Professional Documents
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Zheyan Jin
Aerodynamics
Zheyan Jin
School of Aerospace Engineering and Applied Mechanics
Tongji University
Shanghai, China, 200092
Copyright by Dr. Zheyan Jin
Real wings are not infinite in span. They have a finite wing-span. As
we shall see, because real wings do not go on forever, the flow over
them is not two-dimensional. This has very important effects.
Copyright by Dr. Zheyan Jin
Wing root
Wing tip
Top view cr ct
(planform)
Wing span b
Low pressure
Front view
High pressure
Copyright by Dr. Zheyan Jin
View from
above
Copyright by Dr. Zheyan Jin
Downwash
Downwash
eff i
Copyright by Dr. Zheyan Jin
Downwash
Downwash
Downwash
Method of analysis
Differences in nomenclature
The corresponding lift, drag, and moment coefficients have been denoted
by capital letters, for example, CL, CD, and CM.
Copyright by Dr. Zheyan Jin
Drag
Total drag on a subsonic finite wing in real life
Profile drag
D f Dp
Profile drag coefficient: cd
q S
Di
Induced drag coefficient: C D ,i
q S
5.2 The vortex filament, the Biot-Savart law, and Helmholtzs theorems
Vortex filament
In general, a vortex filament can be of strength
curved. The filament induces a flow field in
the surrounding space.
dl
The velocity at point P, dV, induced by r
a small directed segment dl of a curved dV
filament with strength is
dl r
dV
4 r 3
Copyright by Dr. Zheyan Jin
5.2 The vortex filament, the Biot-Savart law, and Helmholtzs theorems
dl r - V
V
4 r 3
V
2h
5.2 The vortex filament, the Biot-Savart law, and Helmholtzs theorems
sin 0
V
4 r 2 dl
4h
sin d
2h
Copyright by Dr. Zheyan Jin
5.2 The vortex filament, the Biot-Savart law, and Helmholtzs theorems
5.2 The vortex filament, the Biot-Savart law, and Helmholtzs theorems
Lift distribution:
Front view of wing L' L' ( y ) V ( y )
-b/2 b/2
y
Most finite wings have a variable chord, with the exception of a simple rectangular
wing.
Also, many wings are geometrically twisted so that is different at different
spanwise locations- so-called geometric twist. If the tip is at a lower than the root
the wing is said to have washout; if the tip is at a higher than the root, the wing
has washin.
The wings on a number of modern airplanes have different airfoil sections along the
span, with different values of L=0; this is called aerodynamic twist.
Copyright by Dr. Zheyan Jin
w( y )
4(b / 2 y ) 4(b / 2 y )
The first term on the right-hand side is the contribution from the left trailing
vortex. The second term is the contribution from the right trailing vortex.
Copyright by Dr. Zheyan Jin
b Trailing vortex
w( y ) -b/2
4 (b / 2) 2 y 2
A single horseshoe vortex
Note that w approaches - as y approaches b/2 or b/2.
The downwash distribution due to the single horseshoe vortex shown in above
figure does not realistically simulate that of a finite wing.
The downwash approaching an infinite value at the tips is especially disconcerting.
Copyright by Dr. Zheyan Jin
d1 d2 d3 b/2
Let us superimpose a large number of d1
horseshoe vortices, each with a F d2
different length of bound vortex, but with d1 d2 E d3
all the bound vortices coincident along a
D d3
single line, called the lifting line.
d1 C d2
B
d1
The circulation varies along the line of -b/2 A
bound vortices. Lifting line
Note that the strength of each trailing vortex is equal to the change in circulation along
the lifting line.
Copyright by Dr. Zheyan Jin
0 y
b/2
Let us assume there are infinite number (y)
of horseshoe vortices along the lifting line. y0
z
V d
x
There is continuous distribution of (y) along
the lifting line. The value of the circulation at
the origin is 0 -b/2
Lifting line
The total strength of the sheet integrated across the span is zero, because it
consists of pairs of trailing vortices of equal strength but in opposite direction.
Copyright by Dr. Zheyan Jin
0 y
(d / dy )dy
dw
4 ( y0 y ) -b/2
Lifting line
The minus sign in the above equation is needed for consistency with the right
picture.
For the trailing vortex shown, the direction of dw at y0 is upward and hence is
a positive value, whereas is decreasing in the y direction, making d/dy a
negative quantity. The minus sign in the above equation makes the positive dw
consistent with the negative d/dy.
Copyright by Dr. Zheyan Jin
0 y
The total velocity w induced at y0 by
the entire trailing vortex sheet is the dw b/2
(y) y0
summation of the last equation over all z
the vortex filaments: dx
V d
x
1 b/2 (d / dy )dy
w( y0 )
4 b / 2 y0 y -b/2
Lifting line
w( y0 )
i ( y0 ) tan 1 ( )
V
w( y0 )
i ( y0 )
V
Copyright by Dr. Zheyan Jin
Since the downwash varies across the span, then eff is also variable;
eff= eff(y0). The lift coefficient for the airfoil section located at y=y0 is:
cl a0 [ eff ( y0 ) L 0 ] 2 [ eff ( y0 ) L 0 ]
From the Kutta-Joukowski theorem, lift for the local airfoil section
located at y0 is
1
L V2 c( y0 )cl V ( y0 )
2
Copyright by Dr. Zheyan Jin
2( y0 )
cl
V c( y0 )
Thus
cl 2 [ eff ( y0 ) L 0 ]
( y0 )
eff L 0
V c( y0 )
Since eff i
Finally, we obtain
( y0 ) 1 b/2 (d / dy ) dy
( y0 )
V c( y0 )
L 0 ( y0 )
4V b / 2 y0 y
Copyright by Dr. Zheyan Jin
( y0 ) 1 b/2 (d / dy )dy
( y0 )
V c( y0 )
L 0 ( y0 )
4V b / 2 y0 y
The fundamental equation of Prandtls lifting-line theory.
It simply states that the geometric angle of attack is equal to the sum of
the effective angle plus the induced angle of attack.
( y0 ) 1 (d / dy )dy
b/2
( y0 )
V c( y0 )
L 0 ( y0 )
4V b / 2 y0 y
The solution =(y0) obtained from the above equation gives us the three
main aerodynamic characteristics of a finite wing, as follows:
1. The lift distribution is obtained from the Kutta-Joukowski theorem:
L' ( y0 ) V ( y0 )
2. The total lift is obtained by integrating the above equation over the span
b/2
L L' ( y )dy
b / 2
b/2
L V ( y )dy
b / 2
L 2 b/2
CL
q S V S b / 2
( y )dy
Copyright by Dr. Zheyan Jin
D 2 b/2
C D ,i i
q S V S b / 2
( y ) i ( y )dy
Copyright by Dr. Zheyan Jin
2y 2
( y ) 0 1 ( )
Note: b
1. 0 is the circulation at the origin.
2. The circulation varies elliptically with distance y along the span; hence, it
is designated as an elliptical circulation distribution. Since
L' ( y ) V ( y ) 2y 2
we also have L' ( y ) V 0 1 ( )
b
Hence, we are dealing with an elliptical lift distribution.
3. (b / 2) ( b / 2) 0
Thus, the circulation, hence lift, properly goes to zero at the wing tips.
Copyright by Dr. Zheyan Jin
What are the aerodynamic properties of a finite wing with such an elliptic
lift distribution?
d 4 y
20
dy b (1 4 y 2 / b 2 )1/ 2
0 b/2 y
w( y0 )
b 2 b / 2 (1 4 y 2 / b 2 )1/ 2 ( y0 y) dy
Copyright by Dr. Zheyan Jin
What are the aerodynamic properties of a finite wing with such an elliptic
lift distribution?
The integral can be evaluated easily by making the substitution
b b
y cos dy sin d
2 2
Hence, 0 0 cos
w( 0 )
2b cos 0 cos
d
0 cos
w( 0 )
2b 0 cos cos 0
d
0
w( 0 )
2b
This states that the downwash is constant over the span for an elliptical lift
distribution.
Copyright by Dr. Zheyan Jin
w
i 0
V 2bV
The induced angle of attack is also constant over the span for an elliptical lift
distribution.
Note that both the downwash and induced angle of attack go to zero as the
wing span becomes infinite- which is consistent with our previous discussions
on airfoil theory.
Copyright by Dr. Zheyan Jin
What are the aerodynamic properties of a finite wing with such an elliptic
lift distribution?
A more useful expression for i can be obtained as follows.
b/2 4 y 2 1/ 2
L V 0 (1 2 ) dy
b / 2 b
Again use the transformation y (b / 2) cos
b 2 b
L V 0 sin d V 0
2 0 4
4L
0
V b
Copyright by Dr. Zheyan Jin
What are the aerodynamic properties of a finite wing with such an elliptic
lift distribution?
1
However, L V2 SC L
2
2V SC L
0
b
2V SC 1 SC
i L 2L
b 2bV b
AR b 2 / S
CL
The induced angle of attack: i
AR
Copyright by Dr. Zheyan Jin
b C L 2V SC L
C D ,i ( )
2V S AR b
C L2
Or, C D ,i
AR
The above equation states that the induced drag coefficient is directly
proportional to the square of the lift coefficient.
Copyright by Dr. Zheyan Jin
C L2
C D ,i
AR
First property:
The dependence of induced drag coefficient on the lift is not surprising, for
the following reason.
C L2
C D ,i
AR
Second property:
To reduce the induced drag, we want a finite wing with the highest possible
aspect ratio.
Unfortunately, the design of very high aspect ratio wings with sufficient
structural strength is difficult.
Therefore, the aspect ratio of a conventional aircraft is a compromise
between conflicting aerodynamic and structural requirements.
Copyright by Dr. Zheyan Jin
Third property:
Consider a wing with no geometric twist (i.e., is constant along the span)
and no aerodynamic twist (i.e., L=0 is constant along the span).
The local section lift coefficient cl is given by:
c l a 0 eff L 0
Assuming that a0 is the same for each section, cl must be constant along
the span. The lift per unit span is given by
L' ( y )
L ( y ) q ccl c( y )
'
q cl
For an elliptic lift distribution, the chord must vary elliptically along the span;
that is, for the condition given above, the wing planform is elliptical.
Copyright by Dr. Zheyan Jin
where the coordinate in the spanwise direction is now given by , with 0<=
<=.
In terms of , the elliptic lift distribution
2y 2
( y ) 0 1 ( )
b
can be written as
( ) 0 sin
Copyright by Dr. Zheyan Jin
N
( ) 2bV An sin n
1
where as many terms N in the series can be taken as we desire for accuracy.
An must satisfy the fundamental equation of Prandtls lifting-line theory.
d d d N
d
2bV nAn cos n
dy d dy 1 dy
Copyright by Dr. Zheyan Jin
Substituting the above equations into the angle of attack equation, we obtain
2b N N
sin n 0
( 0 ) n
c( 0 ) 1
A sin n 0 L 0 ( 0 ) 1 n sin
nA
0
2 2b 2 N
An sin n sin d
b/2
CL
V S b / 2 ( y)dy S 1
0
/ 2 (n 1
0 sin n sin d
0 (n 1)
b2
C L A1 A1AR
S
Note that CL depends only on the leading coefficient of the Fourier series expansion.
Copyright by Dr. Zheyan Jin
2 b/2 2b 2 N
C D ,i b / 2 ( y) i ( y)dy S An sin n i ( ) sin d
V S 0
1
cos n sinn 0
0 cos cos 0
d
sin 0
N
sin n 0
Thus, i ( 0 ) nAn
1 sin 0
Copyright by Dr. Zheyan Jin
2b 2 N N
C D ,i
S ( A sin n )( nA sin n )d
0
1
n
1
n
Copyright by Dr. Zheyan Jin
In the drag coefficient equation, the mixed product terms involving unequal
subscripts are equal to zero. Hence,
2b 2 N 2
N
C D ,i ( nAn ) AR nAn2
S 1 2 1
N N
An 2
C D ,i AR ( A nA ) ARA [1 n(
1
2 2
n 1
2
) ]
2 2 A1
Copyright by Dr. Zheyan Jin
C 2L
Thus, C D ,i [1 ]
AR
2
A
N
where n n
2 A1
where e 1. Note that =0 and e =1 for the elliptical lift distribution. Hence,
the lift distribution which yields minimum induced drag is the elliptical lift
distribution.
Copyright by Dr. Zheyan Jin
C 2L
C D ,i [1 ]
AR
C 2L
C D ,i [1 ]
AR
Example 1:
Consider a finite wing with an aspect ratio of 8 and a taper ratio of 0.8.
The airfoil section is thin and symmetric. Calculate the lift and induced
drag coefficients for the wing when its angle of attack is 5. Assume
that =.
Solution: From a figure in the textbook, we can obtain 0.055
Assume a0=2for thin airfoil theory
a0 2
a 4.97rad 1
1 a0 / AR 1 1 2 / 8 1.055
Since the airfoil is symmetric, aL=0=0. Thus,
Example 2:
Consider a rectangular wing with an aspect ratio of 6, and induced drag factor
=0.055, and a zero lift angle of attack of -2. At an angle of attack of 3.4, the
induced drag coefficient for this wing is 0.01. Calculate the induced drag for a
similar wing at the same angle of attack, but with an aspect ratio of 10. Assume
that the induced factors for drag and the lift slope, and , respectively, are
equal to each other. Also, for AR=10, =0.105.
Solution: Firstly, let us calculate CL for the wing with aspect ratio 6.
ARCD ,i 6 0.001
C 2L 0.1787
1 1 0.055
Hence, C L 0.423
The lift slope of this wing is therefore
dC L 0.423
0.078 / deg ree 4.485 / rad
d 3.4 0 ( 2 0 )
Copyright by Dr. Zheyan Jin
Example 2:
Consider a rectangular wing with an aspect ratio of 6, and induced drag factor
=0.055, and a zero lift angle of attack of -2. At an angle of attack of 3.4, the
induced drag coefficient for this wing is 0.01. Calculate the induced drag for a
similar wing at the same angle of attack, but with an aspect ratio of 10. Assume
that the induced factors for drag and the lift slope, and , respectively, are
equal to each other. Also, for AR=10, =0.105.
Solution: The lift slope for the airfoil can be obtained by
dC L a0
a
d 1 a0 / AR 1
a0 a0
4.485
1 a0 / 6 1 0.055 1 0.056a0
Solving for a0, we find that this yields a0=5.989/rad. Since the second wing (with
AR=10) has the same airfoil section, then a0 is the same. The lift slope of the
second wing is given by
Copyright by Dr. Zheyan Jin
Example 2:
Consider a rectangular wing with an aspect ratio of 6, and induced drag factor
=0.055, and a zero lift angle of attack of -2. At an angle of attack of 3.4, the
induced drag coefficient for this wing is 0.01. Calculate the induced drag for a
similar wing at the same angle of attack, but with an aspect ratio of 10. Assume
that the induced factors for drag and the lift slope, and , respectively, are
equal to each other. Also, for AR=10, =0.105.
Solution: For AR=10
a0 5.989
a 4.95 / rad
1 a0 / AR 1 1 5.989 / 10
1 0.105
The lift coefficient for the second wing is therefore
CL a ( L 0 ) 0.086[3.40 (20
] 0.464
C L2 2
0.464 1 0.105
C D ,i (1 ) 0.0076
AR 10
Copyright by Dr. Zheyan Jin
2: For the given wing at a given , assume the lift distribution along the span; that
is, assume values for at all the stations 1, 2,., n,, k+1. An elliptical
lift distribution is satisfactory for such an assumed distribution.
Copyright by Dr. Zheyan Jin
y
The integral is evaluated numerically.
By using Simpsons rule,
1 y k (d / dy ) j 1 (d / dy ) j (d / dy ) j 1
i ( yn )
4V 3
j 2, 4,6 yn y j 1
4
yn y j
yn y j 1
4: Using i from step 3, obtain the effective angle of attack eff at each station
form
eff ( yn ) i ( yn )
Copyright by Dr. Zheyan Jin
5: With the distribution of eff calculated from step 4, obtain the section lift
coefficient (cl)n at each station. These values are read from the known lift
curve for the airfoil.
1
L' ( yn ) V ( yn ) V2 cn (cl ) n
2
1
( yn ) V cn (cl ) n
2
where cn is the local section chord. Keep in mind that in all the above
steps, n ranges from 1 to k+1.
Copyright by Dr. Zheyan Jin
8: Steps 3 to 7 are repeated a sufficient number of cycles until new and old
agree at each spanwise station to within acceptable accuracy.
9: From the converged (y), the lift and induced drag coefficients are obtained.
The integrations in these equation can again be carried out by Simpsons
rule.
Copyright by Dr. Zheyan Jin
The numerical lifting-line solution at high angle of attack agrees with the
experiment to within 20 percent, and much closer for many cases.
Question:
Since delta-winged aircraft are high-
speed vehicles, why are we discussing
this topic in the present chapter, which
deals with the low-speed,
incompressible flow over finite wings?
Answer:
All high-speed aircraft fly at low speeds
for takeoff and landing;
Moreover, in most cases, these aircraft spend the vast majority of their flight time
at subsonic speeds, using their supersonic capability for short supersonic dashes,
depending on their mission.
Therefore, the low-speed aerodynamics of delta wings has been a subject of much
serious study over the past years.
Copyright by Dr. Zheyan Jin
Variants:
There are several variants of the basic
delta wing used on modern aircraft:
(a) Simple delta
(b) Cropped delta
(c) Notched delta
(d) Double delta
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Leading-edge vortices over the top surface of a delta wing at angle of attack. The
vortices are made visible by dye streaks in water flow.
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The flow field in the crossflow plane above a delta wing at angle of attack, showing
the two primary leading-edge vortices. The vortices are made visible by small air
bubbles in water.
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The suction effect of the leading-edge vortices enhances the lift; for this reason,
the lift coefficient curve for a delta wing exhibits an increase in CL for values of
at which conventional wing planforms would be stalled.
Vortex breakdown
In summary, the delta wing is a common planform for supersonic aircraft. The low-
speed aerodynamics of these wings are quite different from a conventional planform.
Copyright by Dr. Zheyan Jin
Notable students:
Hubert Ludwieg, Hermann Schlichting, Ludwig Prandtl (1875-1953)
5.7 Summary
Downwash
eff i
5.7 Summary
Vortex Filament
dl r
dV
4 r 3
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5.7 Summary
( y0 ) 1 b/2 (d / dy )dy
( y0 )
V c( y0 )
L 0 ( y0 )
4V b / 2 y0 y
Copyright by Dr. Zheyan Jin
5.7 Summary