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Chapter 1 Theories of Personality Related assumptions --- so as to generate

meaningful hypotheses & possess internal


consistency.
What is Personality? Assumptions --- not proven facts but are
accepted as if they were true.
Psychologists differ on their definition of
Personality. Most people agree that the word Logical deductive reasoning is used to
originated from the Latin persona = a theatrical formulate hypotheses. The hypotheses are not
mask worn by Roman actors in Greek dramas. components of the theory, but flow from it.
But Psychologists refer to personality as Testable --- hypothesis need not be tested
something more than the role people play. immediately, but it must suggest the possibility
that scientists in the future might develop
Personality is a construct which is why there
necessary means to test it.
is no definite definition, rather it would depend
on particular empirical concepts of ones theory.

Personality is a pattern of relatively Its main objective is to explain in an empirical,


permanent traits and unique scientific perspective and to predict behavior.
characteristics that give both
consistency and individuality to a
persons behavior.
Theory and Its Relatives
Relatively permanent = open to change
Philosophy vs Theory
Traits contribute to individual
differences in behavior, consistency of Philosophy --- broader/more general. what ought
behavior over time and stability of to be, what should be. A set of principles about
behavior across situations. It may be how one should live ones life. Such principles
unique, common or shared by entire involve values.
species but the pattern is different for
each individual. Theories are not completely free of values but
Characteristics unique qualities of an they are built on scientific evidence. Thus no
individual: temperament, physique, theories tell us why society should help
intelligence, etc. homeless people, etc. Theory deals with broad
sets of if-then statements, but the goodness and
badness of the outcome of these statements is
beyond the realm of theory.
What is a Theory?
Ex: if children were brought up in isolation, it
A scientific theory is a set of related assumptions
will not be able to develop language. This
that allows scientists to use logical deductive
statement says nothing about the morality of
reasoning to formulate testable hypotheses.
such a method of child rearing.
A SET of assumptions a single theory cannot
integrate several observations.
Theory vs Speculation A cycle: as the theory grows, other hypothesis
can be drawn from it and when tested reshapes
Any ordinary person can speculate the theory.
(Speculation).
Taxonomy vs Theory
When brilliant minds speculate they will also
gather empirical data, and empirical Taxonomy: classification of things according to
observations, then formulate a hypothesis their natural relationships.
(theory).
Taxonomies can evolve into theories
Theories are closely tied to empirically gathered when they begin to generate testable
data and to science. Science is the branch of hypothesis and explain research
study concerned with observation and findings.
classification of data and with the verification of
general laws through the testing of hypothesis.

Speculation and empirical observation are the 2 Bakit ang daming theories!!
essential cornerstones of theory building.
Alternate theories exist because theorists
It is theory who holds these observations make speculations from a particular
together and points to directions of point of view. Theorists must be as
possible research. objective as possible when gathering
data, but their decisions as to what data
are collected and how these data are
interpreted are personal ones.
Theory vs Hypothesis All theories are also reflection of their
Hypothesis: an educated guess or prediction authors personal backgrounds,
specific enough for its validity to be tested childhood experiences, philosophy of
through the use of the scientific method. life, etc.
Usefulness of a theory depends on its
A theory is too general to lend itself to direct ability to generate research and to
verification, but a single comprehensive theory explain research data and other
is capable of generating thousands of observations.
hypotheses.

Hypotheses, then, are more specific than the


Theorists Personalities and Their Theories of
theories that give them birth.
Personality
Deductive Reasoning (general to
Psychology of Science --- a subdiscipline of
specific) --- used to create a testable
Psychology which looks at personal traits of
hypothesis from the theory then test it.
scientists. It studies both science & behavior of
The results of these test feed back into
scientists. It investigates the impact of an
the theory.
individual scientists psychological processes
Inductive Reasoning (specific to
and personal characteristics on the development
general) --- used to alter the theory to
of her/his scientific theories and research.
reflect the research result/feedback from
the hypothesis.
Personality differences among theorists account theory building. It has a symbiotic
for fundamental disagreements between those relationship with theory. On one hand, it
who lean toward the quantitative side of provides the building blocks for the
psychology (behaviorists, social learning theory, and on the other, it receives its
theorists, and trait theorists) and those inclined impetus from the dynamic, expanding
toward the clinical and qualitative side of theory.
psychology (psychoanalysts, humanists, and Hypothesis Testing --- it leads to an
existentialists). indirect verification of the usefulness of
the theory.
But when evaluating and choosing a theory, you
should acknowledge the impact of the theorists
personal history on the theory, but you should Falsifiable
also ultimately evaluate it on the basis of
Ability to be confirmed or disconfirmed.
scientific criteria.
Theory must be precise enough to
The scientific process may be influenced suggest research that may either support
by the personal characteristics (science or fail to support its major tenets.
as process) but the ultimate usefulness If theory is so vague na it supports both
of the scientific product is and must be positive or negative research results,
evaluated independently of the process then it is not a useful theory.
Negative research results btw will refute
(science as product).
the theory and force the theorist to either
discard it or modify it.
It should also be accountable to
What makes a theory useful? experimental results: Theories that rely
heavily on unobservable transformations
A cyclic relationship continues for as long as the
in the unconscious are exceedingly
theory proves useful.
difficult to either verify or falsify. Ex:
Theory Hypothesis Research Research Freuds theory which suggests that
data ------ Theory gives meaning to data then emotions & behaviors are motivated by
data reshapes theory ------ reshaped Theory unconscious tendencies that are directly
Hypothesis, and so on. opposite the ones we express; this is
impossible to verify because it lies on
the unconscious.

Six criteria of a useful theory: Organizes Data

Generates Research Useful theory should be able to organize


those research data that are not
Useful theory generates 2 different kinds
incompatible with each other. Without
of research: Descriptive research &
some organization or classification,
Hypothesis testing
research findings would remain isolated
Descriptive research --- expands an
and meaningless.
existing theory & is concerned with the
measurement, labeling, and
categorization of the units employed in
Guides Action theorists. We use six of these dimensions as a
framework for viewing each theorists concept
Ability to guide the practitioner over the of humanity.
rough course of day-to-day problems.
Good theory provides a structure for Determinism vs free choice
finding many of those answers.
Without a useful theory, puro nalang Are peoples behaviors determined by
trial and error. forces over which they have no control,
With a sound theoretical orientation, or can people choose to be what they
they can discern a suitable course of wish to be? Or pwede both?
action.
Theory should also stimulate thought The position theorists take on this issue
and action in other disciplines, such as shapes their way of looking at people
art, literature, law, etc. and colors their concept of humanity.

Internally consistent Pessimism vs Optimism

Useful theory need not be consistent Are people doomed to live miserable,
with other theories, but it must be conflicted, and troubled lives or can they
consistent with itself. change and grow into psychologically
Its limitations of scope are carefully healthy happy fully functioning human
defined and it does not offer beings?
explanations that lie beyond that scope.
Causality vs Teleology
It also uses language in a consistent
manner: it does not use the same term to Causality --- behavior is a function of
mean 2 different thing, nor use 2 past experiences
separate terms to mean one thing. Teleology --- an explanation of behavior
A good theory will use concepts & terms in terms of future goals or purposes
that have been clearly & operationally Do they act as they do because of what
defines. has happened in the past? Or because
Operational definition one that they have certain expectations of what
defines units in terms of observable will happen in the future?
events or behaviors that can be
measured. Conscious vs unconscious determinants of
behavior
Parsimonious
Are people aware of what they are doing
When 2 theories are equal in their ability and why theyre doing it? Or do
to generate research, etc., the simpler unconscious forces impinge on them and
one is preferred: Law of Parsimony. drive them to act without awareness of
these underlying forces?

Dimensions for a Concept of Humanity

The authors assumptions rest on several broad


dimensions that separate the various personality
Biological vs Social Influences on personality The reliability of a measuring
instrument is the extent to which it
Are people creatures of biology or are yields consistent results.
their personalities shaped largely by Validity is the degree to which an
their social relationships? instrument measures what it is supposed
heredity vs environment to measure.
Uniqueness vs Similarities Two types of validity:
Is the salient feat of people their Construct Validity --- the extent to which an
individuality, or is it their common instrument measures some hypothetical
characteristics? construct. Constructs such as extraversion,
Should the study of personality intelligence, etc have no physical existence.
concentrate on those traits that make They are hypothetical constructs that should
people alike, or should it look at those relate to observable behavior.
traits that make people different?
3 types of Construct Validity
: Each personality theory reflects the individual Convergence Validity --- if scores on
personality of its creator, and each creator has a that instrument correlate highly
unique philosophical orientation, shaped in part (converge) with scores on a variety of
by early childhood experiences, birth order, valid measures of the same construct.
gender, training, education & pattern of Divergent Validity --- if it has low or
interpersonal relationships. insignificant correlations with other
inventories that do not measure that
construct.
*In building a theory of personality, Discriminant Validity --- if it
psychologists should begin on a limited scale & discriminates between two groups of
avoid sweeping generalizations that attempt to people known to be different.
explain all of human behavior. Ex: a personality inventory measuring
extraversion should yield higher scores
for people known to be extraverted than
Research in Personality Theory for people known to be introverted.

Psychologists try to be systematic so that their


prediction will be consistent and accurate. Predictive Validity --- the extent that a test
predicts some future behavior.
To improve their ability to predict, personality
psychologists have developed a number of Ex: a test of extraversion has predictive validity
assessment techniques, including personality if it correlates with future behaviors, such as
inventories. smoking cigarettes, performing well on tests,
taking risks, etc.
For these instruments to be useful they must be
both reliable and valid. The ultimate value of any measuring instrument
is the degree to which it can predict some future
behavior or condition.

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