2 3.87 2.89 28.00
Interdune length is defined as base of the slip face to start of the downwind dune windward toe. Dune heights (h) are expressed as the relative
elevation of the upwind brink above the lowest point of the interdune.
325
transverse ridges that comprise the most common
bedform in the interior of the dune field (Lancaster,
1982). The interdunes were located on the southern side
of the dry Uniab River whose course travels through the
dune field. The two bare transverse ridge interdune sites
were identified as B1 and B2, where B refers to the
bare surface (Table 1). Both of the upwind dune ridges
had relatively straight brinklines in plan view, oriented
at right angles to the wind at compass bearings
approximately 320140. The morphometries of all
the studied interdunes are summarised in Table 1.
A further two transverse interdune settings were
selected for study within the delta region of the Kuiseb
River, in the far north-western part of the Namib Sand
Sea. The Kuiseb is an intermittently flowing channel,
with periodic floods (around every nine years) that result
in large depositions of sediment (Nagtegaal, 1971). The
dunes in the immediate area of the Kuiseb river delta are
dominated by transverse forms as a result of the dominant
wind (Lancaster, 1989; Slattery, 1990; Barnes, 2001).
The studied interdunes from this area were found between
dunes on the north side of the Kuiseb river channel, where
the transverse ridges are formed of sediment that has
crossed from the sand sea to the south, and delivered to
the area by the action of the river itself (Nagtegaal, 1971).
Within this study area, the two interdunes were chosen
based on the criteria of simple form and manageable size.
These study interdunes were termed S1 and S2,
designating the presence of a sandy interdune surface.
2.2. Instrumentation
Wind speed was measured using Vector Instruments
A-100R rotating cup anemometers. In order to measure
Crest to crest spacing, Interdune length, Notes
(m) [ / h] I (m) [I / h]
68.45 [10.70] 30.07 [4.71] Bare interdune between
transverse ridges
72.41 [15.20] 23.97 [5.03] Bare interdune between
transverse ridges
56.00 [13.06] 36.60 [8.54] Sandy interdune between
crescentic ridges
43.40 [13.44] 9.70 [3.12] Sandy interdune between
crescentic ridges
326 M.C. Baddock et al. / Geomorphology 87 (2007) 322336
Fig. 3. Field experiment setup with transect of instrumentation through a study interdune.
the patterns of wind speed through interdune areas,
straight-line transects of anemometers were set up from
the slip face of the upwind dune to the windward slope
of the subsequent downwind dune. These transects were
orientated at right angles to the local crestline of the
upwind dune and lay parallel to the dominant wind
direction. Wind speed was sampled along the transects
at two heights (z), 0.5 m and 1.9 m. The lower of these
heights was determined by a compromise between
measuring velocity as close to the surface as possible,
and concern for potential damage to the instrumentation
from sand transport. The distance between sampling
points was chosen with regard to the transect length and
a desire to sample frequently through the interdune. This
resulted in sampling intervals ranging from between 4
and 7 m (Fig. 3).
A reference tower was also established to record a
vertical velocity profile of four heights at 0.5 m, 0.8 m,
1.3 m and 1.9 m, against which the transect wind speed
data were normalised following an approach which has
been successful in other dune studies (e.g. Walker,
1999). The reference tower was sited to sample airflow
and boundary layer conditions that were as little
disturbed as possible in the middle, or nearer the
downwind edge, of the interdune area.
Mean speed was calculated from samples of 10 s
duration which were recorded using Campbell Instru-
ments CR10x dataloggers. The total periods of data
collection at the different study sites varied from one to
several hours, at the end of which the dataloggers were
accessed and data downloaded to a laptop PC.
The speed data throughout this study are presented in
terms of the fractional speed-up ratio. This expression
for wind speed involves the normalisation of data to a
constant reference location and was first used for
meteorological applications (Jackson and Hunt, 1975).
It is now also the conventional manner of describing
changes in flow speed for studies of dune dynamics (e.g.
Mulligan, 1988; Wiggs, 1993). The extent of the wind
speed change is described by the (fractional) speed-up
ratio (s);
ds uz Urz =Urz
where s = fractional speed-up ratio, uz = wind speed at a
height z on profile and Urz =wind speed at height z at a
reference location (Jackson and Hunt, 1975). With all time-
averaged local speed data being referred to a common
reference location, direct comparisons were permitted
between the mean speed readings along a transect.
The instruments used to obtain flow direction data were
Vector Instruments W200P Potentiometer Wind Vanes.
These devices respond to airflow guided by a fin which
aligns with the wind and permits free-moving continuous
rotation. The vanes sampled wind direction at z = 0.5 m,
near to the surface and level with the lowest anemometer
height. As there were insufficient vanes to instrument
every post at which wind speed measurements were made,
vanes were positioned along the transect to ensure a regular
coverage of flow direction data throughout the interdune.
Before each data run commenced, the vanes were aligned
to magnetic north using compass measurements. Once
 M.C. Baddock et al. / Geomorphology 87 (2007) 322336
Fig. 4. Time-averaged wind speed (fractional speed-up ratio) in the closely-spaced interdune S2 for the two sampling heights (left axis scale) and
normalised directional variability of flow (), measured at z = 0.5 m (right axis scale). Run i = 74, duration 56 min. Ucr (mean crestal velocity) at
z = 1.9 m, 7.33 m s 1.
operating, the datalogger recorded the wind direction
indicated at that instant for each vane at an interval of 10 s.
The investigation of flow characteristics within interdunes
was restricted to periods when flow was near to
perpendicular to the upwind dune. Following Sweet and
Kocurek (1990), transverse flow conditions were assumed
when flow had an incident angle (i) to the upwind crestline
of 90 20.
For the presentation and analysis of flow directional
variability, the spread of compass bearing data was used
to create a normalised measure of flow unimodality. This
was based on a trigonometric conversion of the direction
data from bearing form, as produced in the field, to scalar
co-ordinates. Each period of flow sampling had a re-
sultant vector line with an angle and a length (). The
angle was the mean direction, and the length represented
the constancy of flow, indexed for the total number of
readings for that run. In this case the vector length and
value is the inverse of the flow directional variability,
i.e. a longer line and higher value is a flow with a less
variably directed flow. A potential value of unity
represents a flow that is purely unimodal and unvarying
in flow direction.
3. Results
3.1. Interdune with closely-spaced dunes
The results shown in Fig. 4 (S2) are typical of those
found in narrow interdunes with sandy surfaces that are
327
bounded closely by dunes. Maximum flow acceleration
occurs at the crest of the upwind dune and is followed by
an immediate deceleration within one equivalent dune
height in the lee (x /h = 0.77). Here the near-surface flow
speeds measured at 0.5 m and 1.9 m height are
approximately 40% of their reference values (s = 0.42
and 0.39, respectively). The consistent, reduced wind
speeds and increased directional variability in the region
downwind of the minimum speeds at x / h = 0.77 suggest
the existence of a flow separation cell that extends at least
to a downwind point of x /h = 3.89. At x /h = 4.98, the
near-surface wind speed shows an increase which
indicates that flow must have become reattached to the
surface by this point. This distance for reattachment
therefore corresponds well with the 4h mean separation
length reported in other studies between bedforms (Engel,
1981; Nelson and Smith, 1989; Frank and Kocurek,
1996b).
Downwind from the point of flow reattachment the
speeds measured at heights of both 0.5 m and 1.9 m show
acceleration because momentum from the upper wake
above is transferred toward the surface. It is noticeable
from Fig. 4 that the wind speed increase measured at 1.9 m
indicates acceleration here is greater than at 0.5 m in the
region between x / h = 2.67 and 4.98 because this flow is
the first to benefit from the momentum transfer downward
from the nearby upper wake. It is also further downwind
of this region that the fractional speed-up ratios at both
measured heights become positive (x / h = 6.56), indicating
that flow is faster than at the reference site. This is due to a
328 M.C. Baddock et al. / Geomorphology 87 (2007) 322336
Fig. 5. Time-averaged wind speed (fractional speed-up ratio) in the interdune B2 for the two sampling heights (left axis scale), and normalised
directional variability of flow () measured at z = 0.5 m (right axis scale). Run i = 92.6, duration 15 min. Ucr at z = 1.9 m, 6.18 m s 1. Reference
tower not on transect.
combination of both continued momentum transfer from
the upper wake, but also the initial impact of streamline
compression as the wind flows across the toe region of the
downwind dune. This cross-over from negative to
positive speed-up ratios represents the reproduction of
the upwind velocity profile and it occurs here at a
downwind distance not dissimilar to the 8h reported by
Frank and Kocurek (1996b).
Downwind from x / h = 4.98, the speeds at 0.5 m
height are accelerated to a greater extent than those
measured at 1.9 m height. This increased acceleration at
the lower measurement height agrees with the near-
surface amplification layer detected in flow a few tens
of centimetres above the windward slope (above the
inner layer) by Burkinshaw et al. (1993) on transverse
dunes of comparable size.
3.2. Interdune with extended dune spacing
The results shown in Fig. 5 (B2) typify those measured
in interdunes that are extended in character whereby the
toe of the downwind dune does not emerge until some
considerable distance from the separation cell and flow
reattachment in the lee of the upwind dune. The interdune
represented in Fig. 5 did not have a sandy substrate but
was bare between the lee slope of the upwind dune and the
toe of the downwind dune. The results shown in Fig. 5 are
similar to those shown in Fig. 4 for the closely-spaced
dunes. However, there are significant differences as
described below.
Similar to the results shown in Fig. 4, the region of
low and consistent near-surface speeds in the imme-
diate lee of the upwind dune in Fig. 5, coupled with
the directional variability data, suggest that separated
flow reattaches to the surface within the area between
x / h = 4.21 and 5.04. Downwind of this point of
reattachment, measured speeds at both 0.5 m and
1.9 m height show strong acceleration all the way to
the toe of the downwind dune at x / h = 6.71. Through
this region between upwind flow reattachment and the
toe of the downwind dune the wind speed data
measured at 0.5 m height indicate approximately
18% flow acceleration for every 0.75h in distance
downwind. However, at the toe of the downwind dune
this acceleration is seen to nearly halve in value to
approximately 10% between x / h = 6.71 and 7.54.
This observed reduction in flow acceleration is likely
to be a manifestation of the positive pressure field
induced by the downwind bedform. Where such pressure
fields have been measured upwind of isolated dunes (e.g.
Wiggs et al., 1996) they have resulted in flow decelera-
tion and stagnation. Whilst the effect evident in Fig. 5 is
not so dramatic, the observed reduction in deceleration
may have a similar genesis. Indeed, the reduction in
acceleration is similar to the region of diminished
velocity increase observed by McKenna Neuman et al.
(1997) on the lower windward slopes of a reversing
dune. They attributed this result to the effects of flow
stagnation. The reduction in acceleration is even more
apparent for data measured at 1.9 m height where only a
 M.C. Baddock et al. / Geomorphology 87 (2007) 322336
Table 2
Flow characteristics within different interdune settings
Interdune character Flow acceleration (%)
(m) Region A
S2 (Fig. 4) Sandy, closely-spaced 0.5 24
1.9 19
B2 (Fig. 5) Bare, extended 0.5 18
1.9 13
B1 Bare, extended 0.5 9 3
1.9 9 9
S1 Sandy, extended 0.5 13
1.9 11
Region A = between upwind flow reattachment and downwind dune
toe. Region B = between downwind dune toe and downwind dune
mid-slope.
5% acceleration in flow is evident between x / h = 6.71
and 7.54. These results are in stark contrast to those
shown in Fig. 4 for the closely-spaced dunes.
Table 2 summarises the development of near-
surface flow acceleration for all the interdunes
measured in this study. The table distinguishes
between flow acceleration in the region from the
point of flow reattachment to the downwind dune toe,
and that in the region between the downwind dune toe
and downwind dune mid-slope. In contrast to the
closely-spaced interdune, the extended interdunes are
characterised by a greater reduction in acceleration as
flow approaches the downwind dune toe.
4. Discussion
4.1. Characterising the different interdune settings
4.1.1. Interdunes with closely-spaced dunes
Fig. 4 represents the typical flow pattern within S2,
the sandy-floored interdune with the shortest interdune
length. The observations show consistent evidence of
flow separation at the brink, and then subsequent
reattachment of flow to the surface, with a mean
distance between 3.89 and 4.98h. Following reattach-
ment, the flow near the surface accelerates immediately.
This speed-up can be attributed to the increased
momentum reaching nearer the surface with the end of
the separation cell allowing the influence of the faster
overlying wake flow to expand downward to the bed
(Fig. 1). Close to the reattachment zone anemometers at
z = 0.5 m are above the newly formed IBL. Other studies
(e.g. Nelson and Smith, 1989; Nelson et al., 1993) have
established that underneath the wake an IBL begins to
develop from the point where the separated flow
reattaches. For S2, the development of the IBL therefore
occurs in conjunction with the presence of the windward
329
slope of the downwind dune, where the toe of the slope
effectively starts at x / h = 3.89 and where reattachment is
detected just downwind of this.
Region B In the flow response model developed for sub-
21 aqueous bedforms by McLean and Smith (1986) the IBL
16 that is established at reattachment also forms over the
10
following dune's stoss slope. This situation exists in
5
aeolian dunes where the windward slope of the
downwind dune begins close to the point of reattach-
10 ment after the upwind dune, and is seen to be the case
8 for S2. Further evidence for the notion that it is flow
response elements that explain the dynamics in S2 is
provided by the change from erosional to depositional
stages that is central to the McLean and Smith model.
This change is reflected in the form of the downwind
windward slope in S2. The evolution from erosion to
deposition predicted by the flow response model occurs
due to the contrasting wake (positive) and IBL growth
(negative) effects balancing out by a certain distance
downwind of the upwind dune. When another dune is
present downwind, the response of the flow to initial
separation and then reattachment occurs over the
downwind dune's stoss slope (McLean and Smith,
1986; Nelson and Smith, 1989). The resultant erosion
pattern on this slope tends to create a windward form
characterised by a gently convex profile starting from
around mid-slope (Cooke et al., 1993). The concavity in
the form of the S2 slope exists until around x / h = 10
(Fig. 4) where the onset of convexity suggests that the
stress and transport are distributed through the interdune
in the way prescribed by the flow response model.
4.1.2. Interdunes with extended dune spacing
While the flow in the closely-spaced interdune, S2,
suggests the occurrence of flow response (McLean and
Smith, 1986), the dynamics of the other studied
interdunes appear to be less well characterised by this
particular model. This is the case for both the study
interdunes with bare, eroded surfaces, as well as for S1,
the sandy example that had the longest interdune length
of the sample of interdunes (Table 1). Frank and Kocurek
(1996b) highlighted the fact that aeolian settings
commonly have flat interdune areas that extend well
beyond the point of reattachment (p. 456), so the term
extended interdunes is used for such interdunes here.
Importantly, Frank and Kocurek also added the obser-
vation that the sub-aqueous flow response model did not
yield such flat interdunes.
In extended interdunes, the IBL that develops where
flow reattaches is not associated immediately with the
windward slope of the subsequent bedform. In other
words, the surface shear stress variation that the IBL
330 M.C. Baddock et al. / Geomorphology 87 (2007) 322336
Table 3
A descriptive model for near-surface flow dynamics in the extended interdunes of transverse dunes under conditions of perpendicular incident flow
Interdune zones progress downwind.
establishes does not instigate the next bedform near to
reattachment as the flow response model would suggest.
The example in Fig. 5 shows that mean reattachment in
the extended interdunes occurred some way upwind of
the downwind dune.
Furthermore, the near-surface wind speed data where
the interdune is relatively extensive also demonstrate the
way flow can react to the downwind dune in extended
interdunes (Table 2, Region B). This is identifiable as a
result of the adverse pressure gradient, or stacking effect,
at the toe of the obstacle (Hunt and Simpson, 1982).
Actual reductions in velocity caused by the pressure at
the upwind toe were not observed here; rather, decreased
accelerations are more often seen for the toe region (also
McKenna Neuman et al., 1997). The absence of an
overall retardation at the toe is attributed partly to the
sampling height (z = 0.5 m) because the drop in flow
speed may occur below this height. In their study (with
lowest anemometers at z = 0.1 m) Frank and Kocurek
(1996b) reported an identifiable drop in wind speed
upwind of the next dune wherever an interdune flat was
present. The most pertinent aspect for interdune
dynamics of this change in acceleration is that it signifies
flow at the downwind edge of extended interdunes
undergoing a reaction to the presence of the next dune.
Such a change in speed is not incorporated in the flow
response model, nor seen in Fig. 4, since the flow
acceleration from reattachment negates any adverse
pressure build-up from the almost adjacent downwind
stoss slope. It is suggested here that where flow
demonstrates a reaction of slowed acceleration (or actual
deceleration) to the presence of the downwind dune in
extended interdunes, it is apparent that the flow
response model in its pure form is not applicable.
4.2. A conceptual model for extended interdunes
While the mechanism of flow response (McLean and
Smith, 1986) explains the flow pattern and dynamics in
the closely-spaced interdune, S2, extended interdunes
require some other explanation. The new conceptual
model outlined here serves to explain the characteristics
of extended flow, and their geomorphological signif-
icance. It is not possible to recognise a finite length for
the extended interdune at which point the dynamics
behave differently from pure flow response. The exam-
ples here are B1, B2 and S1, where the interdunes are
largely flat and not closely-spaced. Walker (1999) and
Walker and Nickling (2003) studied dunes with what
they termed a close spacing, where the interdune
length was 0.5h. Table 1 confirms the smallest interdune
length studied (excluding S2, 3.1h) was B1 where the
interdune length was 4.7h.
Based on the nature of the variation in the patterns of
near-surface flow, sand transport potential can be
estimated and a series of zones can be identified across
the extended interdune (Table 3 and Fig. 6).
4.2.1. Zone of separation
In the area upwind of the mean point of flow re-
attachment, mean velocities are reduced greatly in the
immediate lee as a result of streamline expansion beyond
the dune brink and the separation of flow from the
surface. After the severe initial drop, cup anemometers
 M.C. Baddock et al. / Geomorphology 87 (2007) 322336
Fig. 6. A conceptual model for dynamics in extended interdunes between transverse dunes. Erosional potential is based on near-surface mean speed
under a perpendicular wind. Dotted line in Zone B indicates intermittent erosivity. Dashed line in Zone D represents possible velocity retardation at
downwind dune toe. Not to scale.
indicate an area of reduced velocity for the near-surface
flow that is relatively constant within the cell forming the
zone of separation. This is reinforced by the wind
direction, which regularly shows the occurrence of
reversed flow with a sufficient constancy to indicate it is
the dominant component.
The low mean speeds indicate that this area is one of
low transport potential. Furthermore, under certain flow
conditions, there may be a sediment input due to grain
fallout from the separated flow (Nickling et al., 2002).
Walker (1999) measured appreciable sediment move-
ment back toward the slip face in the separation cell and
stressed the importance of this reversed sediment
transport to the maintenance of dune form although
uncertainty remains about this component. The geo-
morphological significance of reversed flow of sediment
is necessarily largely restricted to the upwind dune.
4.2.2. Zone of reattachment
Estimates for separation length and position of the
zone of reattachment within the extended interdunes
average around 4.8h for the bare interdunes, B1 and B2,
which is slightly longer than (but in general agreement
with) estimates of other aeolian and sub-aqueous studies
(e.g. Engel, 1981; Nelson and Smith, 1989; Frank and
Kocurek, 1996b). The distance for flow reattachment in
the extended interdunes is greater than for the closely-
spaced interdune (S2, 4.4h), but is also considerably less
than the length of 7.5h measured on an individual
barchan.
For data from cup anemometers, as a result of time-
averaging, the point of flow reattachment is best marked
by the onset of acceleration that ends the area of constant
flow representing the separation cell. The migration of
the point of reattachment by a distance of around 0.5h
(Walker and Nickling, 2002) is also supported in the
data presented here. The inconsistency of the point of
flow reattachment over this small distance means flow
331
direction variability is greatest within the zone of
reattachment. The high variability means that mean di-
rection is actually unrepresentative of any real preferred
flow direction in this zone (Sweet and Kocurek, 1990).
With a low mean velocity, the mean sediment
transport potential is accordingly limited in the zone of
reattachment but there is evidence that it is intermit-
tently enhanced at turbulent time scales (Nelson et al.,
1993; McLean et al., 1994) (Fig. 6). However, these
enhancements are remarkably efficient in terms of
transport since, over time, the zone of reattachment is
not an area for deposition, and the erosive ability there is
sufficient to maintain the reattachment area as sand free
in the bare interdunes. Wind tunnel findings have shown
peak surface shear stress variability at reattachment too
(Walker and Nickling, 2003).
4.2.3. Zone of recovering flow
With the onset of recovery beginning with flow
reattachment and the development of an IBL at the
surface, the zone of recovering flow is the region within
the interdune where the return of the flow to primary
conditions is seen to take place. One of the most
apparent and important characteristics of the dynamics
here is the ongoing increase in near-surface velocity
throughout the zone. Reattachment is indicated by the
onset of acceleration in the time-averaged data. In the
zone of recovering flow, this acceleration continues for
the whole zone due to the wake dissipation and
downward momentum extraction. Driven by the
accelerating flow, directional variability undergoes a
continued decrease with distance in this zone, and
will reach upwind values before velocity does (Fig. 5).
The geomorphological significance for this region is
one of erosive potential. The increasing velocity means
that when wind speed exceeds the threshold, wind in the
zone of recovering flow will be capable of eroding
throughout the whole of the zone. Wind speed-up
332 M.C. Baddock et al. / Geomorphology 87 (2007) 322336
increases transport capacity so that sediment entrained
upwind as well as sediment downwind can be moved
through the interdune. This pattern accounts for the
existence of bare interdunes, as first suggested in terms
of the interdune sediment budget by Frank and Kocurek
(1996b). Crucially, laboratory-based studies (using
flumes and wind tunnels) sampling within the develop-
ing IBL show that shear stress increases at the surface,
making the zone of recovering flow a region of potential
erosion (McLean and Smith, 1986; Nelson et al., 1993;
Walker and Nickling, 2003).
The form of lee-side dune aprons provides further
evidence of the dominant geomorphological processes
of this interdune region. These aprons are sand piles that
are found attached to many dune slip faces (Cooke et al.,
1993). It is seen in this study that the downwind extent
of aprons is co-incident with the instigation of flow
recovery and therefore potential erosivity in sandy
interdunes (S1). This relationship between apron extent
and flow reattachment length was also evident in the
data presented by Sweet and Kocurek (1990) but was
not commented on.
4.2.4. Zone of recovered flow
The zone of recovered flow is shaded in Table 3 to
indicate that it is not always present within an extended
interdune, and may only appear in certain large
interdunes or under non-transverse incident flow condi-
tions where flow angle effectively elongates the inter-
dune length. In cases where this hypothetical zone is
identifiable (no examples in this study), the flow velocity
will be steady throughout the zone, having recovered to
upwind speeds and direction. The zone of recovered flow
only ends when the flow shows signs of reacting to a
downwind dune. Where the downwind dune impacts on
the flow before it is fully recovered, as is the case for all
interdune situations reported here, the zone is non-
existent for an extended interdune. Distances of 10h for
a return to unperturbed velocity (Lancaster, 1989) and
1618h for an isolated barchan provide a possible
minimum length scale before the recovered flow zone is
seen. Whilst near-surface velocity is constant at a
recovered level in this zone, it is unlikely that the flow
will be recovered in terms of turbulence. Turbulent
elements have been seen to remain higher than the
unperturbed boundary layer conditions for downwind
distances up to 50h from a modelled step or bedform
perturbation (e.g. Bradshaw and Wong, 1972; McLean et
al., 1996; Walker and Nickling, 2003).
The geomorphological significance of this zone is
debatable given its rarity. In actual fact, given the long
distance necessary for the zone of recovered flow to
exist, it may be that wake dissipation and IBL growth
lead to the distribution of shear stress at the surface
which is prescribed in the flow response model. The
imposition of a surface shear stress maximum and a
change to deposition as wake and IBL interact behind a
dune in that model is the mechanism for the initiation of
a new dune (McLean and Smith, 1986).
4.2.5. Zone of interaction
This zone is found at the downwind edge of the
extended interdune and is marked by flow influenced
by the next dune downwind. Where a zone of recovered
flow is not present in an extended interdune, the zone
of interaction is immediately downwind of the zone of
recovery. For the case of a flat interdune, the interaction
of flow with the downwind dune is two-part; this
effectively splits the zone of interaction into an upwind
(I) and downwind (II) part.
Zone of interaction I is within the interdune proper
and is where a negative effect on near-surface velocity is
seen. This negative change is manifested either as a
reduction in the rate of flow acceleration or as an actual
retardation of flow, and is due to the adverse pressure
created by the downwind dune (the stacking effect).
The extent of the stacking effect on velocity is variable
though, and a physical decrease in speed-up is not
always apparent. With a zone of recovered flow present
in an interdune, or the nearer that flow gets to a
recovered state, the more the observation of actual
retardation at the windward toe is likely. This is because
in the zone of interaction I, there is a balance between
three important influences on flow. These are the growth
of the IBL from reattachment, the dissipation of the
wake (both of which occur through the zone of recovery)
and finally the influence of the downwind dune. The
type of negative velocity change observed at the toe will
reflect this interaction.
In terms of geomorphological significance, a fall in
velocity in the zone of interaction I suggests a reduction
in sediment transport competence. From wind tunnel
work, Wiggs et al. (1996) found an increase in turbulent
shear stress that they suggested compensated for the
drop in mean velocity at the toe (also Castro and Wiggs,
1994). They attributed this to positive streamline
curvature at the toe that destabilised flow, introducing
greater turbulence that prevented a reduction in sand
flux. This positive role of turbulence for transport at the
upwind toe of dunes has been supported by Walker and
Nickling (2003) and in the field by Baddock (2005).
The zone of interaction II is characterised by
acceleration caused by streamline compression on the
downwind dune, and is therefore effectively outside of
 M.C. Baddock et al. / Geomorphology 87 (2007) 322336 333

the interdune in terms of topography if not process. The
zone is discussed here because, depending on interdune
length, it can feature flow that is still accelerating due to
recovery in the interdune merged with the speed-up
caused by the windward slope. Recovering flow will
impinge on the downwind dune slope to a greater extent
when interdune spacing is smaller.
A key idea concerning the dynamics of extended
interdunes put forward by Frank and Kocurek (1996a,b)
is that a second IBL in effect forms at the base of the
downwind dune stoss slope in the zone of interaction II.
While the first IBL forms at reattachment and develops
over the interdune, the shear stress increase under the
second IBL on the downwind dune drives the sediment
transport necessary for windward slope morphody-
namics (Tsoar, 1985; Lancaster, 1985). This useful
idea accounts for the dynamics of extensive, bare
interdunes as well as for the downwind bounding dune,
but could not be verified here due to the difficulties with
sampling the IBL in the field (Frank and Kocurek,
1996a; Lancaster et al., 1996).
4.3. Geomorphological significance of the different
interdune types
By recognising the occurrence of distinctive flow
response behaviour within S2, and then by introducing a
new model for the different flow dynamics that were
common to the sampled extended interdunes, the
observed interdune dynamics have been divided into
two. To examine the most important differences
between the extended interdune model and the original
model of flow response for closely-spaced dunes, Table
4 explores the geomorphological significance for the
interdune spaces in the two different interdune types.
Here the zones identified for the extended interdunes
are imposed onto the flow response model to provide a
framework for the comparison. Table 4 re-states the
geomorphological significance for the extended inter-
dune zones offered in Table 3 and alongside this, the
geomorphological significance for the flow response
model is inferred in the same terms (based on McLean
and Smith, 1986).
There is essentially no difference between both
models in terms of the geomorphological significance of
separation and reattachment. Given both models are
related to bedform spacing, the distance for flow
reattachment effectively establishes a minimum distance
for spacing, acting as a control that is common to both
types of interdune. This minimum spacing point is fixed
geomorphologically due to the limited erosion within
the separation cell, and the high intermittent transport at
the mean point where flow re-couples. It follows, and is
seen, that for flow response situations, the minimum
spacing governed by mean reattachment length will also
be relatively close to the overall bedform spacing that is
actually exhibited (Engel, 1981; Nelson and Smith,
1989).
The fundamental difference between the models is
located in the recovering flow zone. In this zone on
extended interdunes there is recovery in the wake
airflow following dune-generated flow separation plus
IBL development near the surface after reattachment,
with both occurring within the interdune for some
distance. For the flow response model however, the
recovery of flow and the establishment of the IBL takes
place in conjunction with the windward slope of the
downwind dune. The effects of flow recovery and
topographic forcing of flow are therefore combined in
closely-spaced settings. In such dune pairings, where the
IBL growth occurs over the windward slope, it also
means that actual erosion on the slope can occur (with
sufficiently strong winds) since a sediment supply is
guaranteed. The geomorphological difference between
the models in this respect is that the onset of windward
slope flowform interaction in the dynamics of the
extended interdune model is not exhibited until further
downwind, and in the zone of interaction (Table 4).
Furthermore, when flow-form interaction with the
downwind dune does occur in extended interdunes, the

Table 4
Comparison of geomorphological significance for the interdunes described by the extended interdune and flow response models
Model Interdune zone
Separation Reattachment Recovering flow Recovered flow Interaction I Interaction II
Extended Zero to low Highly intermittent Increasing erosive Steady Maintenance of Increase in actual
interdune model erosive potential erosive potential potential/transport transport transport erosion on downwind
Related to prevents deposition competence competence competence dune
upwind dune?
Flow response model Zero to low Highly intermittent Onset of flowform No equivalent No equivalent Continued actual
erosive potential erosive potential interaction, and actual erosion on downwind
prevents deposition erosion dune
334 M.C. Baddock et al. / Geomorphology 87 (2007) 322336
nature of the interaction is initially different to that for
the case of the pure flow response model. This is
reflected by the extended interdune showing a two-part
zone of interaction, where flow at first has an element of
slow-down at the downwind edge. For closely-spaced
dunes, this stacking effect is not evident in the flow (e.g.
Nelson et al., 1993; Bennett and Best, 1995; Walker,
1999). The flow acceleration on the downwind stoss
slope (zone of interaction II) has been suggested to
involve the formation of a second IBL on the windward
slope (Frank and Kocurek, 1996a,b).
4.4. Transverse interdune dynamics and dune spacing
The significance of the different behaviour of IBLs
between the models for flow response and extended
interdunes has interesting implications for the controls
on transverse dune spacing. The flow response model,
developed for sub-aqueous bedforms, assumes the
existence of an erodible bed. The IBL at reattachment
can therefore lead to the development of a bed in direct
response to the variation in surface shear stress
established by flow recovery following the dune
perturbation. Within extended interdunes, the same
pattern of shear stress will be produced at the surface,
yet spacing of the dunes for the same height may be
different to where sediment-uninhibited flow response
operates, i.e. where the bed is wholly erodible. This
introduces the control of sand availability on bedform
spacing, with statistics of spacing arrangements acting
as an expression of this (Lancaster, 1988).
In bare extended interdunes, where interdune
dynamics are characterised by a speed-up of flow
throughout the interdune, the increasing erosive poten-
tial of the interdune flow has a geomorphological role in
that it can account for the presence of sand-free stretches
between dunes (Frank and Kocurek, 1996b). However,
where dune development is considered for an area of
limited sand availability, it seems that due to the
sediment control, the dynamics of the interdune flow
may be much more dynamically neutral in terms of
controlling spacing. This is especially so when com-
pared with the role that interdune dynamics have in
fixing spacing when sediment is readily available, and
the flow response model holds.
An important control on the spacing between a given
pair of dunes would therefore seem to be whether the
flow response model can operate for the pair. In turn, an
important determinant of this is the presence or not of an
erodible bed, since such a substrate is inherent to the
working of the flow response model. Given that dune
development can begin near to reattachment when
erodibility is not a limiting factor, interdune length will
be relatively small where sand covers the entire space
between the dunes, and flow response is in operation.
The distance for flow reattachment exists as the primary
control on dune spacing.
5. Conclusion
The data for airflow over the interdunes reported here
suggest that certain aspects of wind speed and
directional variability are replicated in all types of
interdune. It is possible, for instance, to detect
separation and reversal of flow, and to quantify the
mean reattachment length. Separation lengths in inter-
dunes range from 4.4h to 5.0h, thereby revealing the
extent to which separated flow occupied the different
interdunes.
Patterns of flow in interdunes can be characterised in
two groups. The first group covers sandy interdunes
with closely-spaced dunes where the near-surface
velocity pattern, interdune topography and the close
relationship between these two variables supports a flow
response model (McLean and Smith, 1986). The second
group covers interdunes that are identifiably long and
flat (extended interdunes) where the interdune is
considerably longer than the separation length. These
interdunes show an overall wind speed distribution
within them that is different to velocity patterns
established by flow response. Diagnostic of this is the
reaction of flow to the downwind dune, a feature not
present in the flow response model, indicating this
model does not completely account for the spacing of
dunes of this type (Frank and Kocurek, 1996b). Whilst
recognising that the research presented here is based on
a relatively small dataset, it follows an approach that has
been successful for many aeolian investigations where
the findings from single dunes have informed wider
inferences (e.g. Wiggs et al., 1996).
The observed dynamics of extended interdunes can
therefore be characterised by a new descriptive model.
This model identifies zones based on interdune
processes with the fundamental difference between the
interdune types being the nature of the flowform
interaction.
For controls on dune spacing, the separation length of
flow within interdunes fixes a minimum distance to
establish a minimum spacing between dunes. An
important control on spacing is also exerted by the
model of interdune dynamics that fits for each setting.
Flow response will tend to produce relatively closely-
spaced dunes, where dunes develop a little distance after
reattachment (McLean and Smith, 1986; Nelson and
 M.C. Baddock et al. / Geomorphology 87 (2007) 322336
Smith, 1989). Such interdune spacings will be less than
those that exist for extended interdunes. In turn, the
primary determinant of whether flow response will
control dune development will be sediment availability,
since flow response requires an erodible, sandy bed.
Given the relative advancement of fluvial bedform
studies, and the recent increasing concentration on this
topic for the case of aeolian settings, this current
research offers a contribution to the overall geomor-
phological interest in bedforms. It is anticipated that
with the growing attention on bedform dynamics,
progress will continue toward more rigorous models
that are better developed for both environments. For this
better understanding of aeolian dunes, the dynamics of
the interdune area will certainly need to be incorporated.
Acknowledgements
Permission for the fieldwork in the Skeleton Coast
and Namib-Naukluft National Park was granted by
the Ministry of Environment and Tourism permit
number 463/2001. Equipment for surveying was
loaned by the Polytechnic of Namibia and the Desert
Ecological Research Unit of Namibia (DERUN).
Finally, the research was supported in part by a
studentship from The University of Northampton
(MB) and some expenses were covered by a Leslie
Church Research Award.
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