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21, rue dArtois, F-75008 PARIS CIGRE US National Committee

http : //www.cigre.org 2013 Grid of the Future Symposium

The Key to Dynamic Line Ratings is Understanding Conductor Behavior

Ryan Bliss, P.E.

MWH Global, Inc.
United States

SUMMARY
A new approach to dynamic line ratings that enables the optimization of transmission lines by understanding
conductor behavior, both in near real time and in 24 48 hour line rating forecasts. This methodology brings the
technology of direct clearance and temperature monitoring together with dynamic line rating analytics. This new
solution calibrates the standard load conductor temperature relationships, presented in IEEE 738 or Cigre
Brochure 207, by using monitored conductor behavior data, thus creating accurate real time dynamic line ratings
and predictable rating forecasts.
The benefits of implementing this methodology is to confidently monitor clearance compliance, relieve grid
congestion on existing transmission lines, increase economic dispatch to more efficient transmission lines, introduce
flexibility for the timing of investment in new transmission facilities, and is an example of environmental and
business stewardship -- maximizing the value of existing facilities while reducing costs. The ultimate benefit of
utilizing real time dynamic line ratings is the ability to provide accurate and reliable 24 - 48 hour forecasting. This
allows utilities, ISO or RTO to capitalize on the full capacity of their transmission facilities, which is significantly
greater capacity than current static ratings.

KEYWORDS
SMARTLINE, dynamic line rating, line rating, conductor rating, LiDAR, conductor clearance, conductor
temperature, transmission asset optimization, transmission smart grid, grid congestion relief.

Ryan.Bliss@mwhglobal.com
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INTRODUCTION
TRANMISSION Line Rating is the process of determining safe steady state current carrying levels and a related
maximum conductor operating temperature. This can include a normal condition rating as well as a sustained period
emergency rating and the results can vary significantly between the different seasons of the year. Transmission lines
include infrastructure such as relays, switches, conductors, splices, etc., so the governing operational facility rating
is limited and controlled by the lowest individual equipment rating. The maximum operating temperature of the
conductor is typically the infrastructure controlling a facilities capacity, depending on the static line rating criteria
applied to get the resulting line rating.

CHALLENGES FOR THE POWER GRID

One of the well documented challenges for the Power industry is the need for increased transmission line capacity
with either existing or new infrastructure. There are many challenges associated with new transmission line
projects, most significantly is the lengthy and costly environmental and regulatory review cycles. A new
transmission line could take over 10 years to get built from initial planning studies that suggest the need for the
facility. Upgrading and uprating existing transmission lines is also a common approach to increasing the ability to
transfer more power on existing infrastructure. Understanding the capacity of the existing infrastructure has become
increasingly important.
The traditional operational limits established through static transmission line rating methodologies are dependent on
several volatile environmental variables identified in IEEE standard 738-2006. The current common practice for
transmission line rating is to select conservative values for these environmental variables that equate to a low
probability that conductor sag will exceed operational limits for a very short duration. This methodology directly
acknowledges that operational limits of transmission lines are conservative most of the time, and inherently accepts
the operational risk of a relatively low probability of exceeding the established static ratings. The implication of this
methodology is often significant transmission grid congestion, resulting in bottlenecks that greatly limit the system
operators ability to transfer power. These bottlenecks can significantly impact the selection of power generation
resources, including renewable resources, the ability to meet the demands of growth and, ultimately, system
stability. It is also recognized that there is a significant financial cost to this conservative protocol.

CONDUCTOR CAPACITY RATINGS

The IEEE 738 [1] standard and CIGRE 207 [2] brochure detail two different but similar approaches in estimating
the relationship between current and temperature of bare overhead conductors. These calculations have been
adopted by most of the industry and are used primarily for planning purposes in determining static operating limits,
given a pre-determined conductor rating parameters. The primary intent of these methodologies are to establish a
common and best practice for determining static ratings given hypothetical parameters which would have a low
probability of occurring. The IEEE 738 document specifically states:
This standard includes mathematical methods and indicates sources of the values to be used in the calculation
of conductor temperatures and conductor thermal ratings. However, because there is a great diversity of
weather conditions and operating circumstances for which conductor temperatures and/or thermal ratings must
be calculated, the standard does not undertake to list actual temperature-current relationships for specific
conductors or weather conditions. Each user must make their own assessment of which weather data and
conductor characteristics best pertain to their area or particular transmission line. This standard includes
mathematical methods and indicates sources of the values to be used in the calculation of conductor
temperatures and conductor thermal ratings. However, because there is a great diversity of weather conditions
and operating circumstances for which conductor temperatures and/or thermal ratings must be calculated, the
standard does not undertake to list actual temperature-current relationships for specific conductors or weather
conditions. Each user must make their own assessment of which weather data and conductor characteristics
best pertain to their area or particular transmission line.
There are several key variables used in these methodologies that involve local environmental weather conditions
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surrounding the transmission conductors being studied and evaluated by each operating utility. Each operating
utility must establish conductor rating criteria that could be used to calculate the conductors capacity or rating. The
result of determining an unlikely weather condition along with an extreme loading event is a transmission line
capacity limited by an unlikely weather event with a relative short duration. Current safe operation of the
transmission lines are governed by these planning methodologies and best practices of determining static line
ratings resulting in conservative capacity ratings. It should also be noted that developing criteria based on unlikely
events does accept some risk if that event were to occur. This planning methodology is contrasted by the operations
and maintenance recent criticism and ultimate Alert posted by NERC concerning the need for in-situ validated line
ratings.

NERC ALERT
On October 7, 2010 The North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC) released a recommendation to
the industry entitled Consideration of Actual Field Conditions in Determination of Facility Ratings. This alert
asked Transmission Owners and Generator Owners of bulk electric system facilities to review their current facility
ratings and their methodology used to base those ratings, and determine if that methodology was producing accurate
ratings or if differences between design and as-built field conditions existed. Entities were asked to use standard
FAC-008 to produce their methodology for assessment by January 18, 2011. Subsequently, FAC-009 requires
entities to use their own FAC-008 methodologies to assess all high priority lines by December 31, 2011, assess all
medium priority lines by December 31, 2012, and assess all low priority lines by December 31, 2013. If as-built
field conditions exist that are different from design conditions and result in incorrect ratings, remediation of these
conditions are expected within one year after being identified, or if longer than a year, on a schedule directly
approved by the regional entity. It is estimated that the NERC alert applies to over 450,000 miles of Transmission
Lines in the United States and Canada.

AS-BUILT IN-SITU LINE RATING STUDIES

In the last 15 years the use of aerial and terrestrial LiDAR surveys have become the most common and efficient
method of collecting surveys of many miles of transmission lines. The LiDAR surveys represent a geospatial
snapshot in time with points representing the ground, transmission structures, wires and all aerial obstructions
within the survey corridor, of which all points have a very high level of accuracy and precision. The transmission
line engineering software called PLS-CADD has enabled an analysis tools for the utility industry to utilize the
LiDAR Surveys to develop precise 3D models and predict thermal limits with a high degree of relatively accuracy.
The resulting thermal line rating analysis from these models has demonstrated a high level of relative accuracy. The
weakest aspect of the methodology and most controversial is the estimation of conductor temperature during the
survey that is used for calibration of the survey data at the time the survey was conducted. A wide portion of the
industry has accepted the IEEE 738-2006 correlation methodology for estimating conductor temperature due to a
lack of a better way to measure direct conductor temperature. In the absence of a practical better alternative, the
relative accuracy and precision of aerial LiDAR surveys and the associated relative accurate thermal ratings for
transmission lines have been accepted throughout the utility industry, despite these potential errors in the current
correlation methodology.
NERC reported line rating results to FERC for the first year of assessments, of which 78% of the line rating studies
utilized the use of LiDAR and PLS-CADD. The results from that first report show on average there were 1.2
discrepancies per circuit. The Phase I results represent 16% of the circuits to be evaluated and 88% of the
discrepancies required some form of construction to resolve and the other 12% of lines were de-rated. The
transmission lines included in Phase I were identified to be the most critical infrastructure, which for most
utilities are their higher voltage lines. It is anticipated that the lower voltage lines will have a higher average
occurrence of discrepancies and the comparable rate of construction mitigation.
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UNDERSTANDING THE DISCREPANCIES

The complex issues surrounding transmission line capacity ratings can be summarized into few simple and yet
conflicting statements:
Originating Planning Criteria for Transmission Line Design & Operation has been conservative.
Operation & Maintenance Departments have used Planning and Engineering Design Records to establish
operational Limits.
Transmission Line Rating Results thus far from the NERC Alert reveal a relatively high rate of
discrepancies between the In-Situ existing conditions and the assumed operational conditions.

The relatively recent NERC Alert has brought awareness to the observation that currently used static operational
limits may not be accurate compared to the stringent conductor static rating. There has been a shift in philosophy of
needing to know where a conductor is sagging and resulting consequences of an unplanned outage event caused by a
line sagging greater than acceptable clearance limits. The recent and ongoing line rating analysis being conducted as
part of the NERC Alert is being conducted relative to the planning criteria for conductor thermal limits, thus
maintaining the conservative rating methodology.
There are many reasons that can explain the discrepancies that have been and will be reported. First, the line rating
study itself has a great level of precision at that moment in time but is only relatively accurate based on the
knowledge of the conductor temperature. Line rating validation studies can help calibrate the relative accuracy, but
it should be noted that the rating is still based on a moment in time. Second, the construction of the line may not
have been constructed exactly as designed. Third, there may have been an operational event that has caused
additional stretch in the conductor such as a heavy ice, wind or high conductor temperature. Last, there may have
been something else built since the line was constructed that is now limiting the capacity. The important things to
remember are that lines rating studies are restricted to a moment in time with relative accurate ratings and are
analyzed with conservative static conductor rating criteria.

REAL TIME DYNAMIC LINE RATINGS WHAT IS THE POTENTIAL?

The concept of real time dynamic line ratings must first be understood, the ability to accurate monitor a
transmission lines capacity. There are several new technologies that allow for near real time monitoring of
conductor parameters, including conductor clearance, temperature, tilt and acceleration.
Current methodology for operating the transmission grid is done by monitoring the existing load as compared to the
static thermal conductor rating. Reliability is then determined by adding contingency outage events that could cause
an increase in usage in each particular transmission line and reserving that increase for that worst case scenario.
Compliance to accepted clearance requirements is only indirectly assumed based on the established line rating that
was determined from the typically conservative rating criteria.
The potential value of calculating real time conductor capacity by using the industry accepted relationship along
with real time weather is offset by the potential error of weather systems and inaccurate local wind angle and
speeds, thus the reason for the statement in the IEEE 738 standard concerning the appropriate application of the
standard. True dynamic line rating is only made possible with real time direct monitoring along with standard
predictive conductor temperature and load relationships.
The first and foremost potential value of dynamic line rating is real time monitoring of direct clearance
measurements, no assumptions needed, just immediate and accurate knowledge of clearance compliance. Another
potential value proposition is more accurate thermal rating calculations that are made possible by real time
monitoring of clearance and conductor temperature. Finally, completed and ongoing line rating studies, with high
relative accuracy, can be calibrated to absolute accuracies and thus adding value to line existing or future line rating
studies.
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WHAT ARE REAL TIME DYNAMIC LINE RATINGS?

Real time dynamic line ratings is a grid management solution that utilizes direct temperature and LiDAR clearance
monitoring from transmission line monitors attached directly to the conductor, together with real time data
analytics. The data from these devices can be used to calculate real time dynamic line ratings to maximize existing
transmission assets and eliminate the potential safety risks inherent in current conventional methodologies. The
solution provides a suite of valuable data and real time data analytics that can be used a variety of line condition
monitoring and comprehensive transmission system asset management tools.
By directly monitoring a measured conductor temperature and clearance to ground over time, accurate operational
real time dynamic line ratings can be determined by calibrating the empirical formulas defined within the IEEE 738-
2006 or CIGRE 207 standard. These solutions can also compliment aerial LiDAR line rating studies by calibrating
the conductor temperature Sag relationship, for improved finite element models and ultimately lower cost. This
solution extends its capabilities beyond the NERC Alert in lowering risk of safe operation by bringing transmission
line clearance intelligence to operations, and avoiding the relatively low probability of exceeding static ratings.

CONDUCTOR BEHAVIOR
The relationship between conductor temperature and the electrical line load has been observed for many years and
the calculation methodology for IEEE and CIGRE are presented in IEEE 738 and CIGRE Brochure 207
respectfully. The challenge of incorporating real time monitored conductor and weather information and thus
creating a dynamic line rating can be done by calibrating either of these methodologies with live monitored
conductor information. The most important information that could be monitored is clearance and conductor
temperature; it is what controlled the design of the line and it is what physically governs the operations of each line.
Dynamic Line Ratings depend on understanding conductor clearance and conductor temperature with respect to the
load at any one moment in time. In Figure 1, the IEEE 738 relationship has been calculated from design data,
identifying the predicted behavior of the sag of a particular span.

Figure 1- IEEE 738 Conductor Temperature - Line Current Relationship.

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It can be observed that the real time weather data typically results in much greater capacity than the static conductor
rating, although, this is expected due to the typical conservative conductor rating criteria. The heat balance
equations are very sensitive and the general weather data is not always consistent with location specific conditions..
It is also important to identify that real time monitoring and dynamic line rating analysis can validate actual in-situ
conductor conditions continuously, not just a moment in time.
The final calculation involves correlating the conductor rating with the direct clearance measurement. This is done
by first monitoring the conductor behavior between conductor clearance and conductor temperature and developing
a predictive model for the conductors behavior see Figure 2. Once this relationship is established, the direct
monitored clearance can be used to determine an effective conductor, results in a dynamic conductor rating that is
directly determined from clearance monitoring. The advantages of a dynamic conductor rating directly from
monitored clearances is more consistent, less sporadic ratings, and determined by monitoring the real governing
factor in conductor ratings, which is clearance.

Figure 2 Real Time Monitored Conductor Behavior.

The calculations are then computed and compiled for all critical points on a line in real time, which allows for an
intelligent understanding of a transmission lines capacity and the ability to maximize its utilization. The capacity of
a line can also be forecasted using a statistical analysis of a predetermined data set and confidence percentage.
Initially the predetermined data set would involve a recent duration of time, such as the previous two to four weeks.
Over time the system would learn, the data set could be expanded to include similar historical measurements with
forecasted events, within a prescribed tolerance.
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CONCLUSIONS
The application of real time measurement of conductor clearance and conductor temperature coupled with real time
calculation of dynamic capacity offers a paradigm shift in the operation of the power grid that has the potential of
significant savings in cost and increases in revenue, while increasing the safety in operating transmission lines.
Realizing the full capacity of the existing infrastructure and maximizing future infrastructure facilitates is an
optimal placement of a utilities capital expenditures, while minimizing operational and maintenance expenses. This
technology can relieve transmission grid congestion, improve grid efficiency, create capital expenditure timing
flexibility on the investment of new facilities, thus freeing up capital expenditures for the most needed locations and
creates opportunities for greater diversities in generation portfolios, including renewables.

REFERENCES
[1] IEEE 738-2006, IEEE Standard for Calculating the Current-Temperature of Bare Overhead Conductors, IEEE
Power Engineering Society
[2] CIGRE TB 207, Thermal Behavior of Overhead Conductors, August 2002.

BIOGRAPHIES

Ryan Bliss graduated from University of Utah with a BSCE with a Structural emphasis in 2001
and a Masters of Engineering in Civil Engineering with a Structural and Engineering
Management emphasis in 2005. Mr. Bliss is currently the Transmission and Distribution
Practice Leader for the MWH Global.
Mr. Bliss is a Licensed Professional Engineer and has been employed as an engineering
consultant in the utility industry for the last 14 years and has worked on hundreds of
transmission projects and has recruited, trained and mentored numerous engineers on design
processes and methodologies. Mr. Bliss has extensive experience in Transmission Line Design,
Routing and Feasibility Studies, PLS-CADD modeling, LiDAR Line Rating & Uprating, Line
Rating Validation, and Asset Management on transmission facilities up to 500 kV. Mr. Bliss is a Member of ASCE
Structural Institute and IEEE Power Engineering Society.