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1.0 INTRODUCTION
Venturi meter is used to measure the fluid flow rate by reducing the cross
sectional area in the flow path, generating a pressure difference. It makes use of
Bernoullis Principle, a restatement of the law of Conservation of Energy as applied to the
fluid flow.
In this experiment, the Cussons P6227 Venturi Meter is used in conjunction with
the Inlet Head Tank P6103 and the P6104 Variable Head Outlet Tank. The P6106
manometer board is required for pressure measurement. The Feedback P6105 may be
used instead of the inlet head tank to increase the flow range.
The venturi, which is manufactured from transparent acrylic material, follows the
classic 21 - 10 convergent-divergent design which forms the basis of most engineering
standards for venturi flow meters. The P6227 complies with the British Standard BS1042
for flow measurement. The dimensions of the Venturi Meter are shown in Figure 1.1. The
upstream and throat pressure tappings are used for flow measurement whilst the
downstream tappings allows an assessment of the pressure recovery to be made. The
throat diameter is 10mm and the upstream and downstream pipe diameters are both
21mm.
D1 D2
P1 P2
Figure1.2 Diameters and differential pressure across venturi meter at section 1 & 2.
Refer to Figure 1.2, from consideration of continuity between the mouth of the
venture at section 1 and the throat at section 2:
Q A1V1 A2V2
(1.1)
A2 V
2 1
A1 V2
(1.2)
Applying Bernoullis theorem to the venture meter between section1 and section2,
neglecting losses and assuming the venturi is installed horizontally
P1 V12 P2 V22
g 2g g 2g
(1.3)
Rearranging,
P1 P2 V 2 V12
H 2
g g
(1.4)
and solving for V2,
2( P1 P2 ) 2g H
V2
V
2
1 4
1 12
V2
(1.5)
D2
= (1.6)
D1
normally , =0.5
2g H
Q A2V2 A2
1 4
(1.7)
The actual discharge will be less than this due to losses causing the velocity
through the throat to be less than that predicted by Bernoullis Theorem, therefore it is
necessary to introduce an experimentally determined coefficient of discharge C d. The
actual discharge will then be given by:
2g H
Q C d A2
1 4
(1.8)
2
A 2= D
where 4 2 (1.9)
The coefficient of discharge varies with both the Reynolds number and area ratio.
Typically values for a machined venturi meter are between 0.975 and 0.995.
The pressure loss across the venture meter is less than the pressure difference
measured between the mouth and the throat due to the pressure recovery which occurs in
the divergence as the kinetic energy is reduced.
1.2 OBJECTIVES
1. To calculate the coefficient of discharge from experimental data for a venturi meter.
2. To investigate the measurement of volumetric flowrate using a venturi meter.
OBSERVATIONS:
1.6 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
1. Record the results on a copy of the results sheet.
2. Calculate volumetric flow rate for each result.
3. Plot graph of flow rate against the square root of the head and draw the best straight
line from the origin through the results. Calculate the slope and determine the
coefficient of discharge for the venturi meter.
Quantities of water
collected, Q (L)
Time to collect water,
t (s)
Volume flow rate, Q
(L/min)
Inlet head, H1 (m)
Venturi differential
head, H (H1-H2) (m)
Venturi differential
head, (H)1/2
Area of venturi
throat, A2 (m2)(10-4)
Velocity at venturi
throat, V2 (m/s)
Q, volumetric flow
rate (A2V2)
Actual discharge, Cd
2.0 INTRODUCTION
The pressure loss along a pipe is caused by friction and changes in velocity or
direction of flow. In order to find the friction loss in pipes, the fluid friction
measurements apparatus are specially designed to allow the detailed study of the fluid
friction head losses which occur, when an incompressible fluid flows through pipes,
bends, valves and other pipe flow metering devices. Friction head losses in straight pipes
of different sizes can be investigated over a range of Reynolds Number. The friction
factors depend on the Reynolds number of the flow and the pipe relative roughness.
Cussons P6220 Laminar Flow Apparatus used in this experiment consists of a
tubular test section of 3 mm internal bore and 508mm long, including a 13 mm bell nose
entry, which is supported inside a protective outer 25 mm tube and is terminated at each
end in bushed unions. Besides that, two test sections of Cussons P6221 Losses In Pipes
and Fittings Apparatus are used in this experiment, i.e. the 7 mm nominal bore pipe and
the 10 mm nominal bore pipe with two static pressure tappings 360 mm apart, each 464
mm long. It is intended that the test section should be mounted between the P6103
Constant Head Inlet Tank and theP6104 Variable Head Outlet Tank. The P6106
Manometer Board is used to measure the head loss across the tubular test section.
Reynolds was able to show that the character of the flow could be described with
the aid of a dimensionless parameter, which is now known as Reynolds number,
VD
Re = (2.1)
Fluid motion was found to be laminar for the values of Re below 2000 and
turbulent for value Re greater than 4000. Different laws of fluid resistance apply to
laminar and turbulent flows.
For laminar flow it is found that the pressure drop or head loss is proportional to
velocity and that this can be represented by Poiseuilles equation for the hydraulic
gradient
hf 32 V
i
L gD 2
(2.2)
For turbulent flow the relationship between head loss and velocity is exponential
hf Vn (2.3)
and although there is no simple equation for turbulent flow it is accepted engineering
practice to use an empirical relationship for the hydraulic gradient which is attributed to
Darcy and Weisbach
hf 4 fV 2
L D2 g
i= (2.4)
where f is an exponentially determined friction factor which varies with both Reynolds
number and the internal roughness of the pipe. A different friction factor may be used
which is four times larger than the friction factor in the Darcy-Weisbach formula.
i.e. = (2.7)
P / L
And substitute for back into the equation gives
0
cons tan t
d D
(2.13)
From which it follows that the shear stress varies linearly from zero at the centre
to a maximum at the pipe wall.
The shear stress is related to velocity by Newtons law of viscosity
V
r
(2.14)
V P d
r L 4
(2.15)
Replacing d by 2r
rr P
V
2 L
(2.16)
Investigating from the pipe centre (r = 0) to the pipe wall (r = R and V = 0) yields
R 2 r 2 P
V
4 L
(2.17)
D 2 P
16 L
(2.18)
D 2 P
Vmean
32 L
(2.19)
Rearranging,
32LVmean
P
D2
(2.20)
Expressing the pressure loss as a head due to friction, Hf over the pipe length l:
32 LVmean
f
gD 2
(2.21)
hf
L
The head loss per unit length of pipe which is known as the hydraulic gradient,
symbol i, is then given by
hf 32 Vmean
i
L gD 2
(2.22)
which is known as Poiseuilles equation for laminar flow. Note that V is now taken to
signify the mean velocity.
The velocity distribution of turbulent flow across pipe is more uniform than the
parabolic velocity distribution of laminar flow. Consider a section of pipe length L over
which the pressure drop is P, as shown in figure 2.2.
The forces acting on the cylinder of fluid are the pressure forces producing the
flow and the opposing shear forces caused by frictional resistance at the wall.
LD PD 2 / 4
(2.23)
PD
L4
(2.24)
Now accepting that the shear stress is proportional to the square of the mean
velocity
V2 (2.25)
KV 2
then, (2.26)
where K is a constant.
P D
. KV 2
L 4
(2.27)
4 KLV 2
P
D
(2.28)
4 KLV 2
gD
hf =
2
4 fL V
D 2g
= (2.29)
2K
where f = is the Darcy friction factor.
The alternative definition of friction factor is often shown as f (f dash) and the
head loss equation is then written as
f 'L V 2
D 2g
hf = (2.30)
2.1.6Friction factors
The head loss due to friction for both laminar and turbulent flow can be presicted
by the Darcy Weisbatch equation
32V
i
gD 2
(2.31)
Care has to be used due to these two different definitions of the friction factor,
which are both in equally common use, and therefore in choosing the appropriate
relationship between the friction factor and the head loss. When using graph of friction
factor against Reynolds number always check the relationship for laminar flow as a mean
of distinguishing between the two.
16 4 fLV 2
f hf
Re D2 g
If then use (2.35)
64 f ' LV 2
f ' hf
Re D2 g
If then use (2.36)
For turbulent flow the friction factor is a function of Reynolds number, the
/D
relative roughness of the pipe wall . For highly turbulent flows the friction factor
became independent of the Reynolds number in a flow regime known as fullydeveloped
turbulent flow. The most widely accepted data for friction factors for use with the Darley
Weisback formula is that produced by Professor L.F.Moody.
Selection of pipe size for a pipe to carry a given flow rate, which is a very
common exercise, is made easier if the relationship between the head loss and pipe
diameter is known for specific case of constant flow rate.
For a given flow rate, the mean velocity In the pipe is given by:
D 2 4Q
Q V V
4 D 2
hence (2.37)
2
hf
4 fV 2 4 f 4Q 1
i
L D 2 g D 2 g D 2 D4
hence i (2.38)
The head loss is therefore inversely proportional to the diameter of the pipe raise
to the forth power for laminar flow and inversely proportional to the fifth power for
turbulent flow.
2.2 OBJECTIVES
Inlet Initially P6103 Constant Head Inlet Tank with overflow pipe
extension fitted.
Assembly Ensure the bell mouthed entry end of the P6220 test section is
at the left hand end and that is correctly inserted into the inlet
tank. Ensure that the P6221 7 mm bore test section is installed
the correct way round with the conical inlet at the left hand
end.
OBSERVATIONS:
2.6 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS:
1. Record the results on a copy of the results sheet.
2. Determine the water density and viscosity from Annex 1 of Part 1 of the manual.
3. For each result calculate the mean velocity and hence the Reynolds number and
friction factor .
4. Plot a graph of log hf against log V, draw a straight line through the results and
measure its slope to express the relationship between hf and V in the from hf Vn .
5. On a photocopy of the graph on pages 3 15 plot the points of friction factor against
Reynolds number.
6. From the graph of fraction factor against Reynolds number on page 3 -15 determine
the empirical friction factor using the Reynolds number for each result and assuming a pipe
roughness of 0.0015mm.
1. Test Section Diameter:mm
Water Temperature:.. C
Density:.. kg/m2
Viscosity:.cP
Quantity of Water
Collected, Q (litre)
Time to Collect Water, t
(sec)
Volume Flow Rate, Q
(litres/min)
Mean Velocity, V
(m/sec)
Loge V
Reynolds Number, Re
Loge Re
Inlet Head, H1 (mm)
Outlet Head, H2 (mm)
Friction Head Loss, hf
(mm) (H1-H2)
Loge hf
Friction Factor, f
Loge f