ED WirelessFundamentalsEbook

$59.
00
LIBRARY
FOCUS ON:
WIRELESS
FUNDAMENTALS
FOR
ELECTRONIC
ENGINEERS
A compendium
of technical
articles from
Electronic Design
editor Lou Frenzel
Sponsored by
Copyright 2017 by Penton Media,Inc. All rights reserved.

15 kHz
spacing
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TIO N A L TE LE C
OM NA
U.S
M .
UN
EP
IC
AR
A
Primary
SERVICE
TO
Secondary
TM EN F C O M
TIO N S & IN FO R
M
M
E
A
TIO RC
N E
FIXED
AD
M IN ISTR A TIO N
MOBILE
AMATEUR
SATELLITE
SATELLITE
ELECTRONIC DESIGN LIBRARY
FIXED
Mobile
AERONAUTICAL
AERONAUTICAL
AERONAUTICAL
BROADCASTING
BROADCASTING
FIXED SATELLITE
ACTIVITY CODE
RADIONAVIGATION
EXAMPLE
MOBILE SATELLITE
AMATEUR SATELLITE
EARTH EXPLORATION
GOVERNMENT EXCLUSIVE
October 2003
NON-GOVERNMENT EXCLUSIVE
Table to determine the current status of U.S. allocations.

AIDS
DESCRIPTION
MOBILE
Capital Letters
MARITIME
SATELLITE
SATELLITE
SATELLITE
Office of Spectrum Management

LAND MOBILE
LAND MOBILE
RADIO SERVICES COLOR LEGEND
ALLOCATION USAGE DESIGNATION

INTER-SATELLITE
MARITIME MOBILE
MARITIME MOBILE
RADIONAVIGATION
MOBILE SATELLITE
METEOROLOGICAL
METEOROLOGICAL
1st Capital with lower case letters
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

STATES
UNITED
FCC and NTIA. As such, it does not completely reflect all aspects, i.e., footnotes and recent changes
This chart is a graphic single-point-in-time portrayal of the Table of Frequency Allocations used by the
made to the Table of Frequency Allocations. Therefore, for complete information, users should consult the
SATELLITE
SATELLITE
RADIOLOCATION
GOVERNMENT/ NON-GOVERNMENT SHARED

AND TIME SIGNAL
SPACE RESEARCH
RADIONAVIGATION
RADIONAVIGATION
SPACE OPERATION
National Telecommunications and Information Administration

RADIO ASTRONOMY
FREQUENCY
RADIODETERMINATION
STANDARD FREQUENCY
STANDARD FREQUENCY
RADIOLOCATION SATELLITE
AND TIME SIGNAL SATELLITE

ALLOCATIONS
THE RADIO SPECTRUM
30.0 3.0 300.0 30.0 3.0 300 3
Standard AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (R)
Frequency and FIXED MOBILE MARITIME FIXED MOBILE 3.025
Time Signal SATELLITE SATELLITE Radiolocation 30.56
(E-S) (E-S) RADIONAVIGATION AERONAUTICAL
Satellite (S-E)
3 kHz
31.0 3.1 LAND MOBILE (OR)
3 GHz
3 MHz
Stand. Frequency
FIXED
MOBILE
MOBILE
FIXED
30 GHz
and Time Signal FIXED MOBILE MOBILE
30 MHz
SATELLITE
300 kHz
MARITIME
Satellite (S-E) 3.155
Aeronautical
31.3
300 MHz
Radionavigation
(Radio Beacons)
RADIO SPACE EARTH 32.0 MOBILE* FIXED
(RADIO BEACONS)
RESEARCH
RADIONAVIGATION
EXPLORATION
RADIO-
ASTRONOMY 322.0
(Passive) SAT. (Passive)
LOCATION
3.230
Radiolocation
31.8 FIXED MOBILE FIXED MOBILE 325
** EXCEPT AERO MOBILE

SPACE 328.6 Maritime AERONAUTICAL
RESEARCH (deep space) RADIONAVIGATION 3.3 33.0 Aeronautical
* EXCEPT AERO MOBILE (R)

32.0 AERONAUTICAL RADIONAVIGATION Radionavigation RADIONAVIGATION
SPACE RES.
Mobile (RADIO BEACONS)
INTER- SAT 335.4 LAND (Radio Beacons)
FIXED
Radio-
RADIONAVIGATION 32.3 335
location
MOBILE**
FIXED MOBILE
RADIONAVIGATION INTER-SATELLITE
3.4
RADIO-
Amateur
33.0 34.0
LOCATION
RADIONAVIGATION AERONAUTICAL
Radiolocation
33.4
FIXED
MOBILE (R)
MOBILE
MOBILE
3.5
SATELLITE
AERONAUTICAL
FIXED MOBILE 3.5
RADIO- Radio-
RADIOLOCATION Radiolocation RADIONAVIGATION 35.0
(Ground) LOCATION location
399.9
3.6 RADIONAVIGATION SATELLITE MOBILE SATELLITE (E-S) LAND
36.0 AERO. RADIO- RADIO- FIXED SAT. Radio-
SPACE RE. EARTH EXPL. NAV.(Ground) LOCATION (S-E) location 400.05 FIXED MOBILE
FIXED M O B IL E STD. FREQ. & TIME SIGNAL SAT. (400.1 MHz)
.(Passive) SAT. (Passive) 3.65 400.15
37.0 FIXED SAT. MET. AIDS MOBILE. SPACE RES. Space Opn. MET. SAT.
Mobile
MOBILE** FIXED (Radiosonde) SAT. (S-E) (S-E) (S-E) (S-E) 36.0
FIXED M O B IL E SPACE RESEARCH (S-E) 401.0
Aeronautical
(space-to-Earth) 3.7 MET. AIDS SPACE OPN. MET-SAT. EARTH EXPL Met-Satellite
Earth Expl.
(Radio- Earth Expl Sat
AERONAUTICAL
(S-E) (E-S) SAT. (E-S) (E-S)
(E-S)Satellite(E-S) FIXED MOBILE
37.6 sonde)
(RADIO BEACONS)
RADIONAVIGATION
AMATEUR
F I X E D M O B IL E SPACE FIXED 402.0
RES. SATELLITE (S-E) MET. AIDS MET-SAT. EARTH EXPL Met-Satellite Earth Expl Sat 37.0
(Radiosonde) (E-S) SAT. (E-S) (E-S) (E-S) LAND MOBILE
38.0 37.5
FIXED FIXED 403.0 Radio Astronomy LAND MOBILE
M O B IL E METEOROLOGICAL AIDS (RADIOSONDE) 38.0
SAT. (S-E) 406.0 RADIO ASTRONOMY FIXED MOBILE
(S-E)
38.6 38.25
FIXED
FIXED
MOBILE SATELLITE (E-S) 406.1
FIXED-SATELLITE FIXED MOBILE
SATELLITE
FIXED MOBILE 4.0
39.5 RADIO FIXED MOBILE 39.0 405
FIXED M O B IL E FIXED ASTRONOMY FIXED MARITIME MOBILE
MOBILE 410.0 LAND MOBILE Aeronautical Mobile RADIONAVIGATION
SATELLITE S A T . 4.063
NOT ALLOCATED
40.0 FIXED MOBILE SPACE RESEARCH
(S-S) 40.0 415
FIXED MOBILE SPACE Earth EARTH 420.0
Expl. EXPL
SAT SAT. RES. (E-S) Sat (s - e) SAT (E-S) 4.2 AERONAUTICAL MARITIME
40.5 RADIOLOCATION Amateur
BCST B R O A D - FX-SAT Fixed Mobile RADIONAVIGATION MOBILE
FIXED
MOBILE
SAT. C A S T I N G (S-E)
41.0 AERONAUTICAL 435
MOBILE
450.0
ISM 40.68 .02 MHz
ACTIVITIES
DESIGNATIONS
BAND
WAVELENGTH
BROAD- BCST 42.0
MARITIME
FIXED MOBILE RADIONAVIGATION LAND MOBILE
FREQUENCY 0
CASTING SAT. 454.0
FIXED LAND MOBILE
42.5 455.0
LAND MOBILE FIXED LAND
RADIO FIXED MOBILE** FIXED 4.4 456.0 4.438
ASTRONOMY SATELLITE (E-S) FIXED LAND MOBILE MOBILE
43.5 FIXED MOBILE
4.5 LAND MOBILE
460.0 FIXED
FIXED MOBILE FIXED 43.69 MOBILE*
Infra-sonics
SATELLITE (E-S) SATELLITE (E-S) 462.5375
45.5 LAND MOBILE 462.7375
MOBILE
4.65
10 Hz
RADIONAV.
MARITIME
M O B IL E
3 x 107m
LAND AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (R)
Aeronautical
M O B IL E LAND MOBILE FIXED
SATELLITE 467.5375 4.7
Radionavigation
SAT (E-S). LAND MOBILE
FIXED
46.9 467.7375 MOBILE
Satellite (S-E)
Meteorological
AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (OR)
FIXED
RADIONAV.SAT. MOB. SAT(E-S) M O B IL E FIXED
MOBILE
LAND MOBILE FIXED 470.0 4.75
SATELLITE (S-E)
47.0 46.6
AMATEUR AMATEUR SATELLITE FIXED MOBILE MOBILE* FIXED
47.2 47.0
FX BROADCASTING 4.85
FIXED M O B IL E 4.8 495
100 Hz
SAT(E-S) LAND MOBILE FIXED (TV CHANNELS 14 - 20)
3 x 106m
48.2 FIXED MOBILE FIXED MOBILE MOBILE (DISTRESS AND CALLING)
FX 4.94
LAND
FIXED M O B IL E 505
MOBILE
SAT(E-S) 512.0 4.995 MARITIME MOBILE
50.2 FIXED MOBILE** STANDARD FREQ. AND TIME SIGNAL (5000 KHZ) 510
EARTH 4.99 5.003
Sonics
SPACE RESEARCH Space Research (Passive) 49.6 STANDARD FREQ. Space Research
EXPLORATION RADIO ASTRONOMY 5.005 MARITIME AERONAUTICAL 9
SATELLITE 5.0 FIXED MOBILE
Audible Range
1 kHz
50.4 AERONAUTICAL 50.0 FIXED 5.060 MOBILE RADIONAVIGATION
FI XED
3 x 105m
MOBILE MOBILE
FIXED SATELLITE (E-S) SATELLITE (E-S) (SHIPS ONLY) (RADIO BEACONS)
3 kHz
51.4 RADIONAVIGATION
FIXED M O B IL E 5.15 525
AERONAUTICAL
VERY LOW FREQUENCY (VLF)

AERO. RADIONAV. FIXED SAT (S-E) 5.25 MOBILE RADIONAVIGATION
FIXED
52.6 RADIOLOCATION Radiolocation (RADIO BEACONS)
EARTH
MOBILE**
SPACE 535
AMATEUR
EXPLORATION RESEARCH 5.35
10 kHz
SATELLITE AERONAUTICAL RADIO- Radio-
30,000 m
(Passive) (Passive) 5.45
RADIONAV. LOCATION location 54.0
54.25 5.46
SPACE RES. INTER- SAT EARTH EXPL-SAT (Passive) RADIONAVIGATION Radiolocation
BROADCASTING
55.78 5.47 AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (R)
MOBILE INTER- SAT SPACE RES. EARTH-ES
(TV CHANNELS 21-36)

FIXED 56.9 MARITIME
LF
EARTH-ES
Radiolocation
FIXED MOBILE SPACE RES. INTER- SAT RADIONAVIGATION 5.68
57.0 5.6
EARTH MARITIME METEOROLOGICAL AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (OR)
100 kHz
SPACE
3,000 m
INTER RADIONAVIGATION AIDS Radiolocation 5.73
Ultra-sonics
MOBILE
AM Broadcast
RES.
FIXED EXPLORATION 5.65
- SAT SAT. (Passive)
MOBILE* FIXED 5.90
SPACE EARTH 5.83 MOBILE* FIXED BROADCASTING
MOBILE FIXED RESEARCH EXPLORATION RADIO- Amateur- sat (s-e) Amateur 608.0
LAND MOBILE RADIO ASTRONOMY
RADIONAVIGATION
(Passive) SAT. (Passive) LOCATION 5.85 614.0 5.95
MF
EARTH 59.0 M O B IL E FIXED SAT(E-S) Amateur
MOBILE 5.925
1 MHz
SPACE RADIO- INTER-
300 m
EXPLORATION F I X E D
SAT. (Passive) RES.. LOC. SAT FIXED
59.3 FIXED SATELLITE (E-S) BROADCASTING
ISM 5.8 .075 GHz

FIXED MOBILE RADIO- INTER- 6.425
LOCATION SATELLITE FIXED
SATELLITE (E-S) MOBILE 6.2 14
HF
64.0 6.525
UNLICENSED DEVICES
30 m
INTER- FIXED
ISM 61.25 .250 GHz

MOBILE** FIXED FIXED
SATELLITE
10 MHz
SATELLITE (E-S)
59-64 GHz IS DESIGNATED FOR

65.0 FIXED SATELLITE (S-E)(E-S) FIXED 6.70 MARITIME MOBILE
EARTH
BROADCASTING
SPACE INTER- 6.875
(TV CHANNELS 2-4)
FM Broadcast
EXPLORATION RESEARCH F I X E D M O B I L E * * SATELLITE FIXED
SATELLITE M O B IL E FIXED
TV BROADCASTING
66.0 SATELLITE (E-S) 6.525
RADIO- 7.025
VHF
MOBILE RADIO INTER- M O B IL E FIXED SAT (E-S) FIXED AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (R)
MAGNIFIED ABOVE
MOBILE SATELLITE 7.075
3m
100 MHz
NAVIGATION SATELLITE NAVIGATION
MOBILE 698 6.685
P
SATELLITE FIXED AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (OR)
7.125 6.765
71.0 FIXED MOBILE BROADCAST
Fixed
FIXED FIXED
THE RADIO SPECTRUM

746 Mobile FIXED
UHF
7.19 FIXED MOBILE BROADCAST 7.0
FIXED SPACE RESEARCH (E-S)
1 GHz
30 cm
7.235 AMATEUR AMATEUR SATELLITE
MARITIME MOBILE
FIXED 764 7.1
ISM 6.78 .015 MHz
(E-S)
(E-S)
7.25
FIXED
FIXED
S C
MOBILE
MOBILE
MOBILE
FIXED SATELLITE (S-E) Fixed FIXED MOBILE 72.0 AMATEUR
SATELLITE
SATELLITE
SATELLITE (S-E) 7.30
FIXED SATELLITE (S-E) FIXED Mobile Satellite (S-E) 776 FIXED MOBILE 7.3
FIXED BROADCASTING
X
7.45 73.0 Mobile
Mobile FIXED BROADCASTING 19.95
7.35
SHF
FIXED MET. Mobile FIXED MOBILE BROADCAST RADIO ASTRONOMY
3 cm
SATELLITE (S-E) SATELLITE (S-E) FIXED Satellite (S-E)
10 GHz
Microwaves
74.0 7.55 74.6 STANDARD FREQ. AND TIME SIGNAL (20 kHz)
FIXED MOBILE FIXED Mobile FIXED MOBILE
SATELLITE (E-S) FIXED FIXED Satellite (S-E) 794 74.8 20.05
75.5 SATELLITE (S-E) AERONAUTICAL RADIONAVIGATION
7.75 FIXED MOBILE 75.2
Mobile
AMATEUR AMATEUR SATELLITE FIXED 806
FIXED MOBILE 75.4
76.0 7.90
FIXED
EHF
RADIOLOC. Amateur FIXED FIXED FIXED MOBILE 76.0
77.0 MOBILE LAND MOBILE
Radar
Bands
Fixed
Radar
SATELLITE (E-S) SATELLITE (E-S)
100 GHz
RADIOLOC. Amateur Amateur Sat.
0.3 cm
77.5 8.025 821
RADIOLOC. AMATEUR FIXED EARTH EXPL. Mobile LAND MOBILE
824
300 GHz
AMATEUR SAT 78.0 FIXED
Amateur SATELLITE (E-S) SATELLITE(S-E) Satellite (E-S) LAND MOBILE FIXED 8.1
RADIO- 8.175 849 FIXED
FIXED MARITIME
MARITIMEMOBILE
MOBILE
LOCATION Amateur Satellite EARTH EXPL. FIXED MET. Mobile AERONAUTICAL MOBILE 8.195
81.0 SATELLITE FIXED SATELLITE Satellite (E-S) 851
SAT. (S-E) (E-S) (E-S) (no airborne) LAND MOBILE FIXED
FIXED 8.215 866
MOBILE EARTH EXPL. FIXED Mobile Satellite
1 THz
FIXED MOBILE SATELLITE SATELLITE FIXED LAND MOBILE 869
SATELLITE SATELLITE (S-E)
FIXED
(E-S)(no airborne)
0.03 cm
(S-E) (S-E) (E-S) 8.4 LAND MOBILE FIXED
SPACE RESEARCH (S-E) 894
84.0 FIXED AERONAUTICAL MOBILE
(deep space only) 896
8.45
BROADCASTING
MOBILE
BROAD- BROAD- LAND MOBILE FIXED 901901
Sub-Millimeter
MARITIME
SPACE RESEARCH (S-E) FIXED
(TV CHANNELS 5-6)

FIXED MOBILE CASTING
MARITIME MOBILE
CASTING 8.5 MOBILE FIXED

SATELLITE RADIOLOCATION
902
Radiolocation
1013Hz
86.0
INFRARED
9.0

3 x 510
AERONAUTICAL
Infrared
Radiolocation RADIOLOCATION Amateur 88.0 8.815
RADIONAVIGATION
9.2 928 AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (R)
MARITIME Radiolocation FIXED 8.965
RADIONAVIGATION 929 AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (OR) 30
RADIO
SPACE
EARTH
9.3 9.040
(Passive)
(Passive)
LAND MOBILE FIXED
SATELLITE
RESEARCH
ISM 915.0 13 MHz
Meteorological 930
ASTRONOMY
RADIONAVIGATION
EXPLORATION
Aids Radiolocation
9.5 MOBILE FIXED 931 FIXED
1014Hz
3 x 104
92.0 LAND MOBILE FIXED 932
FIXED 9.4
RADIO- SATELLITE
FIXED 935 FIXED BROADCASTING
FIXED MOBILE LOCATION
Visible
(E-S) RADIOLOCATION Radiolocation LAND MOBILE FIXED 940 9.5
95.0
VISIBLE
LAND MOBILE FIXED 941
(AM RADIO)
FIXED 944 BROADCASTING

10.0
BROADCASTING
1015Hz
RADIO- FIXED 960
3 x 103
Radiolocation Amateur
Radio-
9.9
location
LOCATION
RADIO-
RADIO-
MOBILE
MOBILE
FIXED 30
SATELLITE
SATELLITE
10.45
NAVIGATION
NAVIGATION
(FM RADIO)
Radiolocation Amateur 9.995
Amateur Satellite STANDARD FREQ. AND TIME SIGNAL (10,000 kHz)
BROADCASTING
100.0 10.5 10.003
EARTH EXPL. SPACE RESEARCH RADIOLOCATION STANDARD FREQ. Space Research
10.55 10.005
SATELLITE (Passive) (Passive) FIXED AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (R)
102.0 10.6 10.1
AMATEUR
1016Hz
FIXED SPACE RESEARCH
3 x 102
EARTH EXPL. RADIO
spacing
FIXED 10.15
FIXED SATELLITE (Passive) SAT. (Passive) ASTRONOMY
10.68
Ultraviolet
(S-E) RADIO SPACE EARTH EXPL.
105.0
ASTRONOMY RESEARCH (Passive) SATELLITE (Passive)
AERONAUTICAL
10.7
RADIONAVIGATION
4 | Chapter 7: The Future of Wireless

ULTRAVIOLET
108.0
FIXED
Mobile*
1017Hz
3 x 10
1215
(S-E)
FIXED
FIXED
RADIO
SPACE
11.175
EARTH
RADIONAVIGATION
FIXED
subcarrier
(Passive)
(Passive)
SATELLITE
SATELLITE
RESEARCH
RADIOLOCATION AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (OR)
ASTRONOMY
SATELLITE (S-E)
EXPLORATION
1240 11.275
AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (R)
11.7 11.4
312.5-kHz
FIXED
11.6
3
RADIOLOCATION Amateur
1018Hz
FIXED BROADCASTING
MARITIME MOBILE
AERONAUTICAL
116.0 11.65
RADIONAVIGATION
(S-E)
1300
FIXED
INTER- SPACE EARTH
Mobile **
117.975
SATELLITE
FIXED BROADCASTING
X-RAY
RESEARCH EXPL SAT.
20-MHz channel
M O B IL E SATELLITE AERONAUTICAL
(Passive) (Passive) Radiolocation AERONAUTICAL 12.05
X-ray
119.98 12.2 RADIONAVIGATION MOBILE (R)
1350 FIXED BROADCASTING
FIXED MO- INTER- SPACE EARTH Amatuer 121.9375 12.10
1019Hz
BILE SAT. RES. EXPL . SAT RADIOLOCATION AERONAUTICAL MOBILE
3 x 10-1
120.02 FIXED MOBILE 123.0875 FIXED
BROADCASTING FIXED 1390
INTER- SPACE EARTH FIXED-SAT (E-S) AERONAUTICAL MOBILE 12.23
SATELLITE FIXED MOBILE ** 1392 123.5875
ISM 122.5 .500 GHz

FIXED M O B I L E SATELLITE RESEARCH EXPL SAT. MARITIME
(Passive) (Passive) MOBILE ** FIXED 1395
126.0 12.7 LAND MOBILE AERONAUTICAL MOBILE
Gamma-ray
FIXED RADIO ASTRONOMY EARTH EXPL SAT (Passive) SPA CE RESEARCH ( Passive)
1400 MOBILE (R)
MOBILE FIXED 1427 13.2
SATELLITE (E-S)
1020Hz
Fixed (TLM) AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (OR)
128.8125
3 x 10 -2
12.75 LAND MOBILE 1429.5 13.26
SPACE FIXED AERONAUTICAL AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (R)
FIXED
FIXED (TLM)
INTER-
13.36
RADIO-
LAND MOBILE (TLM)
MOBILE
RESEARCH (S-E) SATELLITE MOBILE
LOCATION
SATELLITE
FIXED 1430 MOBILE (R) 132.0125 RADIOASTRONOMY
(Deep Space) (E-S) FIXED-SAT (S-E) FIXED (TLM) LAND MOBILE (TLM)
13.41
FIXED
GAMMA-RAY
13.25 1432 AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (R) Mobile* 13.57
AERONAUTICAL RADIONAV. Space Research (E-S) FIXED** MOBILE
134.0 13.4 136.0 FIXED BROADCASTING
Standard RADIO- Radio- 1435 AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (R) 13.6 59
Freq. and LOCATION location MOBILE (AERONAUTICAL TELEMETERING) BROADCASTING
1021Hz
3 x 10 -3
1525 MET. SAT. (S-E)
137.0 13.8 STANDARD FREQ. AND TIME SIGNAL (60 kHz)
MOB. SAT. (S-E) SPACE RES. (S-E) SPACE OPN. (S-E)
Space
Time Signal FIXED 13.75 MOBILE SAT. 61
Research
RADIO- Radio- Mobile ** 137.025 FIXED BROADCASTING Mobile*
Satellite (E-S) LOCATION SAT.(E-S ) location (Space to Earth) Mob. Sat. (S-E) SPACE RES. (S-E) SPACE OPN. (S-E) MET. SAT. (S-E) 13.87
Radio-
ISM 13.560 .007 MHz
RADIO-
14.0 137.175
location
1530
RADIO-
FIXED
MOBILE
MOBILE
MARITIME MOBILE SAT. MOBILE SAT. Mobile MOB. SAT. (S-E) SPACE RES. (S-E) SPACE OPN. (S-E) MET. SAT. (S-E)
SATELLITE
14.0
SATELLITE
RADIO FIXED Land Mobile
NAVIGATION
Space 137.825
NAVIGATION
(Space to Earth) (Space to Earth) (Aero. TLM) Mob. Sat. (S-E) SPACE RES. (S-E) MET. SAT. (S-E) AMATEUR AMATEUR SATELLITE
Research NAVIGATION SAT. (E-S) Satellite (E-S) 1535 SPACE OPN. (S-E) 14.25
MARITIME MOBILE SATELLITE 138.0
142.0 14.2 (space to Earth) MOBILE SATELLITE (S-E) AMATEUR
1544 14.35
AMATEUR AMATEUR SATELLITE FIXED Land Mobile FIXED MOBILE
1022Hz
144.0 Mobile** MOBILE SATELLITE (S-E)
FIXED
3 x 10 -4
RADIO- SATELLITE (E-S) Satellite (E-S) 144.0
MOBILE
Amateur Amateur Satellite 1545 AMATEUR AMATEUR SATELLITE FIXED Mobile*

AERONAUTICAL MOBILE SATELLITE (R)
MARITIME
LOCATION 149.0 14.4 (space to Earth) Mobile Satellite (S- E) 146.0

FIXED Land Mobile 1549.5 AMATEUR 148.0 14.990
FIXED Fixed Mobile SAT. (E-S) Satellite (E-S) AERONAUTICAL MOBILE SATELLITE (R) MOBILE SATELLITE MOBILE SATELLITE (E-S) MOBILE
FIXED MOBILE 14.47 FIXED 149.9 STANDARD FREQ. AND TIME SIGNAL (15,000 kHz)
SATELLITE (S-E) (space to Earth) (Space to Earth) RADIONAV-SATELLITE 15.005 70
Fixed Mobile FX SAT.(E-S) L M Sat(E-S) 1558.5 MOBILE SATELLITE (E-S) 150.05
150.0 14.5 AERONAUTICAL MOBILE SATELLITE (R) (space to Earth) STANDARD FREQ. Space Research
FIXED EARTH SPACE RES. FIXED Mobile Space Research FIXED MOBILE 15.010
FIXED SATELLITE MOBILE EXPL. SAT. 14.7145 1559 150.8 AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (OR)
(S-E) (Passive) (Passive) AERONAUTICAL RADIONAVIGATION RADIONAV. SATELLITE (Space to Earth) 15.10
1023Hz
Space Research FIXED
3 x 10 -5
151.0 MOBILE Fixed 1610 LAND MOBILE
15.1365 AERO. RADIONAVIGATION RADIO DET. SAT. (E-S) M O B I L E S A T ( E - S ) 152.855
1610.6 BROADCASTING
FIXED Mobile Space Research AERO. RADIONAV. RADIO DET. SAT. (E-S) MOBILE SAT. (E-S) RADIO ASTRONOMY LAND MOBILE
| Chapter 5: Welcome to Antennas 101

15.35 AERO. RADIONAV. RADIO DET. SAT. (E-S) MOBILE SAT. (E-S) Mobile Sat. (S-E)
1613.8
SPACE RESEARCH EARTH EXPL. SAT. 1626.5 154.0 15.6
RADIO ASTRONOMY (Passive) (Passive) LAND MOBILE FIXED BROADCASTING
FIXED 15.8
(S-E)
Cosmic-ray
FIXED
15.4
FIXED
156.2475
FIXED
AERONAUTICAL RADIONAVIGATION
SATELLITE
15.43 MARITIME MOBILE
COSMIC-RAY
1024Hz
3 x 10-6
AERO RADIONAV FIXED SAT (E-S) MARITIME MOBILE
FIXED
Radiolocation
15.63 157.1875
164.0 AERONAUTICAL RADIONAVIGATION MARITIME MOBILE LAND MOBILE 157.45 16.36 1605
EARTH 15.7
MARITIME MOBILE
EXPLORATION RADIO SPACE RES. Radiolocation 1660 FIXED LAND MOBILE 161.575 MOBILE BROADCASTING
RADIOLOCATION 16.6 RADIO ASTRONOMY MOBILE SAT. (E-S) MARITIME 1615
SATELLITE (Passive) ASTRONOMY (Passive) 1660.5 MARITIME MOBILE
168.0 RADIOLOCATION Space Res.(act.) Radiolocation RADIO ASTRONOMY SPACE RESEARCH (Passive) 161.625 MOBILE 90
MOBILE 17.1 1668.4 LAND MOBILE
FIXED METEOROLOGICAL 161.775
RADIOLOCATION
1025Hz
Radiolocation MARITIME MOBILE LAND MOBILE
3 x 10 -7
170.0 RADIO ASTRONOMY AIDS (RADIOSONDE) 17.41 BROADCASTING
INTER- 17.2 1670 162.0125
FIXED MOBILE SATELLITE Earth Expl Sat Space Res. Radioloc. FIXED 17.48
RADIOLOC.
174.5 17.3 MOBILE** FIXED FIXED BROADCASTING
SPACE EARTH BCST SAT. FX SAT (E-S) Radiolocation 1675 17.55
RESEARCH INTER- 17.7 METEOROLOGICAL METEOROLOGICAL
FIXED MOBILE SATELLITE EXPLORATION FIXED SATELLITE (E-S) FIXED BROADCASTING
SATELLITE (s-E)
FIXED
(Passive) SAT. (Passive) 17.8 AIDS (Radiosonde) 1705

MOBILE
176.5 1700 17.9

FIXED SATELLITE (S-E) FIXED 18.3 AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (R)
INTER- 17.97
FIXED MOBILE FIXED SATELLITE (S-E) 173.2 AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (OR)
SATELLITE 18.6
(s-E)
FIXED Land Mobile 18.03
Fixed
FIXED
SPACE RES. FX SAT (S-E) EARTH EXPL. SAT. 173.4 FIXED
FIXED
RADIO-
182.0
MET. SAT.
MOBILE
18.8 18.068
TRAVELERS INFORMATION STATIONS (G) AT 1610 kHz
EARTH FIXED MOBILE

LOCATION
RADIO SPACE RESEARCH EXPLORATION 1710 174.0 AMATEUR SATELLITE AMATEUR

(Passive) FIXED SATELLITE (S-E) 18.168 110
ASTRONOMY SATELLITE (Passive) 19.3 FIXED MOBILE Mobile FIXED 1800
185.0 FIXED SATELLITE (S-E) FIXED 1755 18.78
INTER- 19.7 MARITIME MOBILE
FIXED MOBILE FIXED MOBILE 18.9
SATELLITE FIXED SATELLITE (S-E) MOBILE SAT. (S-E) 1850 FIXED BROADCASTING
190.0 20.1 19.02 AMATEUR
FX SAT (S-E) MOBILE SATELLITE (S-E) FIXED
STD FREQ. & TIME SAT (S-E) MOBILE SAT (S-E)
FXFIXED MARITIME MOBILE
FIXED
21.2 19.80 1900

MOBILE
SPACE RES. F I X E D M O B I L E EARTH EXPL. SAT. 2000 FIXED

19.990
MARITIME
21.4 STAND. FREQ. & TIME SIG. Space Research
RADIO-
MOBILE SATELLITE (E-S)
RADIO-
MOBILE
MOBILE
RADIONAVIGATION Radiolocation
FIXED 19.995
SATELLITE
SATELLITE
M O B IL E
NAVIGATION
STANDARD FREQUENCY & TIME SIGNAL (20,000 KHZ)
NAVIGATION
22.0 2020 20.005
FIXED MOBILE** STANDARD FREQ. Space Research RADIOLOCATION 130
200.0 S P A C E R A D . A S T MOBILE** F I X E D EARTH EXPL. SAT. SPACE RES. EARTH EXPL. SPACE OP. 2025
SPACE RES. EARTH RES. 22.5
FIXED MOBILE EXPLORATION SAT. (E-S)(s-s) SAT. (E-S)(s-s) (E-S)(s-s) MOB. FX. Mobile
(Passive) (Passive) 2110 FIXED 2000
BROADCASTING
202.0 M O B IL E FIXED FIXED MOBILE MARITIME

(TV CHANNELS 7-13)
21.0 MOBILE FIXED

22.55 2155 MOBILE
S) AMATEUR AMATEUR SATELLITE
FIXED 2065
FIXED M O B IL E INTER-SATELLITE
FIXED
2160 21.45 MARITIME MOBILE (TELEPHONY)
(E-S)
MOBILE
FIXED
FIXED
BROADCASTING 2107
MOBILE
FIXED MOBILE 2180
MARITIME
SATELLITE
23.55 21.85 LAND
MOBILE SATELLITE (S-E) FIXED MARITIME
FIXED M O B IL E 21.924 FIXED MOBILE MOBILE
2200 216.0 AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (R) MOBILE
Fixed Mobile Radio- FIXED MOBILE
217.0 SPACE SPACE EARTH location Amateur 22.0 2170
23.6 FIXED MOBILE MARITIME MOBILE (TELEPHONY) 160
(LOS) RESEARCH OPERATION EXPLORATION 220.0 MARITIME MOBILE
SPACE RES. EARTH EXPL. (LOS) (s-E)(s-s) (s-E)(s-s) SAT. (s-E)(s-s) LAND MOBILE FIXED Radiolocation 2173.5
RADIO ASTRONOMY
subcarrier
(Passive) SAT. (Passive) 222.0 22.855 MOBILE (DISTRESS AND CALLING) 2190.5
2290 AMATEUR Radiolocation FIXED
OF SPECTRUM OCCUPIED.
24.0 SPACE RES..(S-E) 225.0 MARITIME MOBILE (TELEPHONY)
RADIO
SPACE
EARTH
FIXED MOBILE** 23.0 2194
(Passive)
(Passive)
2300
bandwidth
FIXED Mobile*
SATELLITE
RESEARCH
312.5-kHz
ASTRONOMY
Amateur 23.2
EXPLORATION
AMATEUR AMATEUR SATELLITE 2305
Amateur RADIOLOCATION MOBILE** FIXED AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (OR)
231.0 2310 23.35
FIXED
FIXED Radio- Radiolocation Mobile Fixed MOB FX R- LOC. B-SAT 2320

FIXED MOBILE
MOBILE
SATELLITE (S-E) location 24.05

FIXED
FIXED MOBILE**
MOBILE
MARITIME
FIXED
235.0 Earth Expl. RADIO- Radio- Mobile Radio- Fixed BCST-SATELLITE
SPACE RES. EARTH EXPL. Satellite Amateur
FIXED MOBILE SATELLITE(S-E) (Passive) SAT. (Passive) LOCATION location location 2345 24.89
(Active)
FIXED
AMATEUR SATELLITE AMATEUR

MOBILE
238.0
MOBILE
FIXED 235.0 190

MARITIME
Radio- 24.25 Radiolocation Mobile Fixed FX R- LOC. B-SAT 24.99

FIXED MOBILE SATELLITE (S-E) location MOB
LAND MOBILE
FIXED 24.45 STANDARD FREQ. AND TIME SIGNAL (25,000 kHz) AERONAUTICAL
241.0 2360 25.005
RADIO- STANDARD FREQ. Space Research RADIONAVIGATION
Amateur Satellite Amateur RADIONAVIGATION INTER-SATELLITE MOBILE RADIOLOCATION Fixed 25.01 200
LOCATION LAND MOBILE
248.0 25.07 2495
AMATEUR SATELLITE AMATEUR 24.65 2385 MARITIME MOBILE STANDARD FREQ. AND TIME SIGNAL (2500kHz)
ISM 245.0 1GHz

Earth Expl. MOBILE FIXED 25.21
250.0 INTER-SATELLITE
Satellite (Active) RADIOLOCATION SATELLITE (E-S) 2390 LAND MOBILE 2501
EARTH EXPLORATION 25.33 STANDARD FREQ. Space Research
SPACE RES. (Passive) SATELLITE (Passive) 24.75 AMATEUR 2400 FIXED MOBILE**
252.0 RADIOLOCATION 25.55 2502
INTER-SATELLITE F I XSATELLITE
E D (E-S) RADIO ASTRONOMY STANDARD FREQ. AND TIME SIGNAL
ISM 2450.0 50 MHz
RADIONAVIGATION SATELLITE AMATEUR BROADCASTING 25.67 2505

Earth Standard 2417 26.1
ISM 24.125 0.125 GHz

Exploration Frequency and (E-S) Radiolocation Amateur MARITIME MOBILE
2450
RADIO-
RADIO-
MOBILE
MOBILE
Satellite Time Signal FIXED MOBILE 25.05 26.175
SATELLITE
SATELLITE
FIXED LAND MOBILE
(S-S) F I X ESatellite
D (E-S) FIXED MOBILE Radiolocation FIXED MOBILE** 26.48
265.0 SATELLITE
Mobile
2483.5 26.95
PLEASE NOTE: THE SPACING ALLOTTED THE SERVICES IN THE SPEC-

FIXED
TRUM SEGMENTS SHOWN IS NOT PROPORTIONAL TO THE ACTUAL AMOUNT

Earth (E-S) RADIODETERMINATION SAT. (S-E) MOBILE SATELLITE (S-E) FIXED
MOBILE
25.25 2500 26.96

Aeronautical
e-e-sat
std Exploration
freq FIXED INTER-SAT. M O B IL E FX-SAT (S - E) MOBILE**
FIXED
BCST - SAT. MOBILE** FIXED
(E-S)
RADIO-
FIXED
MOBILE
FIXED
25.5 2655
MOBILE
27.23
MOBILE
MARITIME
&Satellite
time e-e-sat
(S-S) (s-s) INTER-SAT. E-Expl Sat Radio Ast Space res. FIXED MOBILE**
NAVIGATION ASTRONOMY
FIXED
NAVIGATION SATELLITE
AERONAUTICAL
MMOOBBI LILEE 27.0 MOB** B- SAT. FX FX-SAT 2690 27.41

LAND MOBILE
MOBILE SATELLITE
275.0 RADIO ASTRON. FIXED LAND MOBILE

RADIONAVIGATION
Earth Exploration FIXED INTER- M O B IL E SPACE RESEARCH EARTH EXPL SAT 2700 27.54
Satellite (S-S) SATELLITE FIXED MOBILE
27.5 28.0
FIXED M O B IL E FIXED AMATEUR AMATEUR SATELLITE 2850
SAT (E-S) AERONAUTICAL METEOROLOGICAL Radiolocation 275
29.5 AIDS 29.7 AERONAUTICAL Aeronautical Maritime
RADIONAVIGATION LAND MOBILE Radionavigation
FIXED
MOBILE
FIXED SATELLITE (E-S) MOBILE SATELLITE (E-S) 29.8 AERONAUTICAL RADIONAVIGATION Mobile (Radio Beacons) 285
FIXED
ISM 27.12 .163 MHz
2900 29.89 MARITIME Aeronautical

29.9 MOBILE (R)
MARITIME FIXED MOBILE RADIONAVIGATION Radionavigation
FIXED SATELLITE (E-S) MOBILE SATELLITE (E-S) Radiolocation 29.91
300 GHz
3 MHz
(RADIO BEACONS) (Radio Beacons)

300 kHz
3 GHz
300 MHz
30 MHz
FIXED
30 GHz
300.0 30.0 RADIONAVIGATION 3000 300 30.0 3000 300
| More Resources from Electronic Design

56 subcarriers
5 | Chapter 2: The Wireless Spectrum Conundrum

3 | Chapter 1: Wireless 101: Basic Physics of Radio
LEARN MORE @ electronicdesign.com | 1

FDMA, TDMA, CDMA, OFDMA, and SDMA
BPSK, QPSK,
modulated by
Each subcarrier
16QAM, or 64QAM
0209EEmodulation-FIGURE 6
10 | Chapter 3: Understanding Modern Digital Modulation Techniques
17 | Chapter 4: Fundamentals of Communications Access Techniques:
CONTENTS
| Chapter 6: The Fundamentals of Short-Range Wireless Technologies

WIRELESS FUNDAMENTALS
ELECTRONIC DESIGN LIBRARY WIRELESS FUNDAMENTALS
EDITORIAL
T
he race to keep up with todays wireless
technologies is ongoing, requiring constant
learning and awareness. This selection of articles
provides an overview of the current landscape via
an assortment of informative resource articles. We
carefully chose them to provide an introduction to
topics like communications access technologies, antennas,
spectrum, digital modulation, and more.
As stated by our Contributing Editor, Louis Frenzel,
The wireless fundamentals covered here can form the
base for your future learning of wireless technology. Radio
engineering is consistent from one wireless standard to the
next. Learning the principles allows you to understand almost
any wireless technology to come along in the future.
This is only the first of a series we plan to do on
communications technologies, so stay tuned. And as always,
thank you for reading!
Best regards,
Nancy Friedrich
Executive Director of Content & User Engagement

ELECTRONIC DESIGN LIBRARY WIRELESS FUNDAMENTALS FOR ELECTRONIC ENGINEERS
Wireless 101: Basic Physics of Radio

LOU FRENZEL, Contributing Editor
W
ith all the wireless design activity going transmit power and fixed antenna gains, the signal at the
on these days, it makes me wonder just receiver gets smaller at the higher frequencies. The higher
how many engineers are actually educated the frequency, the greater the FSPL. Higher frequencies are
in wireless principles anymore. Not many, great, as they offer lots more bandwidth and antennas are
I suspect. From what I have seen of EE shorter. The range is more limited, however.
education, the curricula are still based on classical circuit The Friis formula is messy to handle, so a more conve-
theory, basic devices, some linear, and a massive dose nient form has been created using decibels.
of digital, along with microcontrollers and related software
programming. No radio theory. FSPL (dB) = 32.45 + 20log(f) + 20log(d)
For this reason, I thought I would explain one basic wire-
less concept that might help illustrate how wireless works: The frequency (f) is in MHz and distance (d) is in kilo-
free space path loss (FSPL). If you are working on an meters.
Internet of Things (IoT) or other wireless product, this may As an example, what is the FSPL for a 2.4 GHz signal at
be helpful. And you wont have to learn Maxwells equations. 100 meters?
FSPL is the attenuation a radio signal experiences on its
way from transmitter (Tx) to receiver (Rx). It is usually ex- FSPL(dB) = 32.45 + 20log(2400) + 20log(0.1) = 32.45 +
pressed in dB. Radio signals in the VHF, UHF, microwave, 67.6 20 = 80 dB
and millimeter-wave frequency bands travel in a straight line
that we call line of sight (LOS). In general, the attenuation is Now that you know the path loss, you can consider some
proportional to the square of the distance (d) between the Tx other factors like transmitter power (Pt). You can express it
and Rx. The attenuation is also proportional to the frequency in dBm ( milliwatt reference). Assume a power of 400 mW.
of operation (f).
FSPL determines how far you can transmit reliably for a dBm = 10log (Pt/1mW) = 10log(400) = 26 dBm
given factors such as transmitted power(Pt), received power
(Pr), transmitter antenna gain (Gt) receiver antenna gain (Gr), Knowing the path loss and the transmitter power, you
and receiver sensitivity (R). The power is in watts, of course, can figure the received power. Pr will also be in dBm.
and antenna gains are power ratios. Antenna gains are unity
if you assume an isotropic source (spherical radiation pat- Pr = Pt FSPL = 26 80 = 54 dBm
tern). If you use a dipole or its equivalent, the power ratio is
1.64. Both antennas should have the same polarization. Now lets add the antenna gains. The formulas assume
All these factors are summed up in what is known as the isotropic antennas. This gives an antenna gain (G) of 1. A
Friis formula: dipole or its equivalent has some gainspecifically, a 1.64
power ratio that translates to a gain of 2.15 dB. If both trans-
Pr = PtGtGr2/162d2 mitter and receiver use a dipole, the calculation goes like
this:
Distance (d) is given in meters and wavelength is also in
meters. Remember = 300/fMHz . Pr = Pt + Gt + Gr FSPL = 26 + 2.15 + 2.15 80 = 49.7
The key takeaways from this formula are that the power dBm
at the receiver gets smaller as distance is increased and
as the wavelength gets shorter. In other words, for a given The missing quantity in all this is receiver sensitivity

ELECTRONIC DESIGN LIBRARY CHAPTER 1: WIRELESS 101: BASICS PHYSICS OF RADIO
(R). This is a specification of all wireless receivers, and is

the smallest signal the receiver can process. It is given in
dBm. Assume a value of -98 dBm. As you can see, since
-47 dBm is greater power level than -98 dBm, the receiver
will get enough power with a good margin.
Using the transmit power, receiver sensitivity, and anten-
na gains, you can compute the maximum path loss for this
combination.
FSPL (max) = Pt + Gt + Gr R = 26 + 4.3 (- 98) = 128.3

dB
From this figure you can rearrange the FSPL formula and
calculate the maximum possible range (d) for this situation.
The math is left to you but the range is 25.8 km.
For any given design, you can use this process to get
a first approximation how your system will work. You can
play around with the factors and optimize your design. Just
remember we are using LOS FSPL. There are no obstacles
between transmit and receive antennas. If you introduce
walls, trees, etc., you will need to increase path loss accord-
ingly. Reflections and multipath, diffraction, and scattering
are also not accounted for. Attenuation estimates for these
factors are available, but beyond the scope of this blog.
For a first estimate, just be sure you have extra margin (say
20%) to ensure a reliable link.
to view this article online, click here

BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS

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CHAPTER 2:
The Wireless Spectrum Conundrum

The spectrum shortage has service providers, govern- mally divided into segments and named; Table 1 lists these
ment agencies, and even wireless designers scrambling names and ranges. Note also the optical spectrumlight
to come up with workable solutions. signals are another type of EM radiation, and infrared (IR)
S
in particular is used for communications. Beyond the visi-
pectrum is everything when it comes to choosing ble optical spectrum is the never-never-land of ultraviolet,
or designing wireless equipment. Knowledge of X-rays, cosmic rays, and gamma rays that arent used for
the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum is essential communications.
for all engineers working with wireless equipment Any frequency above 1 GHz is generally called micro-
and systems. It affects what you can transmit as wave. Signals between 30 and 300 GHz are called millime-
well as how and where, determining everything from rates ter waves. Frequencies above 300 GHz but below infrared
and range to capabilities and cost. Sometimes you can are mostly unused because there are few practical ways
choose from several options, and other times youre limited to implement communications devices. This band is called
to one. If youre not a spectrum wonk, then its time to become the Terahertz (THz) region.
one. This primer on spectrum will help get you started. Table 2 shows the different designations applied to mi-
crowave and millimeter waves. It also lists the typical com-
WHAT IS SPECTRUM? munications services that occur in each of the major fre-
Radio signals travel in the free space known as spec- quency bands.
trum. Some have called it the ether. More precisely, its that The most useful and desired sweet spot of the spec-
distribution of electromagnetic signals over a wide frequen- trum is roughly 500 MHz to 3 GHz. This range offers a mix
cy range where all radio emissions occur. Figure 1 shows of benefits, such as short practical antennas, reasonable
the complete range of EM signals expressed in
frequency and wavelength.
Remember that all radio signals consist of TABLE 1: STANDARD DEFINITIONS
both electric and magnetic fields. The fields OF RADIO SPECTRUM SEGMENTS
travel together at right angles to one another. Frequency
Name Applications
Wavelength () is the physical length of one cy- range
cle of an EM signal, and is expressed as: Low frequency (LF) 30 to 300 kHz Navigation, time standards
= C/f Medium frequency (MF) 300 kHz to 3 MHz Marine/aircraft navigation, AM broadcast
C is the speed of light at 300 million meters AM broadcasting, mobile radio, amateur
High frequency (HF) 3 to 30 MHz
per second and f is the frequency in Hz; is radio, shortwave broadcasting.
expressed in meters. A useful version is: Land mobile, FM/TV broadcast,
Very high frequency (VHF) 30 to 300 MHz
= 300/fMHz amateur radio
For example, the wavelength of a 400-MHz Ultra high frequency (UHF) 300 MHz to 3 GHz
Cellular phones, mobile radio,
wireless LAN, PAN
signal is 0.75 meters or 75 cm.
Wavelength is critical to the antenna size. Super high frequency (SHF), Satellite, radar, backhaul, TV,
3 to 30 GHz
millimeter-wave range WLAN, 5G cellular
The length of a basic dipole antenna is /2,
Extremely high frequency Satellite, radar, backhaul,
which is inversely proportional to frequency. (EHF)
30 to 300 GHz
experimental, 5G cellular
As frequency increases, it in turn leads to a
Terahertz , tremendously
shortened wavelength and smaller antenna. high fequency (THF) 300 GHz to IR R & D, experimental
Figure 1 shows that the spectrum is nor- or far infrared (FIR)

ELECTRONIC DESIGN LIBRARY CHAPTER 2: THE WIRELESS SPECTRUM CONUNDRUM
Radio waves
in allocating and managing spectrum.
0.4 x 106 m (violet)

0.7 x 106 m (red)
106 m (1 micron)
Wavelength You should also get a copy of the Code of Fed-
eral Regulations (CFR) Title 47 Parts 0 through 100
(https://www.fcc.gov/general/rules-regulations-ti-
101 m
102 m
103 m
104 m
105 m
107 m
106 m
105 m
104 m
103 m
102 m
10 m
1m
tle-47), which contain all of the FCCs rules and regu-
X-rays, lations. The CFR Title 47 is a must-have document for
gamma rays,
ELF VF VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF THF THF FIR cosmic rays, every wireless engineer. Part 2 includes the frequen-
etc.
cy allocations for the various services, while parts 15
and 18 run down the short-range wireless and elec-
DC
30 Hz
300 Hz
3 kHz
30 kHz
300 kHz
3 MHz
30 MHz
300 MHz
3 GHz
30 GHz
300 GHz
3 THz
30 THz
Infrared Ultraviolet
Visible light tromagnetic-interference (EMI) regulations.
There are two types of spectrum, licensed and un-
The optical
Frequency
spectrum
licensed. Licensed spectrum is allocated by the FCC
1. This simplified illustration of the electromagnetic frequency for specific services (broadcasting, land mobile, cel-
spectrum presents the major segments that make up this space. lular, satellite, etc.). This tightly controlled spectrum
has strict regulations, and does incur fees. Unlicensed
spectrum may be used without direct FCC allocation
transmission range, sufficient bandwidth to support high as long as theres compliance with all related rules and reg-
data rates, and readily available cost-efficient semiconduc- ulations.
tor products.
Up till now, all of the cellular bands are in this range, CRISIS MODE
and the major carriers continue to fight for more spectrum in The overwhelmingly critical issue right now is that were
this space. Most unlicensed short-range wireless standards running out of spectrum. This is especially true of the afore-
(Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, ZigBee, etc.) also fall into this range. The mentioned prime sweet spot spectrum. In addition, most
bulk of this ideal spectrum is fully allocated, with minimal of the defined spectrum bands are already allocated; few if
opportunity for adding new services. any real vacant chunks of spectrum are available. Although
some chunks of spectrum currently sit unused, theyre as-
SPECTRUM REGULATION signed for future use. Like real estate, only a finite amount
Due to the scarcity and critical importance of spectrum, of spectrum exists, and once its occupied, theres no more
its under government regulation worldwide. All countries to be had. Its a terrible dilemma to face, especially during
have spectrum regulatory agencies. The U.S. agencies this massive wireless growth period.
are the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) and The demand for more wireless services, and thus spec-
National Telecommunications and Information
Administration (NTIA). The FCC (www.fcc.gov) TABLE 2: MICROWAVE LETTER BAND DESIGNATIONS
handles all consumer and commercial spec-
Band Frequency range Applications
trum, while the NTIA (www.ntia.gov) manages
L 1 to 2 GHz Satellite, navigation (GPS, etc.), cellular phones
the military and government spectrum.
Satellite, SiriusXM radio, unlicensed
Be sure to check out the websites to get a S 2 to 4 GHz
(Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, etc.), cellular phones
feel for the enormity of the spectrum challeng- C 4 to 8 GHz Satellite, microwave relay, Wi-Fi, DSRC
es. While visiting these sites, sign up for the X 8 to 12 GHz Radar
daily email reports on the latest issues, status, Ku 12 to 18 GHz Satellite TV, police radar
and actions. K 18 to 26.5 GHz Microwave backhaul
Countries also meet every three years at Ka 26.5 to 40 GHz Microwave backhaul, 5G cellular
a World Radiocommunications Conference Q 30 to 50 GHz Microwave backhaul, 5G cellular
(WRC) to resolve spectrum conflicts, assign- U 40 to 60 GHz Experimental, radar
ments, and related issues. The next WRC V 50 to 75 GHz New WLAN, 802.11ad/WiGig
meeting is in 2019. E 60 to 90 GHz Microwave backhaul
The NTIA maintains a master spectrum W 75 to 110 GHz Automotive radar
chart (Fig. 2) that you can download from its F 90 to 140 GHz Experimental, radar
site. The chart provides a big picture view D 110 to 170 GHz Experimental, radar
and confirms the massive complexity involved

TIO N A L TE LE C
OM NA
U.S
M .
DE
UN
IC
PA
R
A
Primary
TM EN
SERVICE
Secondary
TOF C O
M
TIO N S & IN F O R
M
M
E
A
TIO RC
N E
FIXED
AD
M IN ISTR A TIO N
MOBILE
AMATEUR
SATELLITE
SATELLITE
FIXED
Mobile
AERONAUTICAL
AERONAUTICAL
AERONAUTICAL
BROADCASTING
BROADCASTING
FIXED SATELLITE
ACTIVITY CODE
RADIONAVIGATION
EXAMPLE
MOBILE SATELLITE
AMATEUR SATELLITE
EARTH EXPLORATION
GOVERNMENT EXCLUSIVE
October 2003
NON-GOVERNMENT EXCLUSIVE
Table to determine the current status of U.S. allocations.

AIDS
DESCRIPTION
MOBILE
Capital Letters
MARITIME
SATELLITE
SATELLITE
SATELLITE
Office of Spectrum Management

LAND MOBILE
LAND MOBILE
RADIO SERVICES COLOR LEGEND
ALLOCATION USAGE DESIGNATION

INTER-SATELLITE
MARITIME MOBILE
MARITIME MOBILE
RADIONAVIGATION
MOBILE SATELLITE
METEOROLOGICAL
METEOROLOGICAL
1st Capital with lower case letters
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

STATES
UNITED
FCC and NTIA. As such, it does not completely reflect all aspects, i.e., footnotes and recent changes
This chart is a graphic single-point-in-time portrayal of the Table of Frequency Allocations used by the
made to the Table of Frequency Allocations. Therefore, for complete information, users should consult the
SATELLITE
SATELLITE
RADIOLOCATION
GOVERNMENT/ NON-GOVERNMENT SHARED

AND TIME SIGNAL
SPACE RESEARCH
RADIONAVIGATION
RADIONAVIGATION
SPACE OPERATION
National Telecommunications and Information Administration

FREQUENCY
RADIO ASTRONOMY
RADIODETERMINATION
STANDARD FREQUENCY
STANDARD FREQUENCY
RADIOLOCATION SATELLITE
AND TIME SIGNAL SATELLITE

ALLOCATIONS
THE RADIO SPECTRUM
ELECTRONIC DESIGN LIBRARY
30.0 3.0 300.0 30.0 3.0 300 3

Standard AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (R)
Frequency and FIXED MOBILE MARITIME FIXED MOBILE 3.025
Time Signal SATELLITE SATELLITE Radiolocation 30.56
(E-S) (E-S) RADIONAVIGATION AERONAUTICAL
Satellite (S-E)
3 kHz
31.0 3.1 LAND MOBILE (OR)
3 GHz
3 MHz
Stand. Frequency
FIXED
MOBILE
MOBILE
FIXED
30 GHz
and Time Signal FIXED MOBILE MOBILE
30 MHz
SATELLITE
300 kHz
MARITIME
Satellite (S-E) 3.155
Aeronautical
31.3
300 MHz
Radionavigation
(Radio Beacons)
RADIO SPACE EARTH 32.0 MOBILE* FIXED
(RADIO BEACONS)
RESEARCH
RADIONAVIGATION
EXPLORATION
RADIO-
ASTRONOMY 322.0
(Passive) SAT. (Passive)
LOCATION
3.230
Radiolocation
31.8 FIXED MOBILE FIXED MOBILE 325
** EXCEPT AERO MOBILE

SPACE 328.6 Maritime AERONAUTICAL
RESEARCH (deep space) RADIONAVIGATION 3.3 33.0 Aeronautical
* EXCEPT AERO MOBILE (R)

32.0 AERONAUTICAL RADIONAVIGATION Radionavigation RADIONAVIGATION
SPACE RES.
Mobile (RADIO BEACONS)
INTER- SAT 335.4 LAND (Radio Beacons)
FIXED
Radio-
RADIONAVIGATION 32.3 335
location
MOBILE**
FIXED MOBILE
RADIONAVIGATION INTER-SATELLITE
comes to spectrum management.

3.4
RADIO-
Amateur
33.0 34.0
LOCATION
AERONAUTICAL
Radiolocation
RADIONAVIGATION 33.4
FIXED
MOBILE (R)
MOBILE
MOBILE
3.5
SATELLITE
AERONAUTICAL
FIXED MOBILE 3.5
RADIO- Radio-
RADIOLOCATION Radiolocation RADIONAVIGATION 35.0
(Ground) LOCATION location
399.9
3.6 RADIONAVIGATION SATELLITE MOBILE SATELLITE (E-S) LAND
36.0 AERO. RADIO- RADIO- FIXED SAT. Radio-
SPACE RE. EARTH EXPL. NAV.(Ground) LOCATION (S-E) location 400.05 FIXED MOBILE
FIXED MOBILE STD. FREQ. & TIME SIGNAL SAT. (400.1 MHz)
.(Passive) SAT. (Passive) 3.65 400.15
37.0 FIXED SAT. MET. AIDS MOBILE. SPACE RES. Space Opn. MET. SAT.
Mobile
MOBILE** FIXED (Radiosonde) SAT. (S-E) (S-E) (S-E) (S-E) 36.0
FIXED MOBILE SPACE RESEARCH (S-E) 401.0
Aeronautical
(space-to-Earth) 3.7 MET. AIDS SPACE OPN. MET-SAT. EARTH EXPL Met-Satellite
Earth Expl.
(Radio- Earth Expl Sat
AERONAUTICAL
(S-E) (E-S) SAT. (E-S) (E-S)
(E-S)Satellite(E-S) FIXED MOBILE
sonde)
(RADIO BEACONS)
37.6
RADIONAVIGATION
AMATEUR
F I X E D MOBILE SPACE FIXED 402.0
RES. SATELLITE (S-E) MET. AIDS MET-SAT. EARTH EXPL Met-Satellite Earth Expl Sat 37.0
(Radiosonde) (E-S) SAT. (E-S) (E-S) (E-S) LAND MOBILE
38.0 37.5
FIXED FIXED 403.0 Radio Astronomy LAND MOBILE
MOBILE METEOROLOGICAL AIDS (RADIOSONDE) 38.0
SAT. (S-E) 406.0
and study into the noise-floor problem.

RADIO ASTRONOMY FIXED MOBILE
(S-E)
38.6 38.25
FIXED
FIXED
FIXED-SATELLITE FIXED MOBILE
SATELLITE
RADIO
FIXED MOBILE 4.0
39.5 FIXED MOBILE 39.0 405
F I X E D MOBILE FIXED ASTRONOMY FIXED MARITIME MOBILE
MOBILE 410.0 LAND MOBILE Aeronautical Mobile RADIONAVIGATION
SATELLITE SAT. 4.063
NOT ALLOCATED
ate considerable interference problems.
40.0 FIXED MOBILE SPACE RESEARCH
(S-S) 40.0 415
F I X E D MOBILE SPACE Earth EARTH 420.0
Expl. EXPL
SAT SAT. RES. (E-S) Sat (s - e) SAT (E-S) 4.2 AERONAUTICAL MARITIME
BCST BROAD- FX-SAT Fixed Mobile RADIONAVIGATION MOBILE
FIXED
MOBILE
SAT. CASTING (S-E)
41.0 AERONAUTICAL 435
MOBILE
450.0
ISM 40.68 .02 MHz
ACTIVITIES
DESIGNATIONS
BAND
WAVELENGTH
BROAD- BCST
MARITIME
MOBILE RADIONAVIGATION LAND MOBILE 42.0
FIXED
FREQUENCY 0
CASTING SAT. 454.0
FIXED LAND MOBILE
42.5 455.0
LAND MOBILE FIXED LAND
RADIO FIXED MOBILE** FIXED 4.4 456.0 4.438
ASTRONOMY SATELLITE (E-S) FIXED LAND MOBILE MOBILE
43.5 FIXED MOBILE
4.5 LAND MOBILE
460.0 FIXED
FIXED MOBILE FIXED 43.69 MOBILE*
Infra-sonics
SATELLITE (E-S) SATELLITE (E-S) 462.5375
45.5 LAND MOBILE 462.7375
MOBILE
4.65
10 Hz
RADIONAV.
MARITIME
MOBILE
3 x 107m
LAND AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (R)
Aeronautical
MOBILE LAND MOBILE FIXED
SATELLITE 467.5375 4.7
Radionavigation
SAT (E-S). LAND MOBILE
FIXED
46.9 467.7375 MOBILE
Satellite (S-E)
Meteorological
FIXED
RADIONAV.SAT. MOB. SAT(E-S) MOBILE FIXED
MOBILE
LAND MOBILE FIXED 470.0 4.75
SATELLITE (S-E)
47.0 46.6
AMATEUR AMATEUR SATELLITE FIXED MOBILE MOBILE* FIXED
47.2 47.0
FX BROADCASTING 4.85
FIXED MOBILE 4.8 495
100 Hz
SAT(E-S) LAND MOBILE FIXED (TV CHANNELS 14 - 20)
3 x 106m
48.2 FIXED MOBILE FIXED MOBILE MOBILE (DISTRESS AND CALLING)
4.94
LAND
FIXED FX 505
MOBILE
MOBILE
SAT(E-S) 512.0 4.995 MARITIME MOBILE
50.2 FIXED MOBILE** STANDARD FREQ. AND TIME SIGNAL (5000 KHZ) 510
EARTH 4.99 5.003
Sonics
SPACE RESEARCH 49.6 STANDARD FREQ. Space Research
EXPLORATION RADIO ASTRONOMY Space Research (Passive) 5.005 MARITIME AERONAUTICAL 9
SATELLITE 5.0 FIXED MOBILE
Audible Range
1 kHz
50.4 AERONAUTICAL 50.0 FIXED 5.060 MOBILE RADIONAVIGATION
FI XED
3 x 105m
MOBILE MOBILE
FIXED SATELLITE (E-S) SATELLITE (E-S) (SHIPS ONLY) (RADIO BEACONS)
3 kHz
51.4 RADIONAVIGATION
FIXED MOBILE 5.15 525
AERONAUTICAL
VERY LOW FREQUENCY (VLF)

AERO. RADIONAV. FIXED SAT (S-E) 5.25 MOBILE RADIONAVIGATION
FIXED
52.6 RADIOLOCATION Radiolocation (RADIO BEACONS)
EARTH
MOBILE**
SPACE 535
AMATEUR
EXPLORATION RESEARCH 5.35
10 kHz
SATELLITE AERONAUTICAL RADIO- Radio-
30,000 m
(Passive) (Passive) 5.45
RADIONAV. LOCATION location 54.0
54.25 5.46
SPACE RES. INTER- SAT EARTH EXPL-SAT (Passive) RADIONAVIGATION Radiolocation
BROADCASTING
55.78 5.47 AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (R)
MOBILE INTER- SAT SPACE RES. EARTH-ES
(TV CHANNELS 21-36)

FIXED MARITIME
56.9
LF
EARTH-ES
Radiolocation
FIXED MOBILE SPACE RES. INTER- SAT RADIONAVIGATION 5.68
57.0 5.6
EARTH MARITIME METEOROLOGICAL AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (OR)
100 kHz
SPACE
3,000 m
INTER RADIONAVIGATION AIDS Radiolocation 5.73
Ultra-sonics
MOBILE
AM Broadcast
RES.
FIXED
EXPLORATION 5.65
SAT. (Passive) - SAT MOBILE* FIXED 5.90
EARTH SPACE 5.83 MOBILE* FIXED BROADCASTING
MOBILE FIXED RESEARCH
EXPLORATION RADIO- Amateur- sat (s-e) Amateur 608.0
LAND MOBILE RADIO ASTRONOMY
RADIONAVIGATION
(Passive)
SAT. (Passive) LOCATION 5.85 614.0 5.95
MF
EARTH 59.0 MOBILE FIXED SAT(E-S) Amateur
RADIO- 5.925
1 MHz
300 m
EXPLORATION F I X E D M O B I L E SPACE LOC. INTER-
RES.. SAT
rates demanded by significantly increased video usage.
SAT. (Passive) FIXED

59.3 FIXED SATELLITE (E-S) BROADCASTING
ISM 5.8 .075 GHz

FIXED MOBILE RADIO- INTER- 6.425
LOCATION SATELLITE FIXED
SATELLITE (E-S) MOBILE 6.2 14
HF
64.0 6.525
UNLICENSED DEVICES
30 m
INTER- FIXED
ISM 61.25 .250 GHz

MOBILE** FIXED FIXED
SATELLITE
10 MHz
SATELLITE (E-S)
59-64 GHz IS DESIGNATED FOR

65.0 FIXED SATELLITE (S-E)(E-S) FIXED 6.70 MARITIME MOBILE
EARTH
BROADCASTING
SPACE INTER-
er. The radio noise floor is growing due to the increased
al growth in most other wireless services, such as satellite,

wireless activity, as well as the increased volume of other
While interference is always a problem, noise is anoth-
radar, industrial, automotive, and wireless broadband con-

Finally, the limited spectrum must contend with gener-
motors, welders, and medical equipment. The FCCs Tech-
er lines, light dimmers, CFLs, switch-mode power supplies,
products that emit radio signals. These include the ac pow-
rent spectrum will eventually become overloaded and cre-
the predicted billions of connected wireless devices, cur-
putting a strain on the available unlicensed spectrum. With
nological Advisory Council (TAC) has launched a survey

Second, the burgeoning Internet of Things (IoT) field is
creased cell-phone servicesmore spectrum is needed to
trum, is driven by several factors. The first involves in-
(5G) will require more bandwidth to support higher data

sustain customer growth. On top of that, new technologies
6.875
(TV CHANNELS 2-4)
FM Broadcast
EXPLORATION RESEARCH F I X E D MOBILE** SATELLITE FIXED
SATELLITE MOBILE FIXED
TV BROADCASTING
66.0 SATELLITE (E-S) 6.525
RADIO- 7.025
VHF
MOBILE RADIO INTER- MOBILE FIXED SAT (E-S) FIXED AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (R)
MAGNIFIED ABOVE
7.075
3m
100 MHz
NAVIGATION SATELLITE NAVIGATION M O B I L E SATELLITE
MOBILE 698 6.685
P
SATELLITE FIXED AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (OR)
7.125 6.765
71.0 FIXED MOBILE BROADCAST
Fixed
FIXED
FIXED
THE RADIO SPECTRUM

746 Mobile FIXED
UHF
7.19 FIXED MOBILE BROADCAST 7.0
FIXED SPACE RESEARCH (E-S)
1 GHz
30 cm
7.235 AMATEUR AMATEUR SATELLITE
MARITIME MOBILE
FIXED 764 7.1
ISM 6.78 .015 MHz
(E-S)
(E-S)
7.25
FIXED
FIXED
S C
MOBILE
MOBILE
MOBILE
FIXED SATELLITE (S-E) Fixed FIXED MOBILE 72.0 AMATEUR
SATELLITE
SATELLITE (S-E)
SATELLITE
7.30 776 FIXED MOBILE
FIXED SATELLITE (S-E) FIXED Mobile Satellite (S-E) 7.3
FIXED BROADCASTING
X
7.45 73.0 Mobile
Mobile FIXED BROADCASTING 19.95
7.35
SHF
FIXED MET. Mobile FIXED MOBILE BROADCAST RADIO ASTRONOMY
FIXED
3 cm
SATELLITE (S-E) SATELLITE (S-E) Satellite (S-E)
10 GHz
Microwaves
74.0 7.55 74.6 STANDARD FREQ. AND TIME SIGNAL (20 kHz)
FIXED MOBILE FIXED Mobile FIXED MOBILE
SATELLITE (E-S) FIXED FIXED Satellite (S-E) 794 74.8 20.05
75.5 SATELLITE (S-E) AERONAUTICAL RADIONAVIGATION
Mobile
AMATEUR AMATEUR SATELLITE FIXED 806
FIXED MOBILE 75.4
76.0
FIXED
7.90
EHF
RADIOLOC. Amateur FIXED FIXED FIXED MOBILE 76.0
77.0 MOBILE LAND MOBILE
Radar
Bands
Fixed
Radar
SATELLITE (E-S) SATELLITE (E-S)
100 GHz
RADIOLOC. Amateur
0.3 cm
Amateur Sat. 77.5 8.025 821
RADIOLOC. FIXED EARTH EXPL. Mobile LAND MOBILE
824
300 GHz
AMATEUR AMATEUR SAT 78.0 FIXED
Amateur SATELLITE (E-S) SATELLITE(S-E) Satellite (E-S) LAND MOBILE FIXED 8.1
RADIO- 8.175 849 FIXED
FIXED MARITIME
MARITIMEMOBILE
MOBILE
LOCATION Amateur Satellite FIXED
EARTH EXPL. SATELLITE MET. Mobile AERONAUTICAL MOBILE 8.195
81.0 SAT. (S-E) FIXED SATELLITE Satellite (E-S) 851
(E-S) (E-S) (no airborne) LAND MOBILE FIXED
FIXED 8.215 866
MOBILE EARTH EXPL. FIXED Mobile Satellite
1 THz
FIXED MOBILE SATELLITE FIXED LAND MOBILE 869
SATELLITE SATELLITE SATELLITE (S-E)
FIXED
(E-S)(no airborne)
0.03 cm
(S-E) (S-E) (E-S) 8.4 LAND MOBILE FIXED
SPACE RESEARCH (S-E) 894
84.0 FIXED AERONAUTICAL MOBILE
(deep space only) 896
8.45
BROADCASTING
MOBILE
BROAD- BROAD- LAND MOBILE FIXED 901901
Sub-Millimeter
MARITIME
SPACE RESEARCH (S-E) FIXED
(TV CHANNELS 5-6)

FIXED MOBILE CASTING
MARITIME MOBILE
CASTING 8.5 MOBILE FIXED
SATELLITE RADIOLOCATION
902
Radiolocation
1013Hz
86.0
INFRARED
9.0

3 x 510
AERONAUTICAL
Infrared
Radiolocation RADIOLOCATION Amateur 88.0 8.815
RADIONAVIGATION
9.2 928 AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (R)
MARITIME Radiolocation FIXED 8.965
RADIONAVIGATION 929 AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (OR) 30
RADIO
SPACE
EARTH
9.3 9.040
(Passive)
(Passive)
LAND MOBILE FIXED
SATELLITE
RESEARCH
ISM 915.0 13 MHz
Meteorological 930
ASTRONOMY
RADIONAVIGATION
EXPLORATION
Aids Radiolocation
9.5 MOBILE FIXED 931 FIXED
1014Hz
3 x 104
92.0 LAND MOBILE FIXED 932
SOLUTIONS
FIXED 9.4
RADIO- SATELLITE
FIXED 935 FIXED BROADCASTING
FIXED MOBILE LOCATION
Visible
(E-S) RADIOLOCATION Radiolocation LAND MOBILE FIXED 940 9.5
95.0
VISIBLE
LAND MOBILE FIXED 941
(AM RADIO)
FIXED 944 BROADCASTING
10.0
BROADCASTING
1015Hz
RADIO- FIXED 960
3 x 103
Radiolocation Amateur
Radio-
9.9
location
LOCATION
RADIO-
RADIO-
MOBILE
MOBILE
FIXED 30
SATELLITE
SATELLITE
10.45
NAVIGATION
NAVIGATION
(FM RADIO)
Radiolocation Amateur 9.995
Amateur Satellite STANDARD FREQ. AND TIME SIGNAL (10,000 kHz)
BROADCASTING
100.0 10.5 10.003
EARTH EXPL. SPACE RESEARCH RADIOLOCATION STANDARD FREQ. Space Research
10.55 10.005
SATELLITE (Passive) (Passive) FIXED AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (R)
102.0 10.6 10.1
FIXED AMATEUR
1016Hz
SPACE RESEARCH
3 x 102
EARTH EXPL. RADIO FIXED 10.15
FIXED SATELLITE (Passive) SAT. (Passive) ASTRONOMY
10.68
Ultraviolet
(S-E) RADIO SPACE EARTH EXPL.
105.0
ASTRONOMY RESEARCH (Passive) SATELLITE (Passive)
AERONAUTICAL
10.7
RADIONAVIGATION
path for decades.
ULTRAVIOLET
108.0
FIXED
Mobile*
1017Hz
3 x 10
1215
(S-E)
FIXED
FIXED
RADIO
SPACE
11.175
EARTH
RADIONAVIGATION
FIXED
(Passive)
(Passive)
SATELLITE
SATELLITE
RESEARCH
RADIOLOCATION
ASTRONOMY
SATELLITE (S-E)
EXPLORATION
1240 11.275
AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (R)
11.7 11.4
FIXED

11.6
3
RADIOLOCATION Amateur
1018Hz
FIXED BROADCASTING
MARITIME MOBILE
AERONAUTICAL
116.0 11.65
RADIONAVIGATION
1300
(S-E)
FIXED
INTER- SPACE EARTH
Mobile **
117.975
SATELLITE
BROADCASTING
X-RAY
F I X E D MOBILE SATELLITE RESEARCH EXPL SAT. AERONAUTICAL
(Passive) (Passive) Radiolocation AERONAUTICAL 12.05
X-ray
119.98 12.2 RADIONAVIGATION
1350 MOBILE (R) FIXED BROADCASTING
FIXED MO- INTER- SPACE EARTH Amatuer 121.9375 12.10
1019Hz
BILE SAT. RES. EXPL .SAT
HIGHER FREQUENCIES
RADIOLOCATION AERONAUTICAL MOBILE
3 x 10-1
120.02 FIXED MOBILE 123.0875 FIXED
BROADCASTING FIXED 1390
INTER- SPACE EARTH FIXED-SAT (E-S) AERONAUTICAL MOBILE 12.23
SATELLITE FIXED MOBILE ** 1392 123.5875
ISM 122.5 .500 GHz

FIXED MOBILE SATELLITE RESEARCH EXPL SAT. MARITIME
(Passive) (Passive) MOBILE ** FIXED 1395
126.0 12.7 LAND MOBILE AERONAUTICAL MOBILE
Gamma-ray
FIXED RADIO ASTRONOMY EARTH EXPL SAT (Passive) SPA CE RESEARCH ( Passive)
1400 MOBILE (R)
MOBILE FIXED 1427 13.2
SATELLITE (E-S)
1020Hz
Fixed (TLM) AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (OR)
128.8125
3 x 10 -2
12.75 LAND MOBILE 1429.5 13.26
SPACE FIXED AERONAUTICAL AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (R)
FIXED
FIXED (TLM)
INTER-
13.36
RADIO-
LAND MOBILE (TLM)
MOBILE
RESEARCH (S-E) SATELLITE MOBILE
LOCATION
SATELLITE
FIXED 1430 MOBILE (R) RADIOASTRONOMY
(Deep Space) (E-S) FIXED-SAT (S-E) FIXED (TLM) LAND MOBILE (TLM)
132.0125 13.41
FIXED
GAMMA-RAY
13.25 1432 AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (R) Mobile* 13.57
AERONAUTICAL RADIONAV. Space Research (E-S) FIXED** MOBILE
134.0 13.4 136.0 FIXED BROADCASTING
Standard RADIO- Radio- 1435 AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (R) 13.6 59
Freq. and LOCATION location MOBILE (AERONAUTICAL TELEMETERING) BROADCASTING
1021Hz
3 x 10 -3
1525 MET. SAT. (S-E)
137.0 13.8 STANDARD FREQ. AND TIME SIGNAL (60 kHz)
MOB. SAT. (S-E) SPACE RES. (S-E) SPACE OPN. (S-E)
Space
Time Signal FIXED 13.75 MOBILE SAT. 61
Research
RADIO- Radio- Mobile ** 137.025 FIXED BROADCASTING Mobile*
Satellite (E-S) LOCATION SAT.(E-S ) location (Space to Earth) Mob. Sat. (S-E) SPACE RES. (S-E) SPACE OPN. (S-E) MET. SAT. (S-E) 13.87
Radio-
ISM 13.560 .007 MHz
RADIO-
14.0 137.175
location
1530
RADIO-
FIXED
MOBILE
MOBILE
MARITIME MOBILE SAT. MOBILE SAT. Mobile MOB. SAT. (S-E) SPACE RES. (S-E) SPACE OPN. (S-E) MET. SAT. (S-E)
SATELLITE
14.0
SATELLITE
Space RADIO FIXED Land Mobile
NAVIGATION
137.825
NAVIGATION
(Space to Earth) (Space to Earth) (Aero. TLM) Mob. Sat. (S-E) SPACE RES. (S-E) MET. SAT. (S-E) AMATEUR AMATEUR SATELLITE
Research NAVIGATION SAT. (E-S) Satellite (E-S) 1535 SPACE OPN. (S-E) 14.25
MARITIME MOBILE SATELLITE 138.0
14.2 (space to Earth) MOBILE SATELLITE (S-E) AMATEUR
142.0 14.35
AMATEUR AMATEUR SATELLITE FIXED Land Mobile 1544 FIXED MOBILE
1022Hz
144.0 Mobile** MOBILE SATELLITE (S-E)
FIXED
SATELLITE (E-S) Satellite (E-S)
3 x 10 -4
RADIO- 144.0
MOBILE
Amateur Amateur Satellite 1545 AMATEUR AMATEUR SATELLITE FIXED Mobile*

AERONAUTICAL MOBILE SATELLITE (R)
MARITIME
LOCATION 149.0 14.4 (space to Earth) Mobile Satellite (S- E) 146.0

FIXED Land Mobile 1549.5 AMATEUR 148.0 14.990
FIXED Fixed Mobile SAT. (E-S) Satellite (E-S) AERONAUTICAL MOBILE SATELLITE (R) MOBILE SATELLITE MOBILE SATELLITE (E-S) MOBILE
FIXED MOBILE 14.47 FIXED 149.9 STANDARD FREQ. AND TIME SIGNAL (15,000 kHz)
SATELLITE (S-E) (space to Earth) (Space to Earth) RADIONAV-SATELLITE 15.005 70
Fixed Mobile FX SAT.(E-S) L M Sat(E-S) 1558.5 MOBILE SATELLITE (E-S) 150.05
150.0 14.5 AERONAUTICAL MOBILE SATELLITE (R) (space to Earth) STANDARD FREQ. Space Research
FIXED EARTH FIXED Mobile Space Research FIXED MOBILE 15.010
FIXED SATELLITE MOBILE EXPL. SAT. SPACE RES. 14.7145 1559 150.8 AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (OR)
(S-E) (Passive) (Passive) AERONAUTICAL RADIONAVIGATION RADIONAV. SATELLITE (Space to Earth) 15.10
1023Hz
Space Research FIXED
3 x 10 -5
151.0 MOBILE Fixed 1610 LAND MOBILE
15.1365 AERO. RADIONAVIGATION RADIO DET. SAT. (E-S) M O B I L E S A T ( E - S ) 152.855
1610.6 BROADCASTING
FIXED Mobile Space Research AERO. RADIONAV. RADIO DET. SAT. (E-S) MOBILE SAT. (E-S) RADIO ASTRONOMY LAND MOBILE
15.35 AERO. RADIONAV. RADIO DET. SAT. (E-S) MOBILE SAT. (E-S) Mobile Sat. (S-E)
1613.8
SPACE RESEARCH EARTH EXPL. SAT. 1626.5 154.0 15.6
RADIO ASTRONOMY (Passive) (Passive) LAND MOBILE FIXED BROADCASTING
FIXED 15.8
(S-E)
Cosmic-ray
FIXED
15.4
FIXED
Will there be space for everyone?
156.2475
FIXED
AERONAUTICAL RADIONAVIGATION
SATELLITE
15.43 MARITIME MOBILE
COSMIC-RAY
1024Hz
3 x 10-6
AERO RADIONAV FIXED SAT (E-S) MARITIME MOBILE
FIXED
Radiolocation
15.63 157.1875
164.0 AERONAUTICAL RADIONAVIGATION MARITIME MOBILE LAND MOBILE 157.45 16.36
EARTH 15.7 1605
MARITIME MOBILE
EXPLORATION RADIO SPACE RES. Radiolocation 1660 FIXED LAND MOBILE 161.575 MOBILE BROADCASTING
RADIOLOCATION 16.6 RADIO ASTRONOMY MOBILE SAT. (E-S) MARITIME 1615
SATELLITE (Passive) ASTRONOMY (Passive) 1660.5 MARITIME MOBILE
168.0 RADIOLOCATION Space Res.(act.) Radiolocation RADIO ASTRONOMY SPACE RESEARCH (Passive) 161.625 MOBILE 90
MOBILE 17.1 1668.4 LAND MOBILE
FIXED METEOROLOGICAL 161.775
RADIOLOCATION
1025Hz
Radiolocation MARITIME MOBILE LAND MOBILE
3 x 10 -7
170.0 RADIO ASTRONOMY AIDS (RADIOSONDE) 17.41 BROADCASTING
INTER- 17.2 1670 162.0125
FIXED MOBILE SATELLITE Earth Expl Sat Space Res. Radioloc. FIXED 17.48
RADIOLOC.
174.5 17.3 MOBILE** FIXED FIXED BROADCASTING
SPACE EARTH BCST SAT. FX SAT (E-S) Radiolocation 1675 17.55
RESEARCH INTER- 17.7 METEOROLOGICAL METEOROLOGICAL
FIXED MOBILE SATELLITE EXPLORATION FIXED SATELLITE (E-S) FIXED BROADCASTING
SATELLITE (s-E)
FIXED
(Passive) SAT. (Passive) 17.8 AIDS (Radiosonde) 1705
MOBILE
176.5 1700 17.9
FIXED SATELLITE (S-E) FIXED 18.3 AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (R)
INTER- 17.97
FIXED MOBILE FIXED SATELLITE (S-E) 173.2 AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (OR)
SATELLITE 18.6
(s-E)
FIXED Land Mobile 18.03
Fixed
FIXED
SPACE RES. FX SAT (S-E) EARTH EXPL. SAT. FIXED
FIXED
173.4
RADIO-
182.0
MET. SAT.
MOBILE
18.8 18.068
TRAVELERS INFORMATION STATIONS (G) AT 1610 kHz
EARTH FIXED MOBILE

LOCATION
RADIO SPACE RESEARCH EXPLORATION 1710 174.0 AMATEUR SATELLITE AMATEUR

(Passive) FIXED SATELLITE (S-E) 18.168 110
ASTRONOMY SATELLITE (Passive) 19.3 FIXED MOBILE Mobile FIXED 1800
185.0 FIXED SATELLITE (S-E) FIXED 1755 18.78
INTER- 19.7 MARITIME MOBILE
FIXED MOBILE FIXED MOBILE 18.9
SATELLITE FIXED SATELLITE (S-E) MOBILE SAT. (S-E) 1850 FIXED BROADCASTING
190.0 20.1 19.02 AMATEUR
FX SAT (S-E) MOBILE SATELLITE (S-E) FIXED
STD FREQ. & TIME SAT (S-E) MOBILE SAT (S-E)
FXFIXED MARITIME MOBILE
FIXED
21.2 19.80 1900

MOBILE
SPACE RES. F I X E D MOBILE EARTH EXPL. SAT. 2000 FIXED

19.990
MARITIME
21.4 STAND. FREQ. & TIME SIG. Space Research
RADIO-
MOBILE SATELLITE (E-S)
RADIO-
MOBILE
MOBILE
RADIONAVIGATION Radiolocation
FIXED 19.995
SATELLITE
SATELLITE
MOBILE
NAVIGATION
STANDARD FREQUENCY & TIME SIGNAL (20,000 KHZ)
NAVIGATION
22.0 2020 20.005
FIXED MOBILE** STANDARD FREQ. Space Research RADIOLOCATION 130
200.0 S P A C E R A D . A S T MOBILE** F I X E D EARTH EXPL. SAT. SPACE RES. EARTH EXPL. SPACE OP. 2025
SPACE RES. EARTH RES. 22.5
FIXED MOBILE EXPLORATION SAT. (E-S)(s-s) SAT. (E-S)(s-s) (E-S)(s-s) MOB. FX. Mobile
(Passive) (Passive) 2110 FIXED 2000
BROADCASTING
202.0 MOBILE FIXED FIXED MOBILE MARITIME
(TV CHANNELS 7-13)

21.0 MOBILE FIXED
22.55 2155 MOBILE
S) AMATEUR AMATEUR SATELLITE
FIXED 2065
FIXED MOBILE INTER-SATELLITE
FIXED
2160 21.45 MARITIME MOBILE (TELEPHONY)
(E-S)
MOBILE
FIXED
FIXED
BROADCASTING 2107
MOBILE
FIXED MOBILE 2180
MARITIME
SATELLITE
23.55 21.85 LAND
MOBILE SATELLITE (S-E) FIXED MARITIME
FIXED MOBILE 21.924 FIXED MOBILE MOBILE
2200 216.0 AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (R) MOBILE
Fixed Mobile Radio- FIXED MOBILE
217.0 SPACE SPACE EARTH location Amateur 22.0 2170
23.6 FIXED MOBILE MARITIME MOBILE (TELEPHONY) 160
(LOS) RESEARCH OPERATION EXPLORATION 220.0 MARITIME MOBILE
SPACE RES. EARTH EXPL. (LOS) (s-E)(s-s) (s-E)(s-s) SAT. (s-E)(s-s) LAND MOBILE FIXED Radiolocation 2173.5
RADIO ASTRONOMY 222.0 MOBILE (DISTRESS AND CALLING)
(Passive) SAT. (Passive) 2290 AMATEUR Radiolocation 22.855 2190.5
FIXED
OF SPECTRUM OCCUPIED.
24.0 SPACE RES..(S-E) 225.0 MARITIME MOBILE (TELEPHONY)
RADIO
SPACE
EARTH
FIXED MOBILE** 23.0 2194
(Passive)
(Passive)
2300 FIXED Mobile*
SATELLITE
RESEARCH
ASTRONOMY
Amateur 23.2
EXPLORATION
AMATEUR AMATEUR SATELLITE 2305
Amateur RADIOLOCATION MOBILE** FIXED AERONAUTICAL MOBILE (OR)
231.0 2310 23.35
FIXED
FIXED Radio- Radiolocation Mobile Fixed MOB FX R- LOC. B-SAT 2320

FIXED MOBILE
MOBILE
SATELLITE (S-E) location 24.05

FIXED
FIXED MOBILE**
MARITIME
MOBILE
FIXED
235.0 Earth Expl. RADIO- Radio- Mobile Radio- Fixed BCST-SATELLITE
SPACE RES. EARTH EXPL. Satellite Amateur
FIXED MOBILE SATELLITE(S-E) (Passive) SAT. (Passive) LOCATION location location 2345 24.89
(Active)
FIXED
AMATEUR SATELLITE AMATEUR

MOBILE
MOBILE
238.0 235.0 190

FIXED
MARITIME
Radio- 24.25 Radiolocation Mobile Fixed FX R- LOC. B-SAT 24.99

FIXED MOBILE SATELLITE (S-E) location
LAND MOBILE
FIXED MOB STANDARD FREQ. AND TIME SIGNAL (25,000 kHz)

a few of which are listed below, address that need.
241.0 24.45 25.005 AERONAUTICAL

2360
RADIO- STANDARD FREQ. Space Research RADIONAVIGATION
Amateur Satellite Amateur RADIONAVIGATION INTER-SATELLITE MOBILE RADIOLOCATION Fixed 25.01 200
LOCATION LAND MOBILE
248.0 25.07 2495
AMATEUR SATELLITE AMATEUR 24.65 2385 MARITIME MOBILE STANDARD FREQ. AND TIME SIGNAL (2500kHz)
ISM 245.0 1GHz

Earth Expl. MOBILE FIXED 25.21
250.0 INTER-SATELLITE
Satellite (Active) RADIOLOCATION SATELLITE (E-S) 2390 LAND MOBILE 2501
EARTH EXPLORATION 25.33
CHAPTER 2: THE WIRELESS SPECTRUM CONUNDRUM
SPACE RES. (Passive) AMATEUR FIXED MOBILE** STANDARD FREQ. Space Research
SATELLITE (Passive) 24.75 2400 25.55 2502
252.0 INTER-SATELLITE F I XRADIOLOCATION
SATELLITE
E D (E-S) RADIO ASTRONOMY STANDARD FREQ. AND TIME SIGNAL
ISM 2450.0 50 MHz

RADIONAVIGATION SATELLITE AMATEUR BROADCASTING 25.67 2505
Earth Standard 2417 26.1
ISM 24.125 0.125 GHz

Exploration Frequency and (E-S) Radiolocation Amateur MARITIME MOBILE
2450
RADIO-
RADIO-
MOBILE
MOBILE
Satellite Time Signal FIXED MOBILE 25.05 26.175
SATELLITE
SATELLITE
FIXED LAND MOBILE
(S-S) F I X ESatellite
D (E-S) FIXED MOBILE Radiolocation FIXED MOBILE** 26.48
265.0 SATELLITE
2. This shrunken view of the NTIAs spectrum chart illustrates the vast number of services and overall complexity when it
Mobile
2483.5 26.95
PLEASE NOTE: THE SPACING ALLOTTED THE SERVICES IN THE SPEC-

FIXED
TRUM SEGMENTS SHOWN IS NOT PROPORTIONAL TO THE ACTUAL AMOUNT

Earth (E-S) RADIODETERMINATION SAT. (S-E) MOBILE SATELLITE (S-E) FIXED
MOBILE
25.25 2500 26.96

Aeronautical
std Exploration
freq e-e-sat FIXED INTER-SAT. MOBILE FX-SAT (S - E) MOBILE**
FIXED
BCST - SAT. MOBILE** FIXED
(E-S)
RADIO-
FIXED
MOBILE
FIXED
25.5
MOBILE
2655 27.23
MOBILE
MARITIME
&Satellite
time e-e-sat
(S-S) (s-s) INTER-SAT. MOBILE E-Expl Sat Radio Ast Space res. FIXED MOBILE**
NAVIGATION ASTRONOMY
FIXED
NAVIGATION SATELLITE
AERONAUTICAL
MOBILE 27.0 MOB** B- SAT. FX FX-SAT 2690 27.41

LAND MOBILE
MOBILE SATELLITE
275.0 FIXED LAND MOBILE

RADIONAVIGATION
Earth Exploration FIXED INTER- MOBILE RADIO ASTRON. SPACE RESEARCH EARTH EXPL SAT
2700 27.54
Satellite (S-S) SATELLITE FIXED MOBILE
27.5 28.0
FIXED MOBILE FIXED AMATEUR AMATEUR SATELLITE 2850
SAT (E-S) AERONAUTICAL METEOROLOGICAL Radiolocation
Maritime
275
29.5 AIDS 29.7 AERONAUTICAL Aeronautical
RADIONAVIGATION LAND MOBILE Radionavigation
FIXED
MOBILE
FIXED SATELLITE (E-S) MOBILE SATELLITE (E-S) 29.8 AERONAUTICAL RADIONAVIGATION Mobile (Radio Beacons) 285
FIXED
ISM 27.12 .163 MHz
2900 29.89 MOBILE (R) MARITIME Aeronautical

29.9 MARITIME FIXED MOBILE
Radiolocation 29.91 RADIONAVIGATION Radionavigation
FIXED SATELLITE (E-S) MOBILE SATELLITE (E-S)
300 GHz
3 MHz
(RADIO BEACONS) (Radio Beacons)

300 kHz
3 GHz
300 MHz
FIXED
30 MHz
30 GHz
to microwaves and now millimeter waves. Today, the prima-
wireless broadband access, demand them. Most solutions,
higher rates, the mainstream needs, such as cellular and
nections, as well as new yet to be discovered applications.
tions such as satellite and radar moved from VHF and UHF
High-frequency (3-30 MHz) applications like land mobile
RADIONAVIGATION
higher frequencies. The wireless industry has been on this
vious solution is to go where the bandwidth is: namely, the
support higher data rates. While not all applications need
ry upward mobility is into the millimeter-wave range. New

moved on to the VHF spectrum, then on to UHF. Applica-
Since higher data rates require more bandwidth, the ob-
Fortunately, there are multiple potential solutions to the
spectrum problem. The primary goal is more bandwidth to
300.0 30.0 3000 300 30.0 3000 300

5G cellular standards use 27 to 40 GHz bands. cram more data into smaller bandwidths:
These movements have been based on having the sup- Higher-level modulation techniques like m-QAM, m-PSK,
porting technology; for example, semiconductors that oper- and OFDM have greatly increased data rates in cellular,
ate reliably at these elevated frequencies. Semiconductors Wi-Fi, and other wireless systems.
like GaAs, SiGe, SiC, and GaN have made microwave and Use of time-division-multiplex (TDM) methods enables
millimeter-wave applications practical. Were still on the up- some services to reduce spectrum usage. For exam-
ward frequency path, and it will only end when someone ple, cellular systems use frequency division multiplexing
figures out the definitive terahertz-frequency devices. (FDM), whereby one block of spectrum is for downlink and
another for uplink. TDM can be used to eliminate one of
SPATIAL DIVERSITY those blocks.
Spatial diversity means that multiple users can use the Data compression can boost data in narrow spectrum.
same band of frequencies without interfering with one an- Some data (e.g., voice and video) can be compressed
other. Also known as frequency reuse, this approach de- and transmitted at lower rates in narrow bandwidths. Dig-
pends on the physics of radio waves. For a given transmit ital TV works this way.
power, as the frequency increases (shorter wavelength), the Multiple-input, multiple-output (MIMO) methods are now
distance traveled becomes smaller. This is summed up in being used to increase data rates in a channel. The data
whats called Friis formula: signal is divided between multiple radios at lower rates
and transmitted simultaneously in the same band.
Pr = PtGtGr2/162d2
SHARED SPECTRUM
Both distance d and wavelength are given in meters. Spectral diversity allows for some spectrum to be shared
The other units are transmitted power (Pt), received pow- successfully. However, certain applications require different
er (Pr), transmitter antenna gain (Gt), and receiver antenna methods to ensure that interference doesnt disrupt the ser-
gain (Gr). Receiver sensitivity (R) in dBm is not considered vices.
in this expression. One example is the use of TV white spaces. White spac-
The message of this formula is that the power at the es are the unused 6-MHz-wide channels for TV broadcast.
receiver gets smaller as distance increases and as the TV signals rarely travel more than 100 miles, so TV stations
wavelength gets shorter. In other words, for a given trans- across the country can use the same frequencies. Yet, if
mit power and fixed antenna gains, the signal at the receiv- new data services utilize the abandoned channels, some
er becomes smaller at the higher frequencies. The higher means is needed to prevent interference to other data users
the frequency, the greater the free space path loss (FSPL). as well as nearby TV stations. Wireless microphones also
Higher frequencies are essential because they offer lots use some of these frequencies and are often victims of in-
more bandwidth and shorter antennas; however, range is terference.
more limited. Cognitive radio offers one way to mitigate this problem.
Since signals dont travel far, the same frequencies can Its a set of hardware and software procedures that can
be used by many without interference. Thats why Wi-Fi, be incorporated into data radios to prevent interference.
Bluetooth, ZigBee, and others can successfully share the For example, cognitive radios listen on or monitor a
unlicensed 2.4 GHz. Signals rarely travel more than 100 me- channel before transmitting. If a signal is present, the ra-
ters or so. dio doesnt transmit; instead it waits or goes to find another
The cellular industry also practices frequency reuse by open channel.
controlling cell-site spacing and using highly directional an- Cognitive radios may also use a database to locate
tennas and power-level control. The 5G standard calls for channels that are available in the local area. The radio que-
adaptive beamforming antennas not only to boost radiated ries the database on the fly via an internet connection to find
power, but to control more precisely who gets the signal so an available channel. Sharing spectrum should become
that it doesnt interfere with another. more widespread through the development of better cogni-
tive-radio techniques.
SPECTRAL EFFICIENCY Recent spectrum-sharing cases include the sharing of
Spectral efficiency refers to boosting data rate in nar- the Unlicensed National Information Infrastructure (UNII)
rower channels. This measure is expressed in bits per hertz 5-GHz spectrum with 802.11ac Wi-Fi and the Department
(bits/Hz). Here are just a few of the tricks being used to of Transportations vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) communica-

tions system called Dedicated Short Range Communica- territory. Perhaps we will rediscover infrared (IR), which has
tions (DSRC). Another sharing negotiation involves the 3.5- already shown promise for data transmission. Remember
GHz band. The Citizens Broadband Radio Service Alliance IRdA? Or maybe we can find a way to repurpose the low-
wants to use parts of this spectrum for LTE cellular service er-frequency spectrum in the HF range (3 to 30 MHz). HF is
that employs interference-mitigating techniques. Various mainly used by hams and international broadcasting. How
incumbent federal agencies are reluctant to give up the can high-speed data be transmitted in this region thats ripe
space or risk interference to a mix of satellite and radar ser- for reassignment? Ideas, anyone?
vices, though. Is there really a spectrum crisis? Some say no. But as
long as spectrum is finite, a shortage will be forthcoming if
SPECTRUM REALLOCATION wireless applications like cellular, broadband, and the In-
One way to free up spectrum is to repurpose existing ternet of Things keep growing at a fast clip. If the FCC and
spectrum thats not being used or only used infrequently. NTIA improve their spectrum management practices and
For example, underutilized military or government spectrum support growth, its possible to minimize or even avoid these
could be reassigned to commercial applications, where it spectrum problems. Lets hope that they can be solved rap-
would be more widely exploited. Such spectrum exchang- idly, responsibly, and non-politically, starting now.
es are difficult to implement, however, because military/gov-
ernment services dont want to compromise their capability Useful References:
or security. But sufficient pressure from the U.S. Senate on Understanding Solutions For The Crowded Electromagnetic Fre-
quency Spectrum
the FCC and NTIA could make it happen. The new book 5G Spectrum and Standards by Geoff Varrall (avail-
One forthcoming reallocation activity involves the re- able from Artech House Publishers) is an excellent guide to 5G plans,
assignment of the higher broadcast TV channels (400- to but also covers the interference and band-sharing issues discussed
here. A must read for all wireless engineers.
800-MHz range) that broadcasters have given up over the The August 2016 issue of IEEE Spectrum magazine has an excellent
years. The FCC is currently implementing auctions that sell article by Mitchell Lazarus titled The Troubled Past and Uncertain
available spectrum, mainly to cellular carriers. They will then Future of Radio Interference. It gives relevant coverage of the interfer-
ence problem and spectrum issues.
share the revenue with the broadcasters that voluntarily The Wireless Innovation Forum (www.wirelessinnovation.org) has
give up their licensed spectrum. Collectively, auctions are some excellent coverage of spectrum.
one tool employed by the FCC to deliver billions in revenue The Defense Advanced Research Project Agency (DARPA) (www.
darpa.mil) is implementing its Spectrum Collaboration Challenge to
to the U.S. Treasury. ensure that the military has sufficient spectrum for future needs.
INNOVATION
Fresh creativity and innovation can surely aid the spec-
trum problem. Developments in Terahertz region compo-
nents could soon push applications into this unchartered

CHAPTER 3:
Unlock Spectral Efficiency

With Digital Modulation
1 1
Todays designers can utilize myriad modern modula- Binary
tion methods to pack ever-increasing data into ever-de- data
creasing spectrum. 0 0
F
undamental to all wireless communications is
modulation, the process of impressing the data to
be transmitted on the radio carrier. Most wireless
(a) ASK
transmissions today are digital, and with the limited
spectrum available, the type of modulation is more
critical than it has ever been.
Carrier
The main goal of modulation today is to squeeze and sine
much data into the least amount of spectrum possible.
That objective, known as spectral efficiency, measures how (b) OOK
quickly data can be transmitted in an assigned bandwidth.
The unit of measurement is bits per second per Hz (b/s/Hz). Higher
Multiple techniques have emerged to achieve and improve frequency
spectral efficiency.
(c) FSK
ASK AND FSK
Lower frequency
There are three basic ways to modulate a sine wave ra-
dio carrier: modifying the amplitude, frequency, or phase.
More sophisticated methods combine two or more of these 1. Three basic digital modulation formats are still
variations to improve spectral efficiency. These basic mod- very popular with low-data-rate short-range wireless
ulation forms are still used today with digital signals. applications: amplitude shift keying (a), on-off keying (b), and
Figure 1 shows a basic serial digital signal of binary ze- frequency shift keying (c). These waveforms are coherent
ros and ones to be transmitted and the corresponding AM as the binary state change occurs at carrier zero crossing
and FM signals resulting from modulation. There are two points.
types of AM signals: on-off keying (OOK) and amplitude
shift keying (ASK). In Figure 1a, the carrier amplitude is two different frequencies called the mark and space fre-
shifted between two amplitude levels to produce ASK. In quencies, or fm and fs (Fig. 1c). FM produces multiple side-
Figure 1b, the binary signal turns the carrier off and on to band frequencies above and below the carrier frequency.
create OOK. The bandwidth produced is a function of the highest mod-
AM produces sidebands above and below the carrier ulating frequency including harmonics and the modulation
equal to the highest frequency content of the modulating index, which is:
signal. The bandwidth required is two times the highest fre- m = f(T)
quency content including any harmonics for binary pulse
modulating signals. f is the frequency deviation or shift between the mark
Frequency shift keying (FSK) shifts the carrier between and space frequencies, or:

ELECTRONIC DESIGN LIBRARY CHAPTER 3: UNLOCK SPECTRUM
1 0 0 1 0 1
f = fs fm proper demodulation of BPSK re-
Serial
binary quires the signal to be compared to
T is the bit time interval of the data data a sine carrier of the same phase. This
or the reciprocal of the data rate (1/ involves carrier recovery and other
bit/s). BPSK complex circuitry.
Smaller values of m produce fewer A simpler version is differential
Phase changes
sidebands. A popular version of FSK BPSK or DPSK, where the received
called minimum shift keying (MSK) 2. In binary phase shift keying, note how bit phase is compared to the phase
specifies m = 0.5. Smaller values are a binary 0 is 0 while a binary 1 is 180. of the previous bit signal. BPSK is
also used such as m = 0.3. The phase changes when the binary state
very spectrally efficient in that you
There are two ways to further im- switches so the signal is coherent. can transmit at a data rate equal to
prove the spectral efficiency for both the bandwidth or 1 bit/Hz.
ASK and FSK. First, select data rates, TABLE 1: CARRIER PHASE In a popular variation of BPSK,
carrier frequencies, and shift frequen- SHIFT FOR EACH PAIR OF quadrature PSK (QPSK), the modu-
cies so there are no discontinuities in lator produces two sine carriers 90
BITS REPRESENTED
the sine carrier when changing from apart. The binary data modulates
one binary state to another. These Bit pairs Phase (degrees) each phase, producing four unique
discontinuities produce glitches that 00 45 sine signals shifted by 45 from one
increase the harmonic content and 01 135 another. The two phases are added
the bandwidth. 11 225 together to produce the final signal.
The idea is to synchronize the stop Each unique pair of bits generates a
10 315
and start times of the binary data with carrier with a different phase (Table 1).
when the sine carrier is transitioning Figure 3a illustrates QPSK with
in amplitude or frequency at the zero crossing points. This is a phasor diagram where the phasor represents the carrier
called continuous phase or coherent operation. Both coher- sine amplitude peak and its position indicates the phase.
ent ASK/OOK and coherent FSK have fewer harmonics and A constellation diagram in Figure 3b shows the same infor-
a narrower bandwidth than non-coherent signals. mation. QPSK is very spectrally efficient since each carrier
A second technique is to filter the binary data prior to phase represents two bits of data. The spectral efficiency is
modulation. This rounds the signal off, lengthening the rise 2 bits/Hz, meaning twice the data rate can be achieved in
and fall times and reducing the harmonic content. Special the same bandwidth as BPSK.
Gaussian and raised cosine low pass filters are used for this
purpose. GSM cell phones widely use a popular combina- DATA RATE AND BAUD RATE
tion, Gaussian filtered MSK (GMSK), which allows a data The maximum theoretical data rate or channel capacity
rate of 270 kbits/s in a 200-kHz channel. (C) in bits/s is a function of the channel bandwidth (B) chan-
nel in Hz and the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR):
BPSK AND QPSK C = B log2 (1 + SNR)
A very popular digital modulation scheme, binary phase
shift keying (BPSK), shifts the carrier sine wave 180 for This is called the Shannon-Hartley law. The maximum
each change in binary state (Fig. 2). BPSK is coherent as data rate is directly proportional to the bandwidth and log-
the phase transitions occur at the zero crossing points. The arithmically proportional the SNR. Noise greatly diminishes
90 90 3. Modulation can be represented

01 00 without time domain waveforms. For
example, QPSK can be represented
with a phasor diagram (a) or a
180 0 180 0 constellation diagram (b), both of
which indicate phase and amplitude
magnitudes.
11 10
(a) 270 (b) 270

ELECTRONIC DESIGN LIBRARY CHAPTER 3: UNLOCK SPECTRUM EFFICIENCY
90 90 5. 16APSK uses two

4. 16QAM uses a amplitude levels,
mix of amplitudes A1 A1 and A2, plus

and phases to 16 different phase
achieve 4 bits/Hz. positions with an
180 0 In this example, A2 offset of . This
180 0
there are three technique is widely
amplitudes and 12 used in satellites.
phase shifts.
270
270
the data rate for a given bit error rate (BER).

Another key factor is the baud rate, or the number of of M-PSK is that the constant carrier amplitude means that
modulation symbols transmitted per second. The term sym- more efficient nonlinear power amplification can be used.
bol in modulation refers to one
0209EEmodulation-FIGURE 4 specific state of a sine car-
rier signal. It can be an amplitude, a frequency, a phase, or QAM
some combination of them. Basic binary transmission uses The creation of symbols that are some combination of
one bit per symbol. amplitude and phase can carry the concept of transmitting
In ASK, a binary 0 is one amplitude and a binary 1 is an- more bits per symbol further. This method is called quadra-
other amplitude. In FSK, a binary 0 is one carrier frequency ture amplitude modulation (QAM). For example, 8QAM
and a binary 1 is another frequency. BPSK uses a 0 shift for uses four carrier phases plus two amplitude levels to trans-
a binary 0 and a 180 shift for a binary 1. In each of these mit 3 bits per symbol. Other popular variations are 16QAM,
cases there is one bit per symbol. 64QAM, and 256QAM, which transmit 4, 6, and 8 bits per
Data rate in bits/s is calculated as the reciprocal of the symbol respectively (Fig. 4).
bit time (tb): While QAM is enormously efficient of spectrum, it is more
bits/s = 1/tb difficult to demodulate in the presence of noise, which is
mostly random amplitude variations. Linear power amplifi-
With one symbol per bit, the baud rate is the same as cation is also required. QAM is very widely used in cable
the bit rate. However, if you transmit more bits per symbol, TV, Wi-Fi wireless local-area networks (LANs), satellites, and
the baud rate is slower than the bit rate by a factor equal cellular telephone systems to produce maximum data rate
to the number of bits per symbol. For example, if 2 bits per in limited bandwidths.
symbol are transmitted, the baud rate is the bit rate divided
by 2. For instance, with QPSK, a 70-Mbit/s data stream is APSK
transmitted at a baud rate of Amplitude phase shift keying (APSK), a variation of both
M-PSK and QAM, was created in response to the need for
M-PSK an improved QAM. Higher levels of QAM such as 16QAM
QPSK produces two bits per symbol, making it very and above have many different amplitude levels as well as
spectrally efficient. QPSK can be referred to as 4-PSK be- phase shifts. These amplitude levels are more susceptible
cause there are four amplitude-phase combinations. By us- to noise.
ing smaller phase shifts, more bits can be transmitted per Furthermore, these multiple levels require linear power
symbol. Some popular variations are 8-PSK and 16-PSK. amplifiers (PAs) that are less efficient than nonlinear (e.g.,
8-PSK uses eight symbols with constant carrier ampli- class C.). The fewer the number of amplitude levels or the
tude 45 shifts between them, enabling 3 bits to be trans- smaller the difference between the amplitude levels, the
mitted for each symbol. 16-PSK uses 22.5 shifts of con- greater the chance to operate in the nonlinear region of the
stant amplitude carrier signals. This arrangement results in PA to boost power level.
a transmission of 4 bits per symbol. APSK uses fewer amplitude levels. It essentially arrang-
While M-PSK is much more spectrally efficient, the great- es the symbols into two or more concentric rings with a
er the number of smaller phase shifts, the more difficult the constant phase offset . For example, 16APSK uses a dou-
signal is to demodulate in the presence of noise. The benefit ble-ring PSK format (Fig. 5). This is called 4-12 16APSK with

56 subcarriers
20-MHz channel TABLE 2: SPECTRAL EFFICIENCY

FOR POPULAR DIGITAL
MODULATION METHODS
Type of modulation Spectral efficiency (bits/s/Hz)
FSK <1 (depends on modulation index)
GMSK 1.35
BPSK 1
QPSK 2
312.5-kHz 312.5-kHz Each subcarrier
subcarrier subcarrier modulated by 8PSK 3
spacing bandwidth BPSK, QPSK,
16QAM, or 64QAM 16QAM 4
6. In the OFDM signal for the IEEE 802.11n Wi-Fi standard, 56
64QAM 6
subcarriers are spaced 312.5 kHz in a 20-MHz channel. Data
rates to 300 Mbits/s can be achieved with 64QAM. >10 (depends on the type of modulation
OFDM
and the number of subcarriers)
four symbols in the center ring and 12 in the outer ring. Currently, OFDM is the most popular form of digital mod-
Two close amplitude levels allow the amplifier to operate ulation. It is used in Wi-Fi LANs, WiMAX broadband wire-
closer to the nonlinear region, improving efficiency as well less, Long Term Evolution (LTE) 4G cellular systems, digital
as power output. APSK is used primarily in satellites since it subscriber line (DSL) systems, and in most power-line com-
is a good fit with the popular traveling wave tube (TWT) PAs. munications (PLC) applications. For more, see Orthogonal
Frequency-Division Multiplexing (OFDM): FAQ Tutorial, at
OFDM http://mobiledevdesign.com/tutorials/ofdm.
Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM)
combines modulation and multiplexing techniques to im- DETERMINING SPECTRAL EFFICIENCY
prove spectral efficiency. A transmission channel is divided Again, spectral efficiency is a measure of how quickly
into many smaller subchannels or subcarriers. The subcar- data can be transmitted in an assigned bandwidth, and
rier frequencies and spacings are chosen so theyre orthog- the unit of measurement is bits/s/Hz (b/s/Hz). Each type of
onal to one another. Their spectra wont interfere with one modulation has a maximum theoretical spectral efficiency
another, then, so no guard bands are required (Fig. 6).
0209EEmodulation-FIGURE measure (Table 2).
6
The serial digital data to be transmitted is subdivided SNR is another important factor that influences spectral
into parallel slower data rate channels. These lower data efficiency. It also can be expressed as the carrier to noise
rate signals are then used to modulate each subcarrier. The power ratio (CNR). The measure is the BER for a given CNR
most common forms of modulation are BPSK, QPSK, and value. BER is the percentage of errors that occur in a given
several levels of QAM. BPSK, QPSK, 16QAM, and 64QAM number of bits transmitted. As the noise becomes larger
are defined with 802.11n. Data rates up to about 300 Mbits/s compared to the signal level, more errors occur.
are possible with 64QAM. Some modulation methods are more immune to noise
The complex modulation process is only produced by than others. Amplitude modulation methods like ASK/OOK
digital signal processing (DSP) techniques. An inverse fast and QAM are far more susceptible to noise so they have a
Fourier transform (IFFT) generates the signal to be trans- higher BER for a given modulation. Phase and frequency
mitted. An FFT process recovers the signal at the receiver. modulation (BPSK, FSK, etc.) fare better in a noisy environ-
OFDM is very spectrally efficient. That efficiency level ment so they require less signal power for a given noise
depends on the number of subcarriers and the type of mod- level (Fig. 7).
ulation, but it can be as high as 30 bits/s/Hz. Because of the
wide bandwidth it usually occupies and the large number of OTHER FACTORS AFFECTING SPECTRAL EFFICIENCY
subcarriers, it also is less prone to signal loss due to fading, While modulation plays a key role in the spectral effi-
multipath reflections, and similar effects common in UHF ciency you can expect, other aspects in wireless design
and microwave radio signal propagation. influence it as well. For example, the use of forward error

correction (FEC) techniques can greatly improve the BER. 103
Such coding methods add extra bits so errors can be de-

tected and corrected.
These extra coding bits add overhead to the signal, 104
reducing the net bit rate of the data, but thats usually an
acceptable tradeoff for the single-digit dB improvement in
CNR. Such coding gain is common to almost all wireless 105
64QAM
systems today. QPSK
8PSK
Digital compression is another useful technique. The
digital data to be sent is subjected to a compression algo- 106
BER
BPSK 16QAM
rithm that greatly reduces the amount of information. This 8QAM
allows digital signals to be reduced in content so they can

be transmitted as shorter, slower data streams. 107
For example, voice signals are compressed for digital
cell phones and voice over Internet protocol (VoIP) phones.
Music is compressed in MP3 or AAC files for faster transmis- 108
sion and less storage. Video is compressed so high-resolu-
tion images can be transmitted faster or in bandwidth-lim-
ited systems. 109
6 10 14 18 22 26 30
Another factor affecting spectral efficiency is the use of CNR (dB)
multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO), which is the use of 7. This is a comparison of several popular modulation
multiple antennas and transceivers to transmit two or more methods and their spectral efficiency expressed in terms of
bit streams. A single high-rate stream is divided into two BER versus CNR. Note that for a given BER, a greater CNR
parallel streams and transmitted in the same bandwidth si- is needed for the higher QAM levels.
multaneously.
By coding the streams and their unique path characteris- mixers are summed 0209EEmodulation-FIGURE
to produce the signal
7 to be transmitted.
tics, the receiver can identify and demodulate each stream If the carrier signal is at the final transmission frequency,
and reassemble it into the original stream. MIMO, therefore, the composite signal is ready to be amplified and sent to
improves data rate, noise performance, and spectral effi- the antenna. This is called direct conversion. Alternately, the
ciency. Newer wireless LAN (WLAN) standards like 802.11n carrier signal may be at a lower intermediate frequency (IF).
and 802.11ac/ad and cellular standards like LTE and Wi- The IF signal is upconverted to the final carrier frequency
MAX use MIMO. by another mixer before being applied to the transmitter PA.
At the receiver, the signal from the antenna is amplified
IMPLEMENTING MODULATION AND DEMODULATION and downconverted to IF or directly to the original base-
In the past, unique circuits implemented modulation and band signals. The amplified signal from the antenna is ap-
demodulation. Today, most modern radios are software-de- plied to mixers along with the carrier signal. Again, there is
fined radios (SDR) where functions like modulation and a 90 shift between the carrier signals applied to the mixers.
demodulation are handled in software. DSP algorithms do The mixers produce the original baseband analog sig-
the job previously assigned to modulator and demodulator nals, which are then digitized in a pair of analog-to-digital
circuits. converters (ADCs) and sent to the DSP circuitry where de-
The modulation process begins with the data to be modulation algorithms recover the original digital data.
transmitted being fed to a DSP device that generates two There are three important points to consider. First, the
digital outputs, which are needed to define the amplitude modulation and demodulation processes use two signals in
and phase information required at the receiver to recover quadrature with one another. The DSP calculations call for
the data. The DSP produces two baseband streams that are two quadrature signals if the phase and amplitude are to
sent to digital-to-analog converters (DACs) that produce the be preserved and captured during modulation or demod-
analog equivalents. ulation.
These modulation signals feed the mixers along with the Second, the DSP circuitry may be a conventional pro-
carrier. There is a 90 shift between the carrier signals to grammable DSP chip or may be implemented by fixed digi-
the mixers. The resulting quadrature output signals from the tal logic implementing the algorithm. Fixed logic circuits are

smaller and faster and are preferred for their low latency in signal that can be modulated into a narrow band. Such dig-
the modulation or demodulation process. ital modulation techniques are expected to meet the nar-
Third, the PA in the transmitter needs to be a linear ampli- rowbanding goal and provide some additional performance
fier if the modulation is QPSK or QAM to faithfully reproduce advantages.
the amplitude and phase information. For ASK, FSK, and New modulation techniques and protocolsincluding
BPSK, a more efficient non-linear amplifier may be used. P25, TETRA, DMR, dPMR, and NXDNhave been devel-
The Pursuit Of Greater Spectral Efficiency oped to meet this need. All of these new methods must meet
With spectrum being a finite entity, it is always in short the requirements of the FCCs Part 90 regulations and/or the
supply. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) regulations of the European Telecommunications Standards
and other government bodies have assigned most of the Institute (ETSI) standards such as TS-102 490 and TS-102-
electromagnetic frequency spectrum over the years, and 658 for LMR.
most of that is actively used. The most popular digital LMR technology, P25, is al-
Shortages now exist in the cellular and land mobile radio ready in wide use in the U.S. with 12.5-kHz channels. Its
sectors, inhibiting the expansion of services such as high frequency division multiple access (FDMA) method divides
data speeds as well as the addition of new subscribers. the assigned spectrum into 6.25-kHz or 12.5-kHz channels.
One approach to the problem is to improve the efficiency of Phase I of the P25 project uses a four-symbol FSK
usage by squeezing more users into the same or less spec- (4FSK) modulation scheme to get two bits per symbol and
trum and achieving higher data rates. Improved modulation a 9600-bit/s data rate in a 12.5-KHz channel. With 4FSK,
and access methods can help. the carrier frequency is shifted by 1.8 kHz or 600 Hz to
One of the most crowded areas of spectrum is the land achieve the four symbols.
mobile radio (LMR) and private mobile radio (PMR) spec- In Phase 2, a compatible QPSK modulation scheme is
trum used by the federal government, state governments, used to achieve a similar data rate in a 6.25-kHz channel.
and local public safety agencies like fire and police depart- The phase is shifted either 45 or 135 to get the four
ments. Currently theyre assigned spectrum by FCC license symbols. A unique demodulator has been developed to
in the 150- to 174-MHz VHF spectrum and the 421- to 512- detect either the 4FSK or QPSK signal to recover the digi-
MHz UHF spectrum. tal voice. Only different modulators on the transmit end are
Most radio systems and handsets use FM analog mod- needed to make the transition from Phase 1 to Phase 2.
ulation that occupies a 25-kHz channel. Recently the FCC The most widespread digital LMR technology outside of
has required all such radios to switch over to 12.5-kHz the U.S. is TETRA, or Terrestrial Trunked Radio. This ETSI
channels. This conversion, known as narrowbanding, dou- standard is universally used in Europe as well as in Africa,
bles the number available channels. Asia, and Latin America. Its time division multiple access
Narrowbanding is expected to improve a radios ability to (TDMA) approach multiplexes four digital voice or data sig-
get access to a channel. It also means that more radios can nals into a 25-kHz channel.
be added to the system. This conversion must take place A single channel is used to support a digital stream of
before January 1, 2013. Otherwise, an agency or business four time slots for the digital data for each subscriber. This is
could lose its license or be fined. This switchover will be ex- equivalent to four independent signals in adjacent 6.25-kHz
pensive as new radio systems and handsets are required. channels. The modulation is /4-DQPSK, and the data rate
In the future, the FCC is expected to mandate a further is 7.2 kbits/s per time slot.
change from the 12.5-kHz channels to 6.25-kHz channels, Another ETSI standard, digital mobile radio (DMR), uses
again doubling capacity without increasing the amount of a 4FSK modulation scheme in a 12.5-kHz channel. It can
spectrum assigned. No date for that change has been as- achieve a 6.25-kHz channel equivalent in a 12.5-kHz chan-
signed. nel by using two-slot TDMA. The voice is digitally coded
The new equipment can use either analog or digital with error correction, and the basic rate is 3.6 kbits/s. The
modulation. It is possible to put standard analog FM in a data rate in the 12.5-kHz band is 9600 kbits/s.
12.5-kHz channel by adjusting the modulation index and A similar technology is dPMR, or digital private mobile
using other bandwidth-narrowing techniques. However, an- radio standard. This ETSI standard also uses a 4FSK mod-
alog FM in a 6.25-kHz channel is unworkable, so a digital ulation scheme, but the access is FDMA in 6.25-kHz chan-
technique must be used. nels. The voice coding rate is also 3.6 kbits/s with error cor-
Digital methods digitize the voice signal and use com- rection.
pression techniques to produce a very low-rate serial digital LMR manufacturers Icom and Kenwood have developed

NXDN, another standard for LMR. It is designed to operate the data rate in a remote satellite as required by the ever
in either 12.5- or 6.25-kHz channels using digital voice com- increasing demand for more traffic capacity. The answer
pression and a four-symbol FSK system. A channel may be lies in simply creating and implementing a more spectrally
selected to carry voice or data. efficient modulation method. Thats what NovelSat did. Its
The basic data rate is 4800 bits/s. The access method NS3 modulation method increases bandwidth capacity up
is FDMA. NXDN and dPMR are similar, as they both use to 78%.
4FSK and FDMA in 6.25-kHz channels. The two methods One commonly used satellite transmission standard,
are not compatible, though, as the data protocols and other DVB-S2, is a single carrier (typically L-band, 950 to 1750
features are not the same. MHz) that can use QPSK, 8PSK, 16APSK, and 32APSK
Because all of these digital techniques are similar and modulation with different forward error correction (FEC)
operate in standard frequency ranges, Freescale Semicon- schemes. The most common application is video transmis-
ductor was able to make a single-chip digital radio that in- sion.
cludes the RF transceiver plus an ARM9 processor that can NS3 improves on DVB-S2 by offering 64APSK with low
be programmed to handle any of the digital standards. The density parity check (LDPC) coding. It provides a maxi-
MC13260 system-on-a-chip (SoC) can form the basis of a mum data rate of 358 Mbits/s in a 72-MHz transponder. Be-
handset radio for any one if not multiple protocols. cause the modulation is APSK, the TWT PAs dont have to
Another example of modulation techniques improving be backed off to preserve perfect linearity. As a result, they
spectral efficiency and increasing data throughput in a giv- can operate at a higher power level and achieve the higher
en channel is a new technique from NovelSat called NS3 data rate with a lower CNR than DVB-S2. NovelSat offers its
modulation. Satellites are positioned in an orbit around the NS1000 modulator and NS2000 demodulator units to up-
equator about 22,300 miles from earth. This is called the grade satellite systems to NS3. In most applications, NS3
geostationary orbit, and satellites in it rotate in synchroni- provides a data rate boost over DVB-S2 for a given CNR.
zation with the earth so they appear fixed in place, making
them a good signal relay platform from one place to another Acknowledgment
on earth. Special thanks to marketing director Debbie Greenstreet and tech-
Satellites carry several transponders that pick up the nical marketing manager Zhihong Lin at Texas Instruments as well
weak uplink signal from earth and retransmit it on a different as David Furstenberg, chairman of NovelSat, for their help with
frequency. These transponders are linear and have a fixed this article.
bandwidth, typically 36 MHz. Some of the newer satellites
have 72-MHz channel transponders. With a fixed band-
width, the data rate is somewhat fixed as determined by the
modulation scheme and access methods.
The question is how one deals with the need to increase

CHAPTER 4:
Fundamentals of Communications:
Multiplexing and Access Technologies
A
ccess methods are multiplexing techniques that homes. The coax cable has a useful bandwidth from about 4
provide communications services to multiple MHz to 1 GHz. This bandwidth is divided up into 6-MHz wide
users in a single-bandwidth wired or wireless channels. Initially, one TV station or channel used a single
medium. Communications channels, whether 6-MHz band. But with digital techniques, multiple TV chan-
theyre wireless spectrum segments or cable nels may share a single band today thanks to compression
connections, are expensive. Communications services and multiplexing techniques used in each channel.
providers must engage multiple paid users over limited This technique is also used in fiber optic communica-
resources to make a profit. Access methods allow many users tions systems. A single fiber optic cable has enormous
to share these limited channels to provide the economy of bandwidth that can be subdivided to provide FDMA. Dif-
scale necessary for a successful communications business. ferent data or information sources are each assigned a dif-
There are five basic access or multiplexing methods: ferent light frequency for transmission. Light generally isnt
frequency division multiple access (FDMA), time division referred to by frequency but by its wavelength (). As a re-
multiple access (TDMA), code division multiple access sult, fiber optic FDMA is called wavelength division multiple
(CDMA), orthogonal frequency division multiple access access (WDMA) or just wavelength division multiplexing
(OFDMA), and spatial division multiple access (SDMA). (WDM).
One of the older FDMA systems is the original analog
FDMA telephone system, which used a hierarchy of frequency
FDMA is the process of dividing one channel or band- multiplex techniques to put multiple telephone calls on a
width into multiple individual bands, each for use by a sin- single line. The analog 300-Hz to 3400-Hz voice signals
gle user (Fig. 1). Each individual band or channel is wide were used to modulate subcarriers in 12 channels from 60
enough to accommodate the signal spectra of the trans- kHz to 108 kHz. Modulator/mixers created single sideband
missions to be propagated. The data to be transmitted is (SSB) signals, both upper and lower sidebands. These sub-
modulated on to each subcarrier, and all of them are linearly carriers were then further frequency multiplexed on sub-
mixed together. carriers in the 312-kHz to 552-kHz range using the same
The best example of this is the cable television system. modulation methods. At the receiving end of the system,
The medium is a single coax cable that is used to broad- the signals were sorted out and recovered with filters and
cast hundreds of channels of video/audio programming to demodulators.
Original aerospace telemetry systems used an FDMA
Shared bandwidth
system to accommodate multiple sensor data on a single
One band
Subchannels
per user radio channel. Early satellite systems shared individual 36-
MHz bandwidth transponders in the 4-GHz to 6-GHz range
with multiple voice, video, or data signals via FDMA. Today,
all of these applications use TDMA digital techniques.
F1 F2 F3 F10 F11 F12
Frequency
TDMA
1. FDMA divides the shared medium bandwidth into TDMA is a digital technique that divides a single chan-
individual channels. Subcarriers modulated by the nel or band into time slots. Each time slot is used to transmit
information to be transmitted occupy each subchannel. one byte or another digital segment of each signal in se-

ELECTRONIC DESIGN LIBRARY CHAPTER 4: FUNDAMENTALS OF COMMUNICATIONS
125 s Digital voice

5.2 s 13 kbits/s
User
1 2 3 4 5 23 24 1 XOR
number
Modulator
8-bit words Sync bit
1.2288-Mbit/s Power
193 bits amplifier
chipping
signal
Code
2. This T1 digital telephony frame illustrates TDM and TDMA. generator Carrier
Each time slot is allocated to one user. The high data rate
makes the user unaware of the lack of simultaneity. 4. Spread spectrum is the technique of CDMA. The
compressed and digitized voice signal is processed in an
quential serial data format. This technique works well with XOR logic circuit along with a higher-frequency coded
slow voice data signals, but its also useful for compressed chipping signal. The result is that the digital voice is spread
video and other high-speed data. over a much wider bandwidth that can be shared with other
A good example is the widely used T1 transmission sys- users using different codes.
tem, which has been used for years in the telecom industry.
T1 lines carry up to 24 individual voice telephone calls on CDMA
a single line (Fig. 2). Each voice signal usually covers 300 CDMA is another pure digital technique. It is also known
Hz to 3000 Hz and is digitized at an 8-kHz rate, which is as spread spectrum because it takes the digitized version
just a bit more than the minimal Nyquist rate of two times of an analog signal and spreads it out over a wider band-
the highest-frequency component needed to retain all the width at a lower power level. This method is called direct
analog content. sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) as well (Fig. 4). The
The digitized voice appears as individual serial bytes digitized and compressed voice signal in serial data form
that occur at a 64-kHz rate, and 24 of these bytes are inter- is spread by processing it in an XOR circuit along with a
leaved, producing one T1 frame of data. The frame occurs chipping signal at a much higher frequency. In the cdma IS-
at a 1.536-MHz rate (24 by 64 kHz) for a total of 192 bits. A 95 standard, a 1.2288-Mbit/s chipping signal spreads the
single synchronizing bit is added for timing purposes for an digitized compressed voice at 13 kbits/s.
overall data rate of 1.544 Mbits/s. At the receiving end, the The chipping signal is derived from a pseudorandom
individual voice bytes are recovered at the 64-kHz rate and code generator that assigns a unique code to each user
passed through a digital-to-analog converter (DAC) that re- of the channel. This code spreads the voice signal over a
produces the analog voice. bandwidth of 1.25 MHz. The resulting signal is at a low pow-
The basic GSM (Global System of Mobile Communica- er level and appears more like noise. Many such signals
tions) cellular phone system is TDMA-based. It divides up can occupy the same channel simultaneously. For example,
the radio spectrum into 200-kHz bands and then uses time using 64 unique chipping codes allows up to 64 users to oc-
division techniques to put eight voice calls into one chan- cupy the same 1.25-MHz channel at the same time. At the
nel. Figure 3 shows one frame of a GSM TDMA signal. The receiver, a correlating circuit finds and identifies a specific
eight time slots can be voice signals or data such as texts or callers code and recovers it.
e-mails. The frame is transmitted at a 270-kbit/s rate using The third generation (3G) cell-phone technology called
Gaussian minimum shift keying (GMSK), which is a form of wideband CDMA (WCDMA) uses a similar method with
frequency shift keying (FSK) modulation. compressed voice and 3.84-Mbit/s chipping codes in a
4.615 ms (1248 bits)
5-MHz channel to allow multiple users to share the same
0.577 ms
band.
Time slot OFDMA

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
OFDMA is the access technique used in Long-Term
Evolution (LTE) cellular systems to accommodate multiple
156 bits per user
users in a given bandwidth. Orthogonal frequency division
3. This GSM digital cellular method shows how up to eight multiplexing (OFDM) is a modulation method that divides
users can share a 200-kHz channel in different time slots a channel into multiple narrow orthogonal bands that are
within a frame of 1248 bits. spaced so they dont interfere with one another. Each band

is divided into hundreds or even thousands of 15-kHz wide

subcarriers.
120
The data to be transmitted is divided into many low- sectors Narrow
This user
er-speed bit streams and modulated onto the subcarriers. antenna
on same beam
Area
Time slots within each subchannel data stream are used covered
frequency
is ignored
to package the data to be transmitted (Fig. 5). This tech- per sector
nique is very spectrally efficient, so it provides very high User

data rates. It also is less affected by multipath propagation
effects. Steerable
beam
To implement OFDMA, each user is assigned a group Cell site 360
antenna
of subchannels and related time slots. The smallest group Cell site
(a) antenna (b)
of subchannels assigned is 12 and called a resource block
(RB). The system assigns the number of RBs to each user
as needed. 6. SDMA separates users on shared frequencies by isolating
them with directional antennas. Most cell sites have three
SDMA antenna arrays to separate their coverage into isolated 120
SDMA uses physical separation methods that permit the sectors (a). Adaptive arrays use beamforming to pinpoint
sharing of wireless channels. For instance, a single chan- desired users while ignoring any others on the same
nel may be used simultaneously if the users are spaced far frequency (b).
enough from one another to avoid interference. Known as
frequency reuse, the method is widely used in cellular radio beams that can be focused on specific users, excluding all
systems. Cell sites are spaced from one another to minimize others (Fig. 6b).
interference. One unique variation of SDMA, polarization division mul-
In addition to spacing, directional antennas are used tiple access (PDMA), separates signals by using different
to avoid interference. Most cell sites use three antennas to polarizations of the antennas. Two different signals then can
create 120 sectors that allow frequency sharing (Fig. 6a). use the same frequency, one transmitting a vertically polar-
New technologies like smart antennas or adaptive arrays ized signal and the other transmitting a horizontally polar-
use dynamic beamforming to shrink signals into narrow ized signal.
The signals wont interfere with one another even if
theyre on the same frequency because theyre orthogonal
nel
and the antennas wont respond to the oppositely polarized
c han Hz)
LTE 80 k signal. Separate vertical and horizontal receiver antennas
(1
b lock are used to recover the two orthogonal signals. This tech-
urce
reso
One nique is widely used in satellite systems.
Subcarrier Polarization is also used for multiplexing in fiber optic
spacing
15 kHz systems. The new 100-Gbit/s systems use dual polarization
quadrature phase shift keying (DP-QPSK) to achieve high
speeds on a single fiber. The high-speed data is divided
into two slower data streams, one using vertical light polar-
ization and the other horizontal light polarization. Polariza-
ncy Sev
que en tion filters separate the two signals at the transmitter and
Fre OF
D
(0. M sy receiver and merge them back into the high-speed stream.
5m mb
s) ols
Tim OTHER METHODS

e
5. OFDMA assigns a group of subcarriers to each user. The A unique and widely used method of multiple access is
subcarriers are part of the large number of subcarriers used carrier sense multiple access with collision detection (CS-
to implement OFDM for LTE. The data may be voice, video, MA-CD). This is the classical access method used in Eth-
or something else, and its assembled into time segments ernet local-area networks (LANs). It allows multiple users of
that are then transmitted over some of the assigned the network to access the single cable for transmission. All
subcarriers. network nodes listen continuously. When they want to send

data, they listen first and then transmit if no other signals are
on the line. For instance, the transmission will be one packet
or frame. Then the process repeats. If two or more transmis-
sions occur simultaneously, a collision occurs. The network
interface circuitry can detect a collision, and then the nodes
will wait a random time before retransmitting.
A variation of this method is called carrier sense multiple
access with collision avoidance (CSMA-CA). This method is
similar to CSMA-CD. However, a special scheduling algo-
rithm is used to determine the appropriate time to transmit
over the shared channel. While the CSMA-CD technique
is most used in wired networks, CSMA-CA is the preferred
method in wireless networks.
References
Frenzel, Louis E., Principles of Electronic Communication Systems,
3rd Edition, McGraw Hill, 2008.
Gibson, Jerry D., Editor, The Communications Handbook, CRC
Press, 1997.
Skylar, Bernard, Digital Communications, 2nd Edition, Prentice
Hall, 2001.
Tomasi, Wayne, Advanced Electronic Communications Systems,
4th Edition, Prentice Hall, 1998.


CHAPTER 5:
Antennas 101: An Introductory Guide

for the Non-RF Engineer
A
ntennas are those strange mechanical devices Magnetic flux lines
connected to every radio. They are the
Direction of movement
transducers that convert the voltage from a Electric lines of force
transmitter into a radio signal or the device that
picks the radio signal out of the air and converts
it into a voltage for recovery in a receiver. Antennas come
in an infinite variety of sizes and shapes but one thing is for
sure, no wireless device will work without one. Antennas
are critical to establishing and maintaining a reliable radio
Direction
connection yet they are typically taken for granted and often of travel
left to the last minute in a radio design. Given that antennas
are actually a complex enigma to most engineers, especially 1. An antenna produces both electric and magnetic fields
EEs working with wireless applications for the first time, this that are perpendicular to one another as well as the
brief introduction seeks to provide a baseline education in direction of propagation.
antenna basics to serve as the basis for more extensive
study. tenna usually within several wavelengths (). The far field is
about ten wavelengths or more from the antenna. The far
Just what is a radio wave anyway? field breaks away from the antenna and becomes the radio
A radio wave is a combination of a magnetic field at a right signal. The far field0814EEantennas-FIGURE
is really the most 1useful radio wave al-
angle to an electric field. Both are oscillating at a specific though some applications such as radio frequency identi-
frequency and they travel together in a direction perpen- fication (RFID) and near field communications (NFC) make
dicular to both fields. See Figure 1. These electromagnetic use of the near field which is more akin to the magnetic field
fields move at the speed of light (about 300,000,000 meter around a transformer primary winding.
per second or about 186,400 miles per second) through
free space. And according to Maxwells well-known equa- How does an antenna work?
tions, these fields support and regenerate one another It is the antenna at the transmitter that generates the ra-
along the way but weaken over distance. dio wave. A voltage at the desired frequency is applied to
the antenna. The voltage across the antenna elements and
What are some of the characteristics of a radio wave? the current through them create the electric and magnet-
One of the key features is the orientation of the fields with ic waves respectively. At the receiver, the electromagnetic
the earth. This is called polarization. An antenna is said to wave passing over the antenna induces a small voltage.
be vertically polarized if the electric field is vertical to the Thus the antenna becomes the signal source for the receiv-
earths surface. The antenna is horizontally polarized if it is er input.
horizontal to the surface of the earth.
Will the same antenna work for both transmit and
Are there any other critical features of a radio wave? receive?
Yes. The radio wave is generally said to have a near field Yes, we call that antenna reciprocity. Any antenna will
and a far field. The near field is that field close to the an- work for either transmit or receive. In many wireless appli-

ELECTRONIC DESIGN LIBRARY CHAPTER 5: ANTENNAS 101: AN INTRODUCTORY GUIDE
/2 that produces right hand or left hand circular polarization

(RHCP or LHCP). This again allows frequency reuse by us-
ing different polarizations on two different signals. A helical
antenna made of a spiral conductor and a reflector is com-
a. Transmission line
monly used to produce the circular polarization. The most
common usage is in satellites.
Direction of greatest transmission or reception How does the radio signal propagate from transmitter
to receiver?
There are several ways that a signal moves from one an-
tenna to another. It depends on the frequency of the ra-
dio wave. At low frequencies (< 3 MHz) propagation is by
ground wave where the signal hugs the earths surface.
b. AM radio waves are a good example. Distance is limited
Dipole to a hundred miles or so. At frequencies in the 3 to 30 MHz
range (shortwaves), the signals actually travel up to the ion-
2. A dipole antenna. osphere 30 to 250 miles above the earth where they are
(A) Dipole construction is two /4 elements end to end few refracted back to earth. It is almost like radiating the sig-
in the center by a transmission line. At resonance, the nal so that it appears to be reflected off of a conducting
antenna appears to be a 73 ohm resistor. surface. Very long distances can be achieved as the sig-
(B) Horizontal radiation pattern of a dipole is a figure 8 nals can make several hops from earth to ionosphere and
when looking down on the antenna from above. In 3D
0814EEantennas-FIGURE 2
back several times. But for most wireless communications
the pattern is donut shaped with maximum radiation today the signals are above about 100 MHz to well beyond
perpendicular to the length of the antenna. 10 GHz. These signals, called sky waves, propagate in a
straight line just like light waves. You need a direct line of
cations, the antenna is switched between the transmitter sight (LOS) path from one antenna to another to establish a
and receiver.
Will a vertical antenna receive a horizontally polarized

signal or vise versa?
In most cases, yes. Real-world antennas are rarely perfectly /4 whip
horizontal or vertical so some signal is received. Further-
more, most signals undergo shifts in polarization over the
transmission path due to reflections and other multipath
conditions. Yet, this antenna orientation mismatch does in- Insulating base
troduce some attenuation. If more precisely controlled, the
polarization can be used to multiplex two signals on the
same frequency. In some satellites, a vertically polarized
antenna can transmit one signal while simultaneously trans-
mitting or receiving on a separate horizontally polarized an- Roof of car acts as part of antenna
tenna, on the same frequency. If polarization is a problem
in an application one potential solution is to use circular po-
larization.
What is circular polarization? Transmission line
Just as the name implies, the polarization rotates continu- 3. A ground plane antenna is a /4 vertical element that
ously during transmission making it possible for either hor- works against a ground plane, a large metallic surface, the
izontal or vertical antennas to be used for receiving. For earth or in some cases an array of conductors called radials.
maximum reception a circularly polarized receive antenna The impedance at the base is about 36 ohms. 50 ohm coax
is needed. And oh, by the way, you can have an antenna is commonly used to drive it.
0814EEantennas-FIGURE 3

link. Obviously then the range of the signal has a lot to do Is there truth to the idea that antennas can exhibit gain?
with the height of the antenna. The remaining discussion will For sure. An antenna actually can provide a boost in signal
assume skywave propagation. strength just as effectively as if the signal were amplified
by an electronic amplifier. The antenna does not amplify
What are some of the basic forms an antenna takes? as such but the gain comes about as a result of the sig-
The most common form is the dipole. It consists of two linear nal being concentrated into a narrower beam. The antenna
conductors end to end with a length of one half wavelength becomes more directional. For example, a dipole concen-
(/2). See Fig. 2A. Here, one wavelength () is 300/fMHz in trates the signal into two lobes as you saw in Fig. 2. As a
meters. One half wavelength in feet is 468/ fMHz or 5616/ result, the dipole actually has 1.64 dB power gain over an
fMHz. inches. The term f is the frequency of operation in isotropic antenna. It is called gain in dBi in reference to an
MHz. The transmitter or receiver is connected to the center isotropic source. But since there is no such thing as an iso-
of the antenna usually by a transmission line such as coax tropic source in real life, we usually reference any gain of
cable. The antenna has an equivalent resistive impedance an antenna to that of a dipole (dBd). For example, 0 dBd
of 73 ohms at this point although this impedance varies with = 2.15 dBi.
the height of the antenna above the earth and will become a
complex impedance above or below the operating frequen- Direction of maximum signal
cy. As you can see, the antenna acts like a resonant circuit.
Reception
What are some of the other characteristics of the dipole? Transmission

Usually the dipole is oriented horizontally to the earth giving
Directors
it a horizontally polarized wave. Furthermore, the radiation
from the antenna is not uniform in all directional. An ideal
antenna called an isotropic source radiates spherically or
equally well in all directions. In a dipole, the radiation pat-
tern is shaped like a donut. Looking down on the antenna
Common mounting boom
from above you will see a figure 8 shaped radiation pat-
Dipole
tern. See Figure 2B. The most radiation or best reception
occurs at a right angle to the antenna. This radiation pattern
All elements usually aluminum tubing
is greatly influenced by nearby conductive and non-con-
Reflector
ductive objects.
Transmission line
What are some other physical forms of antennas? a.
A popular variation of the dipole is the ground plane or

Marconi antenna. It consists of a single /4 element that is
mounted vertically. It works with the earth or a metallic base Antenna
called the ground plane (Fig. 3). The ground plane anten-
Direction of maximum radiation or reception
na is really just a half of a dipole with the other element
of the dipole being represented by the ground plane. The Minor lobes
polarization is vertical and the radiation pattern is circular or
omni-directional. b. Major lobe
Are there any other common forms? 4. A Yagi antenna invented by Japanese scientist Dr. Yagi
Yes. A common one at microwave frequencies (> 1 GHz) Uda.
is the patch or microstrip antenna. This is just a square or (A) Yagi construction is a central boom to which is attached
circular patch of conductive material about one half wave- a driven element, a reflector, and one or more directors.
length across. It is usually implemented on a printed circuit The greater the number of elements, the greater the gain
board so is easy to create (Fig. 4a). A loop antenna is also and directivity. 0814EEantennas-FIGURE 5
popular in some non-critical applications. The loop is just (B) The radiation pattern is strongest off the end of the
a continuous loop of conductor, wire or PCB trace, with a boom near the directors. Adding more directors narrows the
circumference of from 0.1 to 1.0. beam and increases the gain.

How is antenna gain expressed? How does a parabolic or dish antenna work?
It is usually expressed in power dB over a dipole. You will The dish is the ultimate directional gain antenna. It uses a
also see the term effective radiated power (ERP) used. dipole or similar antenna but adds a parabolic dish used as
This is the actual amount of power that a dipole would have a reflector. Placing the antenna at the focal point of the pa-
to radiate to produce the same effect as the gain antenna. rabola causes the dish to focus the incoming signal on the
You compute ERP by just multiplying the transmitter output antenna or causes the signal radiated from the dipole to be
power by the antenna gain where the gain is the power ratio focused by the dish into a very narrow beam (Fig. 5). Beam
equivalent of the dB gain figure. Sometimes the gain refer- widths of less than one degree are common. The gain can
ence is to an isotropic radiator rather than a dipole so the be over 50 dB depending on the diameter of the dish. This
term effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP) is used. kind of antenna is great for very small signals such as those
from satellites.
What kind of antenna do you use to get gain?
There are ldifferent ways to get gain. Most of the configura- Are there any other common directional antennas?
tions rely on using multiple antenna elements such as multi- Another excellent directional gain antenna is the phased
ple dipoles or a dipole plus one or more parasitic elements array. This is a group of dipoles or equivalent antennas
to which the signal is not applied directly. A familiar example (patches, slot, etc.) mounted in a rectangular array. A typ-
is the popular Yagi (Fig. 4). The driven element is a dipole. It ical size might be a 4 x 4 or a 16 x 16. The antennas are
is used with a slightly longer element called a reflector three fed with transmission lines that are of specific lengths to
shorter elements called a directors. The parasitic elements produce in phase signals at the antenna elements or delays
focus the beam forward with a radiation direction away from or phase shifts. By controlling the phases of the antennas,
the director. Such an antenna can produce an effective the radiation pattern can be controlled over a wide range
power gain of about 10 dB. By adding more directors, even of beamwidths. With special variable phase shifters, the
higher gain can be achieved. For example, with 7 or more antenna beam can be broadened, narrowed or pointed in
directors a gain of up to 20 dB is possible. The benefit is a specific direction. This is called beam forming. Phased
that the radiation beam width is very narrow. This can help arrays are widely used in military radars but the techniques
minimize interference from other stations nearby. are also being adopted into the cellular radio space to con-
trol the directionality of cell site antennas
Parallel radio waves to improve signal quality.
If an antenna acts like a tuned circuit,

(B)
how can I be sure it has the necessary
Parabolic reflector
Dipole Transmission bandwidth?
Antennas are resonant so do have a Q and
related bandwidth (BW). For most anten-
nas this bandwidth is roughly 10 to 15% of
the resonant frequency. It is important to
be sure the antenna has a broad enough
response to pass all the necessary side-
bands to avoid distortion. Most antennas
are selective so they can get rid of noise
Dipole and some harmonics but you do not want
(C)
Parabolic reflector what we call sideband clipping. If you are
Reception
using a commercial antenna be sure to
look at the selectivity or BW specification
to see that it fits. In antenna construction,
Parallel radio waves
it is the physical dimensions that affect
5. How a parabolic dish works: The antenna is placed at the focal point of BW. For example, making a dipole anten-
the parabola. It may be a dipole and horn or any other type of antenna. The na elements very thin like with wire gives
parabolic dish focus the signal into a very narrow beam representing a huge very narrow bandwidth. But making them
amount of gain. wide with tubing or fanning them out say

in a bow-tie configuration greatly increases bandwidth. any loss related to antenna and transmission line mismatch
losses resulting in reflected power and a higher SWR. How-
How is the antenna connected to the transmitter or re- ever, some measures of efficiency factor in any change in
ceiver? antenna radiation resistance variation that occurs for what-
A transmission line. For short distances this is probably go- ever reasons. Most small antennas are not that efficient.
ing to be a short microstrip line or stripline on a PCB. For Anything better than 50-60% is usually good but always
longer distances, say over a few feet or more, coax cable is seek to increase that if you can.
most commonly used. The important thing is to make sure
the transmission line impedance matches the antenna and Will an antenna designed for one frequency work on an-
transmitter/receiver impedances to ensure maximum power other frequency?
transfer. Most circuits are designed for a 50 ohm imped- Maybe. If the second frequency is close to the antenna de-
ance which is a good match to 50 ohm coax cable. With sign frequency it may work but poorly depending on the
microstrip line you can make the line have any desired char- bandwidth of the antenna. And the SWR on the transmission
acteristic impedance. The tricky part is matching the line line will be higher creating losses. Some antennas will also
to the antenna whose impedance can be any thing from a work well on harmonic frequencies. An antenna for 7 MHz
few ohms to several thousand ohms depending on the type will work fine at the second harmonic of 14 MHz but it will
and other conditions. In most applications, some form of LC have a different impedance so will need to be matched. In
impedance matching network is used to match the antenna general, it is really best to use a separate antenna for each
to the line or line to circuit. If impedances are not matched transmitter or receiver. In cell phones there are multiple an-
there will be reflections and a high standing wave ratio tennas such as the main cellular band antenna, a Bluetooth
(SWR) that will produce significant losses. And speaking of antenna and maybe even a GPS antenna. Typically a sepa-
losses, try to avoid coax if you can as its attenuation is very rate antenna is used with each. Some antenna manufactur-
high at microwave frequencies. Low loss cable is available, ers have addressed this problem with some wide bandwidth
but it still greatly attenuates the signal. Keep the length as models that can handle two frequencies if they are close.
short as practical and do compensate in the transmitter or
receiver for the cable loss with more amplification. What is a ceramic antenna?
A ceramic antenna, also referred to as a dielectric antenna,
What is antenna efficiency? puts the antenna conductors on a dielectric material usually
Antenna efficiency is like efficiency in general, the ratio of ceramic. The effect of this is to greatly reduce the size of
power out to power in. However, there are several ways that the antenna at a given frequency. Antenna length is direct-
it is designed. In most cases efficiencies take into account ly proportional to the wavelength (), the shorter the wave-
the I2R losses, losses in any dielectric, and losses based length the shorter the antenna. For a ceramic antenna, the
on coupling to other devices. What may not be included is length is proportional to / where is the dielectric con-
stant. Therefore, ceramic antennas are much smaller and
Copper patch antenna
are widely used in cell phones and other portable equip-
PCB
ment. Figure 7 shows typical ceramic antennas from Ether-
tronics (www.ethertronics.com) .
Copper ground plane

What is an active antenna?
An active antenna is one that is integrated with some kind of
electronic circuit. Most antennas are typically passive but
an active antenna may add an RF amplifier or some kind of
Feed line FR-4 or other dielectric
tuning arrangement that will allow the amplifier to operate
over a wider range of frequencies.
6. A patch or microstrip antenna is made on a printed circuit What is antenna isolation?

board. At microwave frequencies, it is easy to make arrays Isolation refers to keeping multiple antennas separate from
of patches to form a phased array which will have gain, one another to avoid interaction effects. In some devices
directivity and the ability to incorporate beamforming and especially cell phones where multiple antennas must be
steering. 0814EEantennas-FIGURE 4 squeezed into a small space, coupling between anten-

Should I try to design my own antennas?

If you are not an RF engineer, the answer is probably not.
Antenna design is very specialized more than just a bit
complex. It also is one of those niches where black magic
seems to work. Antenna design is very theoretical but it is
also one that is largely based on empirical work and lots of
experimentation. If the antenna is simple like dipole, ground
plane or loop, it may work out for you. Otherwise, there are
tons of commercial antenna products one the market to
7. Ethertronics Savvi ceramic antennas are available for serve virtually any need. In high-volume applications, you
most wireless standards like Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, WiMAX, and could even get a special antenna designed. For best re-
selected cellular bands. Lengths range from about 4 mm up sults, it is best to buy not build.
to about 14 mm.
REFERENCES
nas can reduce the effectiveness of all of them. Coupling American Radio Relay League, The ARRL Antenna Book, 1991.
detunes the antenna introducing mismatch losses and Frenzel, Louis, E., Principles of Electronic Communications Sys-
can otherwise lower efficiency. The key to good isolation tems, 3rd edition, McGraw Hill, 2008.
is greater physical separation between the antennas. One Volakis, John L., Antenna Engineering Handbook, 4th edition, Mc-
good way to get better isolation is to use a ceramic dielec- Graw Hill, 2007.
tric antenna. These give good isolation such that in some
cases antennas may be placed with in a few millimeters of
one another without drastic results. Isolation is usually ex-
pressed in dB and a good typical isolation is in the 20 to 30
dB or greater range.

CHAPTER 6:
The Fundamentals of Short-Range

Wireless Technology
W
ireless has become a major
POPULAR SHORT-RANGE WIRELESS TECHNOLOGIES
feature for just about every
new electronic product. It Technology Common
Frequency Range Features
or standard applications
adds flexibility, convenience,
Health,
and remote monitoring and ANT+ 2.4 GHz <10 m Low power
sports monitoring
control without expensive wiring and cabling.
<10 m, up to
The range of applications is staggering, from Low-power version Wireless headsets,
Bluetooth 2.4 GHz 100 m with
available audio apps
simple toys to consumer electronic products to higher power
Common
industrial automation. Cellular
cellular bands
Several km Longer range M2M
This great rush to make everything wireless
IEEE Multiple protocols
2.4 GHz <10 m Wireless networks
has produced a flood of different wireless tech- 802.15.4 available
nologies and protocols. Some were established Designed for white Broadband, backhaul,
IEEE 802.22 470 to 768 MHz Many miles
primarily for one application, while others are spaces, cognitive radio not yet used
more general and have many uses. Extra security Industrial monitoring
ISA100a 2.4 GHz <10 m
and reliability and control
WIRELESS TECHNOLOGY CHOICES Infrared Remote control,

800 to 1000 m <1 m Security, high speed
Many wireless technologies are available, (IrDA) data transfer
and most of them are standardized (see the ta- ISM band
Part 15
<10 m Low cost, simplicity Monitoring and control
frequencies
ble at left). Some were developed for specific
applications while others are flexible and ge- NFC 13.56 MHz <30 cm Security Payment, access
neric. Most are also implemented in small, low- 125 kHz,
Tracking, inventory,
cost IC form or in complete drop-in modules. RFID 13.56 MHz, <1 m Low cost
access
902 to 928 MHz
Selecting the technology for a given applica-
tion is the challenge. Monitor and control
6LoWPAN 2.4 GHz <10 m Internet access
via Internet
Low power,
ANT+ UWB 3.1 to 10.6 GHz <10 m
high-speed data
Video transfer
ANT (thisisant.com) and ANT+ are propri-
Local networks, Internet
etary wireless sensor network technologies Wi-Fi 2.4 and 5 GHz <100 m High speed, ubiquity
access, broadband
used in the collection and transfer of sensor Wireless Industrial monitoring
2.4 GHz <10 m HART protocol
data. As a type of personal-area network (PAN), HART and control
ANTs primary applications include sports,
WirelessHD 60 GHz <10 m Very high speed Video transfer
wellness, and home health. For example, its
used in heart-rate monitors, speedometers,
WirelessUSB 2.4 GHz <10 m Proprietary protocol HID
calorimeters, blood pressure monitors, position
tracking, homing devices, and thermometers. ZigBee 2.4 GHz <10 m Mesh networks
Home, industry
monitoring and control
Typical radios are built into sports watches and
equipment like workout machines. Z-Wave 908.42 MHz <30 m Simple protocol
Home monitoring and
control
The technology divides the 2.4-GHz indus-

ELECTRONIC DESIGN LIBRARY CHAPTER 6: THE FUNDAMENTALS OF SHORT-RANGE WIRELESS
trial, scientific, and medical (ISM) LTE capability is also being

band into 1-MHz channels. The made available for higher-speed
radios have a basic data rate of 1 applications like HD video surveil-
Mbit/s. A time division multiplexing lance. Otherwise, data rates are
(TDM) scheme accommodates usually low (< 1 Mbit/s). The work-
multiple sensors. ANT+ supports ing range is from 1 to 10 km, which
star, tree, mesh, and peer-to-peer is the range of most cell sites to-
topologies. The protocol and pack- day.
et format is simple. And, it boasts
ultra-low power consumption and IEEE 802.15.4
long battery life. IEEE 802.15.4 is designed to
support peer-to-peer links as well
BLUETOOTH 1. Put a cell phone in your product. The Sierra as wireless sensor networks. The
Bluetooth (www.bluetooth.org, Wireless AirPrime SL808x series is a full UMTS/ standard defines the basic physi-
www.bluetooth.com) is another WCDMA/HSDPA data cell phone designed to cal layer (PHY), including frequen-
PAN technology. The Bluetooth be embedded into other products. The module cy range, modulation, data rates,
Special Interest Group (SIG) man- measures 25 by 30 mm, and it can transfer data and frame format, and the media
ages the standard. IEEE 802.15.1 downloads up to 3.6 Mbits/s. access control (MAC) layer. Sep-
also covers it. Bluetooth primarily arate protocol stacks are then de-
is used in wireless headsets for cell phones. Its also used in signed to use the basic PHY and MAC. Several wireless
some laptops, printers, wireless speakers, digital cameras, standards use the 802.15.4 standard as the PHY/MAC base,
wireless keyboards and mice, and video games. Bluetooth including ISA100, Wireless HART, ZigBee, and 6LoPAN.
Low Energy, which has a simpler design, targets health and The standard defines three basic frequency ranges. The
medical applications. It effectively competes with ANT+. most widely used is the worldwide 2.4-GHz ISM band (16
Bluetooth operates in the 2.4 -Hz ISM band and uses fre- channels). The basic data rate is 250 kbits/s. Another range
quency-hopping spread spectrum with Gaussian frequen- is the 902- to 928-MHz ISM band in the U.S. (10 channels).
cy shift keying (GFSK), differential quadrature phase shift The data rate is 40 kbits/s or 250 kbits/s. Then theres the
keying (DQPSK), or eight-phase-shift differential phase-shift European 868-MHz band (one channel) with a data rate of
keying (8DPSK) modulation. The basic data gross rate is 20 kbits/s.
1 Mbit/s for GFSK, 2 Mbits/s for DQPSK, and 3 Mbits/s for All three ranges use direct sequence spread spectrum
8DPSK. There are also three power classes of 0 dBm (1 (DSSS) with either binary phase-shift keying (BPSK) or off-
mW), 4 dBm (2.5 mW), and 20 dBm (100 mW), which essen- set quadrature phase-shift keying (QPSK) modulation. The
tially determines range. Standard range is about 10 meters multiple access mode is carrier sense multiple access with
and up to 100 meters at maximum power with a clear path. collision avoidance (CSMA-CA). The minimum defined
Bluetooth is also capable of forming simple networks power levels are 3 dBm (0.5 mW). The most common pow-
of up to seven devices. Called piconets, these PANs arent er level is 0 dBm. A 20-dBm level is defined for longer-range
widely used. The peer-to-peer communications mode is the applications. Typical range is less than 10 meters.
most common. The Bluetooth SIG defines multiple profiles
or software applications that have been certified for interop- IEEE 802.22
erability among vendor chips, modules, and software. Also known as the Wireless Regional Area Network
(WRAN) standard, IEEE 802.22 is one of the IEEEs new-
CELLULAR est wireless standards. Its designed to be used in the li-
With services from most network carriers, cellular radio cense-free unused broadcast TV channels called white
provides data transmission capability for machine-to-ma- space. These 6-MHz channels occupy the frequency range
chine (M2M) applications. M2M is used for remote monitor- from 470 MHz to 698 MHz. Their availability varies from loca-
ing and control. Cellular radio modules are widely available tion to location. The standard isnt widely used yet, though.
to build into other equipment (Fig. 1). Most of the standard White space radios use proprietary protocols and wireless
technologies are used, such as GSM/GPRS/EDGE/WCDMA/ standards.
HSPA on the AT&T and T-Mobile networks and cdma2000/ Because of the potential for interference to TV stations,
EV-DO on the Verizon and Sprint networks. 802.22 radios must meet strict requirements and use cogni-

tive radio techniques to find an unused channel. The radios Mbits/s, 16 Mbits/s, 96 Mbits/s, and 512 Mbits/s to 1 Gbit/s.
use frequency-agile circuitry to scan for unused channels New standards for rates of 5 and 10 Gbits/s are in develop-
and to listen for potential interfering signals. They also use ment. The range is less than a meter.
a TV white space database to determine the optimum place IR has several key benefits. First, since its light instead
to be for the best results without interfering with other com- of a radio wave, it isnt susceptible to radio interference of
munications. any kind. Second, its highly secure since its signals are dif-
This standard is designed for fixed wireless broadband ficult to intercept or spoof.
connections. The basestations talk to multiple fixed-location IR once was widely used in laptops, PDAs, some camer-
consumer radios for Internet access or other services. They as, and printers. It has mainly been replaced by other wire-
would compete with cable TV and phone companies and/or less technologies like Bluetooth and Wi-Fi. It is still widely
provide broadband connectivity in rural areas underserved used in consumer remote controls, but new RF remote con-
by other companies. While mobile operation is possible, trols are gradually replacing the IR remotes in some con-
most radios will be fixed. sumer equipment. Some designs include both IR and RF.
The standard uses orthogonal frequency-division multi-
plexing (OFDM) to provide spectral efficiency sufficient to ISM BAND
supply multiple user channels with a minimum of 1.5-Mbit/s Most of these standards use the unlicensed ISM bands
download speed and 384-kbit/s upload speed. The maxi- set aside by the Federal Communications Commission
mum possible data rate per 6-MHz channel ranges from 18 (FCC) in Part 15 of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR)
to 22 Mbits/s. The great advantage of 802.22 is its use of the 47. The most widely used ISM band is the 2.4- to 2.483-GHz
VHF and low UHF frequencies, which offer very long-range band, which is used by cordless phones, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth,
connections. With the maximum allowed 4 W of effective 802.15.4 radios, and many other devices. The second most
isotropic radiated power (EIRP), a basestation range of 100 widely used band is the 902- to 928-MHz band, with 915
km (almost 60 miles) is possible. MHz being a sweet spot.
Other popular ISM frequencies are 315 MHz for garage
ISA100A door openers and remote keyless entry (RKE) applications
Developed by the International Society of Automation and 433 MHz for remote temperature monitoring. Other less
(www.isa.org/100a), ISA100a is designed for industrial pro- used frequencies are 13.56 MHz, 27 MHz, and 72 MHz. For
cess control and factory automation. It uses the 802.15.4 full consideration of all available bands, see Part 15, which
PHY and MAC but adds special features for security, reli- is a must-have document for anyone designing and build-
ability, feedback control, and other industrial requirements. ing short-range wireless products. Its available through the
U.S. Government Printing Office at www.gpo.gov.
INFRARED For many simple wireless applications that do not require
Infrared (IR) wireless technology uses light instead of complex network connections, security, or other custom fea-
radio for its connectivity. Infrared is low-frequency, invisible tures, simple proprietary protocols can be designed. Many
light that can serve as a carrier of high-speed digital data. vendors of ISM band transceivers offer standard protocol
The primary wavelength range is 850 to 940 m. The trans- support and development systems that can be used to de-
mitter is an IR LED, and the receiver is a diode photodetec- velop a protocol for a specific application.
tor and amplifier. The light wave is usually modulated with a
high-frequency signal that is, in turn, coded and modulated NEAR-FIELD COMMUNICATIONS
by the digital data to be transmitted. Near-field communications (NFC) is an ultra-short-range
Most TV sets and consumer electronic devices use an IR technology that was designed for secure payment transac-
remote control, which has a range of several meters and a tions and similar applications. It maximum range is about 20
narrow angle (<30) of transmission. Various protocols and cm, with 4 to 5 cm being a typical link distance. This short
coding schemes are used. Also, IR devices must have a distance greatly enhances the security of the connection,
clear line-of-sight path for a connection. which is also usually encrypted. Many smart phones in-
There is a separate standard for data transmission clude NFC, and many others are expected to get it eventu-
called IrDA. The Infrared Data Association (www.irda.org) ally. The goal is to implement NFC payment systems where
sets and maintains its specifications. IrDA exists in many consumers can tap a payment terminal with their cell phone
versions mainly delineated by their data rate. Data rates instead of using a credit card.
range from a low of 9.6 to 115.2 kbits/s in increments to 4 NFC uses the 13.56-MHz ISM frequency. At this low fre-

quency, the transmit and receive loop antennas function vide data rates from 53 Mbits/s to 480 Mbits/s. The WiMedia
mainly as the primary and secondary windings of a trans- Alliance originally defined the standard.
former, respectively. The transmission is by the magnetic Devices use ultra-low power to prevent interference
field of the signal rather than the accompanying electric with services in the assigned band. This restricts range to
field, which is less dominant in the near field. a maximum of about 10 meters. In most applications, the
NFC is also used to read tags that are powered up by the range is less than a few meters so the highest data rates
interrogation of an NFC transmitted signal. The unpowered can be used. UWB is used primarily in video applications
tags convert the RF signal into dc that powers a processor such as TV sets, cameras, laptops, and video monitors in
and memory that can provide information related to the ap- docking stations.
plication. Numerous NFC transceiver chips are available to
implement new applications, and multiple standards exist: WI-FI
ISO/IEC 14443A Wi-Fi is the commercial name of the wireless technology
ISO/IEC 14443B defined by the IEEE 802.11 standards. Next to Bluetooth,
JIS X6319-4 Wi-Fi is by far the most widespread wireless technology. It
ECMA 340, designated NFCIP-1 is in smart phones, laptops, tablets, and ultrabooks. Its also
ISO/IEC as 18092 used in TV sets, video accessories, and home wireless rout-
ECMA 352, called NFCIP-2, and ISO/IEC 23917 ers. Its deployed in many industrial applications as well.
Wi-Fi is now showing up in cellular networks where carriers
RFID are using it to offload some data traffic like video that clogs
Radio-frequency identification (RFID) is used primarily the network.
for identification, location, tracking, and inventory. A near- Wi-Fi has been around since the late 1990s when a
by reader unit transmits a high-power RF signal to power version called 802.11b because popular. It offered up to
passive (unpowered) tags and then read the data stored in 11-Mbit/s data rates in the 2.4-GHz ISM band. Since then,
their memory. new standards have been developed including 802.11a
RFID tags are small, flat, and cheap and can be attached (5-GHz band), 802.11g, and 802.11n using OFDM to get
to anything that must be tracked or identified. They have speeds up to 54 and 300 Mbits/s under the most favorable
replaced bar codes in some applications. RFID uses the conditions.
13.56-MHz ISM frequency, but other frequencies are also More recent standards include 802.11ac, which uses
used including 125 kHz, 134.5 kHz, and frequencies in the multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) to deliver up to 3
902- to 928-MHz range. Multiple ISO/IEC standards exist. Gbits/s in the 5-GHz ISM band. The 802.11ad standard is
designed to deliver data rates up to 7 Gbits/s in the unli-
6LOWPAN censed 60-GHz band. You will hear of 802.11ad referred to
6LoWPAN means IPv6 protocol over low-power wireless as WiGig, its commercial designation. Its main use is video
PANs. Developed by the Internet Engineering Task Force transfer in consumer electronic systems with HDTV and in
(ITEF), it provides a way to transmit IPv6 and IPv4 Internet high-resolution video monitors.
Protocols over low-power wireless point-to-point (P2P) links Wi-Fi is readily available in chip form or as complete
and mesh networks. This standard (RFC4944) also permits drop-in modules. The range is up to 100 meters under the
the implementation of the Internet of Things on even the best line-of-sight conditions. This is a great option where
smallest and remote devices. longer range and high speeds are needed for the applica-
The protocol provides encapsulation and header com- tion.
pression routines for use with 802.15.4 radios. The IETF is
said to be working on a version of this protocol for Blue- WIRELESS HART
tooth. If your wireless device must have an Internet connec- HART is the Highway Addressable Remote Transduc-
tion, this is your technology of choice. er protocol, a wired networking technology widely used in
industry for sensor and actuator monitoring and control.
ULTRA WIDEBAND Wireless HART is the wireless version of this standard. The
Ultra Wideband (UWB) uses the 3.1- to 10.6-GHz range base of it is the 802.15.4 standard in the 2.4-GHz band.
to provide high-speed data connectivity for PCs, laptops, The HART protocol is a software application on the wireless
set-top boxes, and other devices. The band is divided up transceivers.
into multiple 528-MHz wide channels. OFDM is used to pro-

2. The CEL implement specific applications for consumer home auto-

MeshConnect module mation, building automation, and industrial control. Exam-
using Ember EM357 ples include building automation for lighting and HVAC
devices makes ZigBee control, as well as smart meters that implement home-area
wireless applications network connections in automated electric meters.
fast and easy to Low-power versions are used in health care for remote
implement. patient monitoring and similar applications. A lighting profile
is available for LED lighting fixtures and their control. There
is also a ZigBee remote control profile to implement an RF
rather than infrared remote control for consumer TV and oth-
er devices. ZigBee is used in factory automation and can
WIRELESSHD be used in many M2M and Internet of Things applications
WirelessHD is another high-speed technology using the as well.
60-GHz unlicensed band. It also is supported by the IEEE
802.15.3c standard. It can achieve speeds to 28 Gbits/s Z-WAVE
over a range that tops out at about 10 meters in a straight, Z-Wave (www.z-wavealliance.org) is a proprietary wire-
unblocked path. It is designed mainly for wireless video dis- less standard originally developed by Zensys, which is now
plays using interfaces like HDMI or DisplayPort, HDTV sets, a part of Sigma Designs. Recently, the International Tele-
and related consumer devices like DVRs and DVD players. communications Union (ITU) included the Z-Wave PHY and
MAC layers as an option in its G.9959 standard, which de-
WIRELESSUSB fines a set of guidelines for sub-1-GHz narrowband wireless
WirelessUSB is a proprietary standard from Cypress devices.
Semiconductor. It is not the same as Wireless USB, which Z-Wave is a wireless mesh networking technology.
is a wireless version of the popular wired USB interface A Z-Wave network can have up to 232 nodes. The wire-
standard. Wireless USB generally refers to Ultra Wide- less transceivers operate in the ISM band on a frequency
band. WirelessUSB NL uses the 2.4-GHz band with GFSK of 908.42 MHz in the U.S. and Canada but use other fre-
modulation. Data rates up to 1 Mbit/s are possible. This ul- quencies depending on the countrys rules and regulations.
tra-low-power technology is designed primarily for human The modulation is GFSK. Data rates available include 9600
interface devices (HIDs) like keyboards, mice, and game bits/s and 40 kbits/s. Output power is 1 mW or 0 dBm. In
controllers. It uses a simple protocol. free space conditions, a range of up to 30 meters is pos-
Another version of WirelessUSB designated LP uses sible. The through-wall range is considerably shorter. The
the same 2.4-GHz band but employs direct-sequence main application for Z-Wave has been home automation
spread-spectrum (DSSS) at a lower speed (up 250 kbits/s) and control of lighting, thermostats, smoke detectors, door
for greater range and reliability in the presence of noise. The locks, appliances, and security systems.
LP version can also implement the GFSK 1-Mbit/s feature if
desired. The maximum power level is 4 dBm, and a 16-bit CRITICAL DESIGN FACTORS
cyclic redundancy code (CRC) is used for error detection. The performance of a wireless link is based on pure
Versions of the transceivers can be had with an on-chip Cy- physics as modified by practical considerations. In building
press PSoC microcontroller. a short-range wireless product or system, the important fac-
tors to consider are range, transmit power, antenna gains if
ZIGBEE any, frequency or wavelength, and receiver sensitivity. Ba-
ZigBee (www.zigbee.org) is the standard of the ZigBee sic guidelines include:
Alliance. It is a software protocol and technology that uses Lower frequencies extend the range if all factors are
the 802.15.4 transceiver as a base. It provides a complete the same. This is strictly physics. A 900-MHz signal will trav-
protocol stack designed to implement multiple types of el farther than a 2.4-GHz signal. A 60-GHz signal has sub-
radio networks that include point-to-point, tree, star, and stantially less range than a 5-GHz signal.
point-to-multipoint (Fig. 2). Its main feature is the ability to Lower data rates will also extend the range and reliabil-
build large mesh networks for sensor monitoring. And, it can ity for a given set of factors. Lower data rates are less sus-
handle up to 65,000 nodes. ceptible to noise and interference. Always use the lowest
ZigBee also provides profiles or software routines that possible data rate for the best results.

Be sure to factor in other possible losses such as dB. The link characteristics then are:
those in a coax transmission line, filters, impedance 4 + 0 + 0 102 10 = 108 dB
matching, or other circuits. To obtain a reliable link, the receiver sensitivity must
Losses through trees, walls, or other obstacles be greater than 108 dBm.
should also be considered.
Add fade margin to your design to overcome un- TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
expected environmental conditions, noise, or interfer- The use of wireless as expanded geometrically over
ence. This ensures your system will have sufficient signal years thanks to new wireless standards and very low-cost
strength over the range to compensate for unknowns. In- transceiver chips and modules. Generally, there is little
crease fade margin if the signal must pass through walls need to invent a new standard or protocol, and there is
and other obstructions. less need to be an RF and wireless expert. Wireless has
Keep in mind that antennas can have gain. By mak- become an easy and relatively low-cost addition to almost
ing the antenna directional, its beam is more focused with any new product where a wireless feature can enhance
RF power and the effect is the same as raising the trans- performance, convenience, or marketability.
mit or receive power. Half-wave dipoles and quarter-wave In the automotive space, remote keyless entry (RKE)
verticals arent considered to have gain unless compared and remote start are the most widespread. Wireless remote
to a pure isotropic source. reading of tire pressures is one interesting feature on some
Your first calculation is to determine possible path vehicles. GPS navigation has also become a widespread
loss for a typical situation. Assume the longest possible option on many cars. Radar, a prime wireless technology,
distance the signal needs to travel and use it to deter- is finding considerable application in speed control and
mine other factors. Then calculate the path loss. The for- automated braking.
mula is: Home consumer electronic products are loaded with
wireless. Virtually all entertainment products such as HDT-
dB loss = 37 dB + 20log(f) + 20log(d) Vs, DVRs, and cable and satellite boxes have remote con-
trols. Theyre still primarily IR, but RF wireless is now being
In this formula, f is the operating frequency in MHz incorporated. Other wireless applications include baby
and d is the range in miles. For example, the path loss of monitors, toys, games, and hobbies.
a 900-MHz signal over 2 miles is: There are also wireless thermostats, remote thermom-
eters and other weather monitors, garage door openers,
dB loss = 37 + 20log(900) + 2-log(2) = 37 + 59 + 6 = security systems, and energy metering and affiliated mon-
102 dB itors. Many homes now have wireless Internet access with
a Wi-Fi router. There may even be a cellular femto cell to
Remember, this is the free space loss meaning a di- boost mobile coverage in the home. Cell phones, cordless
rect line-of-sight transmission with no obstacles. Trees, phones, Bluetooth, and Wi-Fi are widespread.
walls, or other possible barriers will significantly increase Commercial applications include wireless tempera-
the path loss. ture monitoring, wireless thermostats, and lighting control.
Next, manipulate the following formula to ensure a link Some video surveillance cameras use a wireless rather
connection: than coax link. Wireless payment systems in cell phones
Receive sensitivity (minimum) = transmit power (dBm) promises to revolutionize commerce.
+ transmit antenna gain (dB) + receive antenna gain (dB) In industry, wireless has gradually replaced wired con-
path loss (dB) fade margin (dB) nections. Remote monitoring of physical characteristics
Fade margin is an estimate or best guess. It should be such as temperature, flow, pressure, proximity, and liquid
no less than, say, 5 dB, but it could be up to 40 dB to en- level is common. Wireless control of machine tools, robots,
sure 100 % link reliability. Other losses like transmission and industrial processes simplifies and facilitates econo-
line loss should also be subtracted. my and convenience in industrial settings. M2M technolo-
The resulting figure should be greater than the receiv- gy has opened the door to many new applications such as
er sensitivity. Receiver sensitivities range from a low of monitoring vending machines and vehicle location (GPS).
about 70 dBm to 130 dBm or more. Assume a transmit The Internet of Things is mostly wireless. RFID has made
power of 4 dBm, antenna gains of 0 dB, and the 102-dB it possible to more conveniently track and locate almost
path loss calculated above. Assume a fade margin of 10 anything.

CHECKLIST FOR SELECTING A WIRELESS APPLICATION Regulatory issues: Some wireless technologies require
The following list outlines the almost obvious factors to an FCC license. Most of the wireless technologies for short-
consider in selecting a wireless technology: range applications are unlicensed. Only the unlicensed
Range: How far is it from the transmitter to the receiv- technologies are discussed here.
er? Is the distance fixed or will it vary? Estimate maximum Size and space: Is there adequate room for the wire-
and minimum distances. less circuitry? Keep in mind that all wireless devices need
Duplex or simplex: Is the application one way (simplex) an antenna. While the circuitry may fit in a millimeter-sized
or two-way (duplex)? For some monitoring applications, a chip, the antenna could take up much more space. Usu-
one-way path is all thats needed. The same goes for some ally some discrete impedance matching components are
remote control applications. The need for control and feed- also needed. If a separate antenna is required, then a coax
back from transmitter to receiver or vice versa implies the transmission line will be needed as well.
need for a two-way system. Licensing fees: Some wireless technologies may re-
Number of nodes: How many transmitters/receivers quire the user to join an organization or pay royalties to use
will be involved? In simpler systems, only two nodes are the technology.
involved. If a network for devices is involved, determine how User type and experience: Will the user be a consumer
many transmitters and receivers are needed and define the with no wireless competency or an experienced technician
necessary interaction between them. or engineer? Will installation and operation require exper-
Data rate: What speed will data occur? Is it low speed tise? System complexity may be beyond the users capabil-
for monitoring and control or high speed for video transfer? ity. Ease of installation, setup, operation, and maintenance
The lowest speed is best for link reliability and noise immu- are crucial factors.
nity. Security: If security from hacking and other misuses is
Potential interference: Will there be other nearby wire- an issue, the use of encryption and authentication may be
less devices and systems? If so, they may interfere with or necessary. Most wireless standards or protocols have secu-
block the connection. Noise from machinery, power lines, rity measures that may be used as applications determine.
and other interference sources should also be considered.
Environment: Is the application indoors or outdoors? If References
outdoors, are there physical obstacles like buildings, trees, Bensky, Alan, Short-range Wireless Communications, LLH Tech-
vehicles, or other structures that can block or reflect a sig- nology Publishing (now Elsevier), 2000
nal? If indoors, will the signals have to pass through walls, Donovan, John, Portable Electronics, Elsevier/Newnes, 2009
floors or ceilings, furniture, or other items? Fette et al., RF & Wireless Technologies, Elsevier/Newnes, 2008
Power source: Will ac power be available? If not, as- U.S. Code of Federal Regulations 47, Part 15
sume battery operation. Consider battery, size, life, re-
charging needs, battery replacement intervals, and related
costs. Will adding wireless significantly increase the power
consumption of the application? Is energy harvesting or so-
lar power a possibility?

CHAPTER 7:
In a Nutshell: More Wireless Is the Future

E
lectronics is all about communications. It all es greater speeds. LTE-A uses carrier aggregation (CA) to
started with the telegraph in 1845, followed by boost speed. CA combines LTEs standard 20 MHz band-
the telephone in 1876., but communications widths into 40, 80, or 100 MHz chunks, either contiguous or
really took off at the turn of the 20th century with not, to enable higher data rates. LTE-A also specifies MIMO
wireless and the vacuum tube. Today it dominates configurations to 8 x 8. Most carriers have not implement-
the electronics industry, and wireless is the largest part of it. ed the 4 x 4 MIMO configurations specified by plain-old
And you can expect the wireless sector to continue its growth LTE. So as carriers enable these advanced features, there
thanks to the evolving cellular infrastructure and movements is potential for download speeds up to 1 Gb/s. Market data
like the Internet of Things (IoT). Here is a snapshot of what to firm ABI Research forecasts that LTE carrier aggregation
expect in the years to come. will power 61% of smartphones in 2020.
This LTE-CA effort is generally known as LTE-Advanced
THE STATE OF 4G Pro or 4.5G LTE. This is a mix of technologies defined by
4G means Long Term Evolution (LTE). And LTE is the the 3GPP standards development group as Release 13. It
OFDM technology that is the dominant framework of the includes carrier aggregation as well as Licensed Assisted
cellular system today. 2G and 3G systems are still around, Access (LAA), a technique that uses LTE within the 5 GHz
but 4G was initially implemented in the 2011-2012 time- unlicensed Wi-Fi spectrum. It also deploys LTE-Wi-Fi Link
frame. LTE became a competitive race by the carriers to Aggregation (LWA) and dual connectivity, allowing a smart-
see who could expand 4G the fastest. Today, LTE is mostly phone to talk simultaneously with a small cell site and an
implemented by the major carriers in the U.S., Asia, and Wi-Fi access point. Other features are too numerous to de-
Europe. Its rollout is not yet completevarying consider- tail here, but the overall goal is to extend the life of LTE by
ably by carrierbut nearing that point. LTE has been wildly lowering latency and boosting data rate to 1 Gb/s
successful, with most smartphone owners rely upon it for But thats not all. LTE will be able to deliver greater per-
fast downloads and video streaming. Still, all is not perfect. formance as carriers begin to facilitate their small-cell strat-
While LTE promised download speeds up to 100 Mb/s, egy, delivering higher data rates to more subscribers. Small
that has not been achieved in practice. Rates of up to 40 or cells are simply miniature cellular basestations that can be
50 Mb/s can be achieved, but only under special circum- installed anywhere to fill in the gaps of macro cell site cov-
stances. With a full five-bar connection and minimal traffic, erage, adding capacity where needed.
such speeds can be seen occasionally. A more normal rate Another method of boosting performance is to use Wi-Fi
is probably in the 10 to 15 Mb/s range. At peak business offload. This technique transfers a fast download to a near-
hours during the day, you are probably lucky to get more by Wi-Fi access point (AP) when available. Only a few car-
than a few megabits per second. That hardly makes LTE riers have made this available, but most are considering an
a failure, but it does mean that it has yet to live up to its LTE improvement called LTE-U (U for unlicensed). This is
potential. a technique similar to LAA that uses the 5 GHz unlicensed
One reason why LTE is not delivering the promised per- band for fast downloads when the network cannot handle
formance is too many subscribers. LTE has been oversold, it. This presents a spectrum conflict with the latest version
and today everyone has a smartphone and expects fast ac- of Wi-Fi 802.11ac that uses the 5 GHz band. Compromises
cess. But with such heavy use, download speeds decrease have been worked out to make this happen.
in order to serve the many. So yes, there is plenty of life left in 4G. Carriers will even-
There is hope for LTE, though. Most carriers have not yet tually put into service all or some of these improvements
implemented LTE-Advanced, an enhancement that promis- over the next few years. For example, we have yet to see

voice-over-LTE (VoLTE) deployed extensively. Just remem-

ber that the smartphone manufacturers will also make hard-
ware and/or software upgrades to make these advanced
LTE improvements work. These improvements will probably
finally occur just about the time we begin to see 5G systems
come on line.
5G REVEALED
5G is not here yet. What you are seeing and hearing
at this time is premature hype. The carriers and suppliers
are already doing battle to see who can be first with 5G.
Remember the 4G war of the past years? And the real 4G
(LTE-A) is not even here yet. Nevertheless, work on 5G is
well underway. It is still a dream in the eyes of the carri-
ers that are endlessly seeking new applications, more sub- 1. The Ceragon FibeAir IP-20C operates in the 6 to 42 GHz
scribers, and higher profits. range and is typical of the backhaul to be used in 5G small
The Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) is cell networks.
working on the 5G standard, which is still a few years away.
The International Telecommunications Union (ITU), which software than hardware. 5G will use software-defined net-
will bless and administer the standardcalled IMT-2020 working (SDN), network function virtualization (NFV), and
says that the final standard should be available by 2020. self-organizing network (SON) techniques. Here are some
Yet we will probably see some early pre-standard versions of other key features to expect:
5G as the competitors try to out-market one another. Some Use of millimeter (mm) -wave bands. Early 5G may
claim 5G will come on line by 2017 or 2018 in some form. also use 3.5- and 5-GHz bands. Frequencies from about 14
We shall see, as 5G will not be easy. It is clearly going to GHz to 79 GHz are being considered. No final assignments
be one of the most, if not the most, complex wireless have been made, but the FCC says it will expedite alloca-
system ever. Full deployment is not expected until after tions as soon as possible. Testing is being done at 24, 28,
2022. Asia is expected to lead the U.S. and Europe in im- 37, and 73 GHz.
plementation. New modulation schemes are being considered. Most
The rationale for 5G is to overcome the limitations of 4G are some variant of OFDM. Two or more may be defined in
and to add capability for new applications. The limitations the standard for different applications.
of 4G are essentially subscriber capacity and limited data Multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) will be incorpo-
rates. The cellular networks have already transitioned from rated in some form to extend range, data rate, and link re-
voice-centric to data-centric, but further performance im- liability.
provements are needed for the future. Antennas will be phased arrays at the chip level, with
Furthermore, new applications are expected. These in- adaptive beam forming and steering.
clude carrying ultra HD 4K video, virtual reality content, In- Lower latency is a major goal. Less than 5 ms is prob-
ternet of Things (IoT) and machine-to-machine (M2M) use ably a given, but less than 1 ms is the target.
cases, and connected cars. Many are still forecasting 20 to Data rates of 1 Gb/s to 10 Gb/s are anticipated in
50 billion devices online, many of which will use the cellular bandwidths of 500 MHz or 1 GHz.
network. While most IoT and M2M devices operate at low Chips will be made of GaAs, SiGe, and some CMOS.
speed, higher network rates are needed to handle the vol- One of the biggest challenges will be integrating 5G into
ume. Other potential applications include smart cities and the handsets. Our current smartphones are already jam-
automotive safety communications. packed with radios, and 5G radios will be more complex
5G will probably be more revolutionary than evolutionary. than ever. Some predict that the carriers will be ready way
It will involve creating a new network architecture that will before the phones are sorted out. Can we even call them
overlay the 4G network. This new network will use distrib- phones anymore?
uted small cells with fiber or millimeter wave backhaul (See So we will eventually get to 5G, but in the meantime, well
Fig. 1), be cost- and power consumption-conscious, and have to make do with LTE. And reallydo you honestly feel
be easily scalable. In addition, the 5G network will be more that you need 5G?

Sensor Rx MCU DAC

Conditioning ADC MCU Tx Actuator
Gateway
(a) Internet Internet
Gateway cloud cloud
(b)
2a. This is a model of the typical IoT device electronics. 2b. This block diagram shows another possible IoT device
Many different input sensors are available. The usual configuration with an output actuator and RX.
partition is the MCU and radio (TX) in one chip and the
sensor and its circuitry in another. One chip solutions are tion is not until 2019, although pre-ax versions will probably
possible. be complete.
802.11ayThis is an extension of the 11ad standard. It
WHATS NEXT FOR WI-FI? will use the 60-GHz band, and the goal is at least a data rate
Next to cellular, Wi-Fi is our go-to wireless link. Like Eth- of 20 Gb/s. Another goal is to extend the range to 100 me-
ernet, it is one of our beloved communications utilities. We ters so that it will have greater application such as backhaul
expect to be able to access Wi-Fi anywhere, and for the for other services. This standard is not expected until 2017.
most part we can. Like most of the popular wireless technol-
ogies, it is constantly in a state of development. The latest WIRELESS PROLIFERATION BY IOT AND M2M
iteration being rolled out is called 802.11ac, and provides Wireless is certainly the future for IoT and M2M. Though
rates up to 1.3 Gb/s in the 5 GHz unlicensed band. Most wired solutions are not being ruled out, look for both to be
access points, home routers, and smartphones do not have 99% wireless. While predictions of 20 to 50 billion connect-
it yet, but it is working its way into all of them. Also under- ed devices still seems unreasonable, by defining IoT in the
way is the process of finding applications other than video broadest terms there could already be more connected de-
and docking stations for the ultrafast 60 GHz (57-64 GHz) vices than people on this planet today. By the way, who is
802.11ad standard. It is a proven and cost effective tech- really keeping count?
nology, but who needs 3 to 7 Gb/s rates up to 10 meters? The typical IoT device is a short range, low power, low
At any given time there are multiple 802.11 development data rate, battery operated device with a sensor, as shown
projects ongoing. Here are a few of the most significant. in Fig. 2a. Alternately, it could be some remote actuator, as
802.11afThis is a version of Wi-Fi in the TV band shown in Fig. 2b. Or the device could be a combination of
white spaces (54 to 695 MHz). Data is transmitted in local 6- the two. Both usually connect to the Internet through a wire-
(or 8-) MHz bandwidth channels that are unoccupied. Cog- less gateway but could also connect via a smartphone. The
nitive radio methods are required. Data rates up to about link to the gateway is wireless. The question is, what wire-
26 Mb/s are possible. Sometimes referred to as White-Fi, less standard will be used?
the main attraction of 11af is that the possible range at Wi-Fi is an obvious choice because it is so ubiquitous,
these lower frequencies is many miles, and non-line of sight but it is overkill for some apps and a bit too power-hungry
(NLOS) through obstacles is possible. This version of Wi-Fi for some. Bluetooth is another good option, especially the
is not in use yet, but has potential for IoT applications. Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) version. Bluetooths new mesh
802.11ahDesignated as HaLow, this standard is an- and gateway additions make it even more attractive. Zig-
other variant of Wi-Fi that uses the unlicensed ISM 902-928 Bee is another ready-and-waiting alternative. So is Z-Wave.
MHz band. It is a low-power, low speed (hundreds of kb/s) Then there are multiple 802.15.4 variants, like 6LoWPAN.
service with a range up to a kilometer. The target is IoT ap- Add to these the newest options that are part of a Low
plications. Power Wide Area Networks (LPWAN) movement. These
802.11ax11ax is an upgrade to 11ac. It can be used new wireless choices offer longer-range networked con-
in the 2.4- and 5-GHz bands, but most likely will operate nections that are usually not possible with the traditional
in the 5-GHz band exclusively so that it can use 80 or 160 technologies mentioned above. Most operate in unlicensed
MHz bandwidths. Along with 4 x 4 MIMO and OFDA/OFD- spectrum below 1 GHz. Some of the newest competitors for
MA, peak data rates to 10 Gb/s are expected. Final ratifica- IoT apps are:

HaLowThis is 802.11ah Wi-Fi, as described earlier.

White-FiThis is 802.11af, as described earlier.
There are lots of choices for any developer. But there are
even more options to consider.
Cellular is definitely an alternative for IoT, as it has been
the mainstay of M2M for over a decade. M2M uses most-
ly 2G and 3G wireless data modules for monitoring remote
machines or devices and tracking vehicles. While 2G (GSM)
will ultimately be phased out (next year by AT&T, but T-Mo-
bile is holding on longer), 3G will still be around.
Now a new option is available: LTE. Specifically, it is
called LTE-M and uses a cut-down version of LTE in 1.4-
3. This Monarch module from Sequans Communications MHz bandwidths. Another version is NB-LTE-M, which uses
implements LTE-M in both 1.4-MHz and 200-kHz bandwidths 200-kHz bandwidths for lower speed uses. Then there is
for IoT and M2M applications. NB-IoT, which allocates resource blocks (180-kHz chunks
of 15-kHz LTE subcarriers) to low-speed data. All of these
LoRaAn invention of Semtech and supported by variations will be able to use the existing LTE networks with
Link Labs, this technology uses FM chirp at low data rates software upgrades. Modules and chips for LTE-M are al-
to get a range up to 2-15 km. ready available, like those from Sequans Communications
SigfoxA French development that uses an ultra nar- (Fig. 3).
rowband modulation scheme at low data rates to send short One of the greatest worries about the future of IoT is the
messages. lack of a single standard. That is probably not going to hap-
WeightlessThis one uses the TV white spaces with pen. Fragmentation will be rampant, especially in these ear-
cognitive radio methods for longer ranges and data rates ly days of adoption. Perhaps there will eventually be only a
to 16 Mb/s. few standards to emerge, but dont bet on it. It may not even
NwaveThis is similar to Sigfox but details minimal at really be necessary.
this time.
IngenuUnlike the others, this one uses the 2.4-GHz
band and a unique random phase multiple access scheme. BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS

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Table to determine the current status of U.S. allocations.

Office of Spectrum Management

ALLOCATION USAGE DESIGNATION

1st Capital with lower case letters

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

GOVERNMENT/ NON-GOVERNMENT SHARED

National Telecommunications and Information Administration

AND TIME SIGNAL SATELLITE

** EXCEPT AERO MOBILE

* EXCEPT AERO MOBILE (R)

ISM 40.68 .02 MHz

VERY LOW FREQUENCY (VLF)

(TV CHANNELS 21-36)

ISM 5.8 .075 GHz

ISM 61.25 .250 GHz

59-64 GHz IS DESIGNATED FOR

(TV CHANNELS 2-4)

THE RADIO SPECTRUM

ISM 6.78 .015 MHz

(TV CHANNELS 5-6)

CASTING 8.5 MOBILE FIXED

FIXED 944 BROADCASTING

4 | Chapter 7: The Future of Wireless

ISM 122.5 .500 GHz

Amateur Amateur Satellite 1545 AMATEUR AMATEUR SATELLITE FIXED Mobile*

LOCATION 149.0 14.4 (space to Earth) Mobile Satellite (S- E) 146.0

| Chapter 5: Welcome to Antennas 101

(Passive) SAT. (Passive) 17.8 AIDS (Radiosonde) 1705

176.5 1700 17.9

EARTH FIXED MOBILE

RADIO SPACE RESEARCH EXPLORATION 1710 174.0 AMATEUR SATELLITE AMATEUR

21.2 19.80 1900

SPACE RES. F I X E D M O B I L E EARTH EXPL. SAT. 2000 FIXED

21.4 STAND. FREQ. & TIME SIG. Space Research

202.0 M O B IL E FIXED FIXED MOBILE MARITIME

21.0 MOBILE FIXED

2160 21.45 MARITIME MOBILE (TELEPHONY)

FIXED Radio- Radiolocation Mobile Fixed MOB FX R- LOC. B-SAT 2320

SATELLITE (S-E) location 24.05

AMATEUR SATELLITE AMATEUR

FIXED 235.0 190

Radio- 24.25 Radiolocation Mobile Fixed FX R- LOC. B-SAT 24.99

ISM 245.0 1GHz

RADIONAVIGATION SATELLITE AMATEUR BROADCASTING 25.67 2505

ISM 24.125 0.125 GHz

PLEASE NOTE: THE SPACING ALLOTTED THE SERVICES IN THE SPEC-

TRUM SEGMENTS SHOWN IS NOT PROPORTIONAL TO THE ACTUAL AMOUNT

25.25 2500 26.96

BCST - SAT. MOBILE** FIXED

MMOOBBI LILEE 27.0 MOB** B- SAT. FX FX-SAT 2690 27.41

275.0 RADIO ASTRON. FIXED LAND MOBILE

2900 29.89 MARITIME Aeronautical

(RADIO BEACONS) (Radio Beacons)

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5 | Chapter 2: The Wireless Spectrum Conundrum

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| Chapter 6: The Fundamentals of Short-Range Wireless Technologies

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Wireless 101: Basic Physics of Radio

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(R). This is a specification of all wireless receivers, and is

FSPL (max) = Pt + Gt + Gr R = 26 + 4.3 (- 98) = 128.3

5 | Chapter 2: The Wireless Spectrum Conundrum