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Dystroglycanopathies are a heterogeneous group of diseases with a broad phenotypic spectrum ranging from severe disorders with
1 Centre for Medical Research, University of Western Australia, Harry Perkins Institute of Medical Research, Perth, WA, Australia
2 Instituto de Biomedicina de Sevilla, Hospital Universitario Virgen del Roco/CSIC/Universidad de Sevilla, Seville, Spain
3 Institute for Neuroscience and Muscle Research, The Childrens Hospital at Westmead, Sydney, NSW 2145, Australia
4 Discipline of Paediatrics and Child Health, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
5 Department of Neurology, Royal North Shore Hospital, Sydney, Australia
6 Centre for Comparative Genomics, Murdoch University, Perth, Australia
7 Department of Diagnostic Genomics, Pathwest Laboratory Medicine WA. Perth, WA, Australia
8 Department of Neurology, Concord Repatriation Hospital, and Sydney Medical School, Sydney, Australia
9 Analytic and Translational Genetics Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA
10 Broad Institute of Harvard and Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
11 Murdoch Childrens Research Institute, The Royal Childrens Hospital, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
12 Department of Paediatrics, University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
13 Neurogenetic Unit, Department of Neurology, Royal Perth Hospital, Perth, WA, Australia
Correspondence to: Macarena Cabrera-Serrano,
Centre for Medical Research,
University of Western Australia.
Harry Perkins Institute for Medical Research,
Nedlands,
Western Australia 6009,
Australia
E-mail: Macarena.cabrera@uwa.edu.au
Received October 30, 2014. Revised November 21, 2014. Accepted December 10, 2014. Advance Access publication February 13, 2015
The Author (2015). Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Guarantors of Brain. All rights reserved.
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GMPPB mutations BRAIN 2015: 138; 836844 | 837
14, western blotting of available skeletal muscle biopsy spe- 18 months to 6 years. As a teenager and adult he had
cimens and age-matched healthy control muscle (excess muscle recurrent depression.
obtained from patients with a normal in vitro contracture test Examination at the time of presentation revealed mild
result, negative for malignant hyperthermia) was performed proximal weakness in upper and lower limbs involving del-
using the following monoclonal antibodies: dysferlin (NCL-
toid, biceps, triceps, ilio-psoas, quadriceps and hamstring
Hamlet), calpain-3 (NCL-CALP-2C4 and NCL-CALP-12A2),
muscles. Deep tendon reexes were present. There was no
-sarcoglycan (NCL-50 DAG) and -DG (IIH6C4). For
Patients 58, western blotting of -DG was also performed
facial or bulbar weakness, and strength in distal limb mus-
using the IIH6C4 antibody. Coomassie staining of the post- cles was normal. His calves were hypertrophic, and to a
transferred gel was performed and the signal intensity of the lesser extent, also his quadriceps. He had a positive
myosin heavy chain band was used to demonstrate similar Gowers sign. Creatine kinase was 5000 IU. An EMG, per-
loading of skeletal muscle protein across samples. formed at the age of 15 years, showed a myopathic pattern
in proximal muscles, associated with normal nerve conduc-
tion studies. ECGs performed routinely were normal.
Genetic work-up: Sanger sequencing Over the years there was very slow progression of his
and next generation sequencing muscle weakness. Weakness was restricted to proximal
muscles of limbs and he remained able to walk and climb
Genomic DNA was extracted from blood using standard pro-
cedures. Mutations in FKRP were excluded by Sanger sequen- stairs until he died from unrelated causes at 25 years of
cing in Families 1, 2 and 5 before they were submitted for next age.
normal, and a respiratory assessment at age 70 revealed The younger sister (Patient 6) had mild cognitive difcul-
severe impairment of ventilatory capacity with a restrictive ties and required assistance with learning in a mainstream
pattern. A muscle CT scan performed at the age of 71 years school. On examination at 46 years her proximal muscles
is shown in Fig. 2. were graded 3/5 in both upper and lower limbs, with pre-
Patient 4 is a male sibling of Patient 3 who presented at served distal power.
the age of 35 with weakness in the upper and lower limbs.
On examination he had obvious calf hypertrophy and a
Family IV
waddling gait. He had weakness in sternocleidomastoid
Patient 7 is a 19-year-old male born to non-consanguineous
(4/5), neck exors (4 + /5), deltoids (4 + /5), biceps (4 + /5),
parents (Fig. 1) who presented with recurrent episodes of
triceps (4 + /5), iliopsoas (4/5), quadriceps (4/5), hamstrings
rhabdomyolysis from the age of 13 years. Severe muscle
(4/5), abductors of the thighs (4/5), adductors of the thighs
rigidity and stiffness accompanied the episodes. Pregnancy
(4/5), and tibialis anterior (4 + /5). His deep tendon reexes
and delivery were uncomplicated. There was a delay in
were present. By the age of 50 he had deteriorated moder-
speech development and episodic nocturnal enuresis up to
ately and was unable to run or lift heavy objects. He could
15 years, but overall cognitive function was normal.
climb four or ve stairs and walk 1.5 miles. At 35 years he
During childhood he had several seizures and was diag-
was diagnosed with sino-atrial block, with atrial ectopics
nosed with Rolandic epilepsy. He reported two to three
and aberrant ventricular conduction. From that time he had
episodes of rhabdomyolysis per year triggered by exercise.
daily episodes of an irregular heart beat lasting 15 min.
Creatine kinase uctuated between 800 and 1500 UI. The examination between episodes was normal. The high-
est recorded creatine kinase was 35 000 IU with a baseline
Family III of 700 IU when well. An in vitro contracture test was
Patients 5 and 6 are Caucasian siblings born to non- performed for malignant hyperthermia, which was negative
consanguineous parents (Fig. 1) who presented in their to halothane and caffeine.
early twenties with mild proximal weakness. Pregnancy
was normal for both siblings but the older male sibling Family V
(Patient 5) was noted to have signicant learning difculties Patient 8 is a female born to non-consanguineous
with autistic spectrum behaviour, and attended a special Caucasian parents (Fig. 1). Muscle tone was normal at
needs school. On examination at 46 years there was no birth with no contractures, but she required a feeding
facial weakness. There was minor right-sided scapular tube for 3 days due to a poor suck. Creatine kinase was
winging, with 4/5 neck extension and exion. Proximal noted to be elevated at 6 months of age. Gross motor mile-
muscles were graded 3 /5 in the upper limbs and 2/5 in stones were delayed, sitting at 2 years, crawling at 2.5
the lower limbs. There was minor tibialis anterior weakness years, and walking at 3 years of age. She was never able
(4 + /5). Deep tendon reexes were present. Creatine kinase to run. Speech was also delayed. Examination showed gen-
was 1400. eralized muscle weakness, strabismus and toe walking.
840 | BRAIN 2015: 138; 836844 M. Cabrera-Serrano et al.
Figure 2 Muscle and brain scans. (A and B) Muscle CT scan of Patient 3 at 71 years of age. End-stage fat replacement of most muscle, only
preserving sartorius and gracilis in the thighs (A), and to a lesser extent tibialis posterior, and lateral head of gastrocnemius in the legs (B),
bilaterally. (C) Brain MRI of Patient 8 at 24 years of age: sagittal image of FLAIR sequence showing cerebellar atrophy.
Figure 4 Immunoblotting for a-dystroglycan. Immunoblotting for -DG (ADG), performed at two different facilities, using the IIH6C4
antibody on patients (Pt) from this study, age-matched normal controls (NC) and an affected control (AC, from a patient previously commu-
nicated in the original report from Carss et al., 2013). Coomassie staining of the myosin heavy chain (MHC) band is shown to demonstrate similar
loading of muscle protein across each blot. Patients 5, 7 and 8 at 9 years of age show reduced amount of protein compared to controls. Sample
from Patient 8 at 2 years of age and Patient 4 show similar amount of -DG as normal controls. L = protein ladder.
Figure 5 Amino acid conservation across species at the position of the novel substitutions.
842 | BRAIN 2015: 138; 836844 M. Cabrera-Serrano et al.
Discussion
The second is a novel mutation, involving a highly con-
served amino acid (Fig. 5), not present in 1000 Genomes, Dystroglycanopathies are a genetically and phenotypically
Exome Variant Server or Exome Aggregation Consortium diverse group of disorders. The clinical spectrum spans
databases and predicted to be disease-causing by from the severe Walker-Warburg syndrome with cerebral
MutationTaster (score 0.99), deleterious by Provean and ocular involvement with prenatal onset or onset at
(score 5.2) and damaging by SIFT (score 0). birth to muscle-eye-brain/Fukuyama congenital muscular
Neurogenetic sub-exomic supercapture in Patient 7 re- dystrophy (MEB/FCMD)-like, to congenital muscular dys-
sulted in 147.1-fold average coverage with 93% of targets trophy with cerebellar involvement, and congenital muscu-
covered to 420-fold, revealing compound heterozygous lar dystrophy and LGMD with or without mental
mutations in GMPPB. A c.458C 4 T (p.Thr153Ile) retardation with a structurally normal brain and age of
change has not been previously reported as a disease- onset ranging from congenital forms to late adulthood
causing mutation and is absent from the 1000 Genomes, (Godfrey et al., 2007). The phenotypic spectrum described
Exome Variant Server and Exome Aggregation Consortium in patients with mutations in GMPPB varies from MEB/
databases. In silico tools predicted functional changes in FCMD-like syndrome to LGMD (Carss et al., 2013;
the protein, including MutationTaster (disease causing, Raphael et al., 2014). In the Carss et al. (2013) report,
score 0.89), Provean (deleterious, score 3.178), SIFT seven of the eight patients had mental retardation and all
(damaging, score 0.01) and PolyPhen-2 (possibly damaging, had onset of muscular weakness by 4 years of age.
score 0.81). The variation involves an amino acid con- Our study reports a second cohort showing a much wider
served up to mouse (Fig. 5). The second mutation is phenotypic spectrum, ranging from severe congenital mus-
c.860G 4 A (p.Arg287Gln), previously reported (Carss cular dystrophy with rhabdomyolysis episodes, to learning
et al., 2013). difculties with late-onset muscular weakness, to adult-
Neurogenetic sub-exomic supercapture in Patient 8 re- onset LGMD with normal cognition, and a patient with
sulted in 275.4-fold average coverage, and identied isolated episodes of rhabdomyolysis but otherwise asymp-
heterozygous c.95C 4 T (p.Pro32Leu) and c.860G 4 A tomatic between episodes. Interestingly, two of the patients
(p.Arg287Gln) mutations, both previously described to described had cardiac conduction defects, although both
be pathogenic (Carss et al., 2013). Mutations and asso- were benign. Neither of the two patients that reached
ciated clinical ndings in each patient are summarized in their eighth decade had major conduction defects or
Table 3. cardiomyopathy.
GMPPB mutations BRAIN 2015: 138; 836844 | 843
Family Patient Mutation 1 Mutation 2 Age at onset (years) Other associated features
(cDNA, protein (cDNA, protein and presenting
and chromosomic and chromosomic muscle feature
position) position)
I 1 c.79G 4 C c.95C 4 T 15. Proximal Frequent cramps, enlarged calves.
(p.Asp27His) (p.Pro32Leu) limb weakness Behavioural problems
chr3:49761081 chr3:49761065
I 2 c.79G 4 C c.95C 4 T 26. Proximal Hyper CK and cramps from age 6.
(p.Asp27His) (p.Pro32Leu) limb weakness Enlarged calves. Right bundle
chr3:49761081 chr3:49761065 branch block
II 3 c.79G 4 C c.797G ` A Late 20s. Proximal Enlarged calves. Wheelchair-bound
(p.Asp27His) (p.Cys266Tyr) limb weakness at age 68. Respiratory involvement
chr3:49761081 chr3:49759552 at age 70
II 4 c.79G 4 C c.797G ` A 35. Proximal limb Enlarged calves. Sino-atrial block
(p.Asp27His) (p.Cys266Tyr) weakness
chr3:49761081 chr3:49759552
III 5 c.79G 4 C c.1036C ` A Early 20s. Proximal Learning difficulties with autistic-spectrum
(p.Asp27His) (p.Arg346Ser) limb weakness behaviour. Scapular winging, neck flexors,
chr3:49761081 chr3:49759313 extensors and tibialis anterior weakness
III 6 c.79G 4 C c.1036C ` A Early 20s. Proximal Learning difficulties
Reduced glycosylated -DG was seen by immunohisto- staining does not necessarily exclude genes that are known
chemistry in the muscle of our patients carrying novel mu- to interfere with glycosylation of -DG.
tations (Patients 4, 5 and 7). Accordingly, muscle from It is interesting to note that the mildest patient reported
Patients 5 and 7 showed a reduction in the amount of by Carss et al. (2013) (Patient 7) and six of our patients
glycosylated -DG protein by immunoblotting. This sup- share the p.Asp27His substitution. C2C12 myoblasts trans-
ports the idea that the pathogenic mechanism in these fected with GMPPB harbouring this mutation did not show
milder patients is the same as that of the patients with mislocalization of the enzyme in the cytoplasm or abnormal
previously described mutations. However, in muscle from aggregation, as opposed to myoblasts transfected with
Patient 4 at the age of 35 years no reduction of -DG was other GMPPB mutations detected in more severely affected
noted by western blotting although the immunohistochem- patients (Carss et al., 2013). Taken together, these ndings
istry showed mildly reduced patchy staining of the sarco- may suggest that the p.Asp27His substituted protein retains
lemma. Muscle from his affected sibling was not available more functional activity than other mutants.
to perform additional analysis. This result differs from that In conclusion, the clinical spectrum of dystroglycanopa-
published by Carss et al. (2013) in paediatric patients. thies due to defects in GMPPB spans from MEB/FCMD-
However, this is not surprising, as the reduction of -DG like disease to adult onset LGMD with normal cognition,
seen in paediatric patients with GMPPB mutations is vari- and also isolated episodes of rhabdomyolysis, and is there-
able, but never complete. Patient 4 did not present until the fore similar to other dystroglycanopathies such as FKRP
age of 35 years, and thus was much milder phenotypically mutations. This study suggests that GMPPB should be con-
than the paediatric patients described by Carss et al. sidered a candidate gene in patients with adult-onset
(2013). This may correlate with the mild reduction of - LGMD even when -DG staining appears normal.
DG. It is recognized that the reduction of -DG in patients
with dystroglycanopathies due to defects in FKRP varies
with the clinical severity and can be apparently normal in
some patients (Brown et al., 2004). Moreover, we have
Funding
shown in our most severe patient that the expression of M.C.S. has been supported by Fundacion Alfonso Martin
-DG can be normal at an early stage both by immunohis- Escudero. This project has been supported by Australian
tochemistry and western blotting, and show a severe reduc- National Health and Medical Research Council
tion later on in the disease course. Therefore, normal -DG (NHMRC) grants APP1002147 and APP1055295
844 | BRAIN 2015: 138; 836844 M. Cabrera-Serrano et al.
(N.G.L), APP1031893 & APP1022707 (K.N.N., N.G.L., associated with limb-girdle muscular dystrophy. N Engl J Med
2011; 364: 93946.
N.F.C.), APP1035955 (G.R.), APP 1008433 (C.M.S.) and
Harrow J, Denoeud F, Frankish A, Reymond A, Chen CK, Chrast J,
APP1035828 (N.F.C.). et al. GENCODE: producing a reference annotation for ENCODE.
Genome Biol 2006; 7 (Suppl 1): S4 19.
Maeda Y, Kinoshita T. Dolichol-phosphate mannose synthase: struc-
ture, function and regulation. Biochim Biophys Acta 2008; 1780:
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