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Identify the type of

subordinate clause (pg. 74)
a. These days there is little time for yachting, which is his
other passion. = non-restrictive rel. cl., peripheral dep.
b. If you are already a member, you can obtain these
Language Analysis benefits immediately. = factual if-clause
c. Has he told his parents that he wants to leave home? =
(that) noun clause (functioning as direct object)
Lecture 10 d. She has not heeded the advice that she was given. =
Beyond the clause 1 restrictive rel. cl., post-head modifier (that = which)
e. He claims that he is a doctor. = noun clause (dir. obj.)
f. Ill leave you everything I own. = zero pron. in rel. cl.
g. I dont know if they will offer her the job. =noun clause
(closed interrogative, dir. obj.)

Basic sentence patterns -

SVOCA (1) Adjuncts
SV The girl was sleeping. My sister enjoys parties very much,
SVO Her mother was dressing the baby. usually.
SVC Little James seemed very happy. Usually my sister enjoys parties very
SVA He was sitting at the table. much.
SVOO Mrs Bates gave her kids all her love. My sister usually enjoys parties very
SVOC Most people considered her a perfect much.
mother.

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Information packaging/
Verbalize this proposition thematic systems
End-focus


 End-weight
Theme-rheme

John give/book Mary

End-focus Which text reads better?

(given before new) (2)
(2) When shall we know what Marys
going to do?
a. Next week we shall know.
(3,4) cf. distribution of colour
(3)An excellent example of an epic poem is The Odyssey. A
long narrative or story is usually included in epic poems.
Certain conventions almost always mark this story. The epic
simile is one of these. The stature of a great hero is enhanced
through its use. The ideals of particular societies are
personified in such a hero. The trait of bravery, naturally, is
among these ideals. But courtesy always accompanies
bravery. And many particular ways of acting are included in
this courtesy.

(4) The Odyssey is an excellent example of an epic poem. Epic

b. Its next week we shall know. poems usually include a long narrative or story. This story is
almost always marked by certain conventions. One of these is
c. Shell tell us next week. the epic simile. It is normally used to enhance the stature of a
great hero. Such a hero personifies the ideals of particular
societies. Among these ideals, naturally, is the trait of
d. Next week she will tell us. bravery. But bravery is always accompanied by courtesy. And
this courtesy includes many particular ways of acting.

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End-focus
(given before new)
Geoff used to live in Cairo. In fact a
houseboat was where he lived. The
bank of the river Nile was where the
houseboat was located.
Geoff used to live in Cairo
In fact he lived in a houseboat. It
was located on the bank of the river
Nile.
End-weight (5a)
?That all efforts to convince them of
the importance of spending a year
abroad have been in vain is a pity.
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Link to intonation
The Odyssey is an excellent
example of an epic POem.
Epic poems usually include a long
narrative or STOry.
This story is almost always marked
by certain conVENtions.
End-weight (5b)
= it-extraposition
It is a pity that all efforts to
convince them of the importance of
spending a year abroad have been
in vain.
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End-weight (6)
(6) a. [The time to decorate the
house for Christmas] had
come.
b. The time had come to
decorate the house for
Christmas.
= discontinuous NP
Sentence topic -> text (8)
(8) It was a hobbit-hole, and that means
comfort. It had a perfectly round door
like a porthole, painted green, with a
shiny yellow brass knob in the exact
middle. The door opened on to a tube-
shaped hall like a tunnel: a very
comfortable tunnel without smoke. The
tunnel wound on and on, going fairly
but not quite straight into the side of
the hill. (Tolkien: The Hobbit)
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Topic comment (7)
Also known as: theme rheme
(7) a. Madonna is one of the most
famous pop singers.
b. One of the most famous
pop singers is Madonna.
Themes/Topics (9 - top)
In the earliest times, people carved or
painted messages on rocks. Later on, people
wrote on pieces of leather, rolled into scrolls.
During the Middle Ages, heavy paper
called parchment was used for writing, and
books were laboriously copied by hand. Then
in the middle of the fifteenth century, with
the invention of the printing press, the
birth of the modern printing industry was
possible. And now the advent of computers
is rapidly revolutionising the process of
communication.
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Themes/Topics (9 - bottom)
Rocks, on which messages were carved
or painted, were the earliest medium of
written communication. Pieces of leather,
however, had the advantage of being portable
when rolled into scrolls and they replaced
rock carvings. These leather scrolls were in
The passive
turn replaced in the Middle Ages. Parchment
books took over and were laboriously copied
by hand until the invention of the printing
press. Printed books have been central to
communication for centuries but various
forms of electronic media will undoubtedly
replace them in the end.

Passive: form (10) Ditrans + passive (11)

(10) a. The inspector confronted (11) a. John gave Mary the money.
Jim. b. Mary was given the money
b. Jim was confronted by the by John.
inspector. c. The money was given to
Mary by John.
?Jim was confronted.

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Prepositional passive (12)
(12) a. People are looking into the
matter.  ..
This matter is being looked
into.
b. Someone has slept in this
bed.  ..
This bed has been slept in.
Subtypes: adjectival
passive (13)
(13) a./c. *The vase was very
broken (by Tim).
b./c. The vase was already
broken and dirty.
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Subtypes: adjectival
passive (13)
(13) a. The vase was broken by
Tim.
= verbal passive (dynamic)
b. The vase was already
broken.
= adjectival passive (stative)
c. The vase was broken.
= ambiguous
Subtypes: get-passive
(14)
(14) a. He got (was) married.
b. Mary got (was) arrested (by)
c. John got (was) bitten by a
snake.
get hit, get left, get stuck,
get involved
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Uses of passive
Given before new
Topic-comment
Omission of agent
Avoidance of first-person pronouns
Allocation of different semantic roles
Topic-comment (15)
(15)P: Have you read Loves
Labours Lost?
S: No, but Ive read some
other dramas by Milton.
P: But Loves Labours Lost
was written by Shakespeare.
(But SHAKEspeare wrote
Loves Labours Lost.)
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Given before new (4)
"The Odyssey" is an excellent example of an
epic poem. Epic poems usually include a long
narrative or story. This story is almost always
marked by certain conventions. One of these
is the epic simile. It is normally used (?by the
author) to enhance the stature of a great
hero. Such a hero personifies the ideals of
particular societies. Among these ideals,
naturally, is the trait of bravery. But bravery
is always accompanied by courtesy. And this
courtesy includes many particular ways of
acting.
Omission of agent (16-19)
(16)A: Whats happened to Joe?
B: Hes been taken to hospital (by).
(17)Diving gear stolen.
(18)The book was published in 1933.
(19)The enemy opened fire and five
of our men were killed instantly.
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Avoidance of 1st person Allocation of semantic

pronoun (20) roles (21)
(20)S: Sorry Im late sir. (21)a. The protesters were
T: You have been warned arrested by the police.
about lateness before. ~ b. The police arrested the
(I have warned you about protesters.
lateness before.)
cf. Q: And where is the general now? cf. The protesters clashed with
A: He is believed to be abroad. the police.

Mediopassive (22)
(22) a. This book reads well.
b. This fabric washes easily.