VII.

BOUNDARYLAYERFLOWS

Thepreviouschapterconsideredonlyviscousinternalflows.

Viscousinternalflowshavethefollowingmajorboundarylayercharacteristics:

* AnentranceregionwheretheboundarylayergrowsanddP/dxconstant,
* Afullydevelopedregionwhere:
Theboundarylayerfillstheentireflowarea.
Thevelocityprofiles,pressuregradient,andwareconstant;
i.e.theyarenotequaltof(x),
Theflowiseitherlaminarorturbulentovertheentirelengthoftheflow,
i.e.transitionfromlaminartoturbulentisnotconsidered.

However,viscousflowboundarylayercharacteristicsforexternalflowsare
significantlydifferentasshownbelowforflowoveraflatplate:

U laminarto edgeofboundarylayer
freestream turbulent
y transition

(x)
turbulent
x laminar
xcr

Fig.7.1Schematicofboundarylayerflowoveraflatplate

Fortheseconditions,wenotethefollowingcharacteristics:
Theboundarylayerthicknessgrowscontinuouslyfromthestartofthefluid
surfacecontact,e.g.theleadingedge.Itisafunctionofx,notaconstant.
Velocityprofilesandshearstressaref(x,y).
Theflowwillgenerallybelaminarstartingfromx=0.
Theflowwillundergolaminartoturbulenttransitionifthestreamwise
dimensionisgreaterthanadistancexcrcorrespondingtothelocationof
thetransitionReynoldsnumberRecr.
Outsideoftheboundarylayerregion,freestreamconditionsexistwhere
velocitygradientsandthereforeviscouseffectsaretypicallynegligible.

VII1
Asitwasforinternalflows,themostimportantfluidflowparameteristhelocal
Reynoldsnumberdefinedas

U x U x
Rex

where
=fluiddensity =fluiddynamicviscosity
=fluidkinematicviscosity U =characteristicflowvelocity
x=characteristicflowdimension

Itshouldbenotedatthispointthatallexternalflowapplicationswillnotusea
distance from the leading edge x as the characteristic flow dimension. For
example,forflowoveracylinder,thediameterwillbeusedasthecharacteristic
dimensionfortheReynoldsnumber.

Transitionfromlaminartoturbulentflowtypicallyoccursatthelocaltransition
Reynoldsnumber,whichforflatplateflowscanbeintherangeof

500, 000 Re cr 3,000, 00

Withxcr=thevalueofxwheretransitionfromlaminartoturbulentflowoccurs,
thetypicalvalueusedforsteady,incompressibleflowoveraflatplateis

U xcr
Re cr 500, 000

Thusforflatplateflowsforwhich:

x<xcr theflowislaminar
xxcr theflowisturbulent

ThesolutiontoboundarylayerflowsisobtainedfromthereducedNavier
Stokesequations,i.e.,NavierStokesequationsforwhichboundarylayer
assumptionsandapproximationshavebeenapplied.

VII2
 FlatPlateBoundaryLayerTheory
LaminarFlowAnalysis

Forsteady,incompressibleflowoveraflatplate,thelaminarboundarylayer
equationsare:
u v 0
Conservationofmass:
x y

u u v u 1 dp 1 u

'X'momentum:
x y dx y y

'Y'momentum: p 0
y

Thesolutiontotheseequationswasobtainedin1908byBlasius,astudentof
Prandtl's.Heshowedthatthesolutiontothevelocityprofile,showninthetable
below,couldbeobtainedasafunctionofasingle,nondimensionalvariable
definedas
Table7.1theBlasiusVelocityProfile
1/2

y U x

withtheresultingordinary

differentialequation:
1
f f f 0
2
u
and f
U

Boundaryconditionsforthedifferentialequationareexpressedasfollows:

aty=0,v=0f(0)=0; ycomponentofvelocityiszeroaty=0

VII3
aty=0,u=0 f0 0 ; xcomponentofvelocityiszeroaty=0

VII4
Thekeyresultofthissolutioniswrittenasfollows:

2 f w
0.332
2 y 0
U U / x

Withthisresultandthedefinitionoftheboundarylayerthickness,thefollowing
keyresultsareobtainedforthelaminarflatplateboundarylayer:

5x
Localboundarylayerthickness x
Re x
Localskinfrictioncoefficient: 0.664
C fx
(definedbelow) Re x
TotaldragcoefficientforlengthL(integration 1.328
ofwdAoverthelengthoftheplate,perunit CD
Re x
area,dividedby0.5U2)
w x FD / A
wherebydefinition C fx 1 2 and
CD 1 2
2
U 2
U

Withtheseresults,wecandeterminelocalboundarylayerthickness,localwall
shearstress,andtotaldragforceforlaminarflowoveraflatplate.

Example:
Air flowsover asharpedged flat platewithL =1m, awidthof 3mand
U=2m/s.Foronesideoftheplate,find:(L),Cf(L),w(L),CD,andFD.
Air: =1.23kg/m3 =1.46E5m2/s
U L 2 m / s* 2.15 m
FirstcheckRe: Re L 294,520 500,000
1.46E 5m 2 / s
KeyPoint:Therefore,theflowislaminarovertheentirelengthoftheplateand
calculationsmadeforanyxpositionfrom01mmustbemadeusinglaminar
flowequations.

VII5
Boundarylayerthicknessatx=L:
5L 5* 2.15 m
L 0.0198 m 1.98 cm
Re L 294, 520

Localskinfrictioncoefficientatx=L:
0.664 0.664
C f L 0.00122
Re L 294, 520

Surfaceshearstressatx=L:

w 1 / 2 U2 C f 0.5 *1.23 kg / m3 * 2 2 m 2 / s 2 * 0.00122

w 0.0030 N / m2 Pa

Dragcoefficientovertotalplate,0L:
1.328 1.328
CD L 0.00245
Re L 294, 520

Dragforceoverplate,0L:

FD 1/ 2 U2 CD A 0.5 *1.23kg / m3 * 22 m2 / s 2 * 0.00245 * 2 * 2.15 m2

FD 0.0259 N

Twokeypointsregardingthisanalysis:
1. Eachofthesecalculationscanbemadeforanyotherlocationontheplate
bysimplyusingtheappropriatexlocationforany x L .
2. BecarefulnottoconfusethecalculationforCfandCD.
Cfisalocalcalculationataparticularxlocation(includingx=L)andcan
onlybeusedtocalculatelocalshearstressataspecificx,notdragforce.
CDisanintegratedaverageoveraspecifiedlength(includingany x L )
andcanonlybeusedtocalculatetheaverageshearstressovertheentire
plateandtheintegratedforceoverthetotallength.

VII6
TurbulentFlowEquations
Whilethepreviousanalysisprovidesanexcellentrepresentationoflaminar,flat
plateboundarylayerflow,asimilaranalyticalsolutionisnotavailableforturbulent
flowduetothecomplexnatureoftheturbulentflowstructure.
However,experimentalresultsareavailabletoprovideequationsforkeyflowfield
parameters.
Asummaryoftheresultsforboundarylayerthicknessandlocalandaverageskin
frictioncoefficientforalaminarflatplateandacomparisonwithexperimental
resultsforasmooth,turbulentflatplateareshownbelow.
Laminar Turbulent

5x 0.16 x
x x
Re x Re1/x 7
0.664 0.027
C fx C fx
Re x Re1/7
x

1.328 0.031 forturbulentflowover

CD C D 1/7 entireplate,0L,i.e.
Re L Re L assumesturbulentflow
inthelaminarregion

w
C fx 1 2 localdragcoefficientbasedonlocal
where
2
U wallshearstress(laminarorturbulent
flowregion)
and
F/ A

C =totaldragcoefficient 1 2 1 L
D CD 1 2 U A w x w dx
basedontheintegratedforce
2
U 2
0
overthelength0toL

VII7
Acarefulstudyoftheseresultswillshowthat,ingeneral,boundarylayerthickness
growsfasterforturbulentflow,andwallshearandtotalfrictiondragaregreaterfor
turbulentflowthanforlaminarflowgiventhesameReynoldsnumber.

VII8
Itisnotedthattheexpressionsforturbulentflowarevalidonlyforaflatplatewith
asmoothsurface.Expressionsincludingtheeffectsofsurfaceroughnessare
availableinthetext.

CombinedLaminarandTurbulentFlow
U laminarto edgeofboundarylayer
freestream turbulent
y transition

(x)
turbulent
x laminar
xcr
Flatplatewithbothlaminarandturbulentflowsections

Forconditions(asshownabove)wherethelengthoftheplateissufficientlylong
thatwehavebothlaminarandturbulentsections:

* Localvaluesforboundarylayerthicknessandwallshearstressforeitherthe
laminarorturbulentsectionsareobtainedfromtheexpressionsfor(x)and
Cf forlaminarorturbulentflowasappropriateforthegivenregion.
x
* Theresultforaveragedragcoefficient CD andthustotalfrictionalforce
overthecombinedlaminarandturbulentportionsoftheplateisgivenby
(assumingatransitionReof500,000)

0.031 0.031
CD
Re1/7
1/ 7
L 5x106

* Calculationsassumingonlyturbulentflowcantypicallybemadefortwocases:
1. whensomephysicalsituation(atripwire)hascausedtheflowtobe
turbulentfromtheleadingedgeor
2. ifthetotallengthLoftheplateismuchgreaterthanthelengthxcrof
thelaminarsectionsuchthatthetotallengthofplatecanbeconsidered
turbulentfromx=0toL.Notethatthiswilloverpredictthefriction
dragforcesinceturbulentdragisgreaterthanlaminar.

VII9
Withtheseresults,adetailedanalysiscanbeobtainedforlaminarand/orturbulent
flowoverflatplatesandsurfacesthatcanbeapproximatedasaflatplate.

VII10
Figure7.6inthetextshowsresultsforlaminar,turbulentandtransitionregimes.
Equations7.48a&bcanbeusedtocalculateskinfrictionanddragresultsforthe
fullyroughregime.
x 2.5
c f 2.87 1.58 log (7.48a)

L 2.5
CD 1.89 1.62 log (7.48b)

Equations7.49a&bcanbeusedtocalculatetotalCDforcombinedlaminarand
turbulentflowfortransitionReynoldsnumbersof5x105and3x106respectively.

0.031 1440
CD Re trans 5x10 5
Re1/7
L ReL
0.031 8700
CD Re trans 3x106
Re1/7
L ReL
Example:

Waterflowsoverasharpflatplate2.55mlong,1mwide,withUm/s.
EstimatetheerrorinFDifitisassumedthattheentireplateisturbulent.

Water:=1000kg/m3 =1.02Em2/s

U L 2 m / s * 2.55 m
Reynoldsnumber: Re L 5E 6 500, 000
1.02E 6 m 2 / s

with Re cr 500,000 x cr 0.255m (or10%laminar)

a.Assumethattheentireplateisturbulent

0.031 0.031
CD 1/ 7 0.003423

1/7
Re L 5x106

VII11
 kg 2 m2
FD 0.5 U 2 CD A 0.51000 3 2 2 0.003423 2.55m2
m s
Thisshouldbehighsincewehaveassumedthatthe
FD 17.46 N
entireplateisturbulentandthefirst10%is
actuallylaminar.

b.Nowconsidertheactualcombinedlaminarandturbulentflow:

0.031 1440 0.031 1440

CD 6 0.003135
Re1/7
L Re L 5x10
6 1/7

5x10

NotethattheCDhasdecreasedwhenboththelaminarandturbulentsectionsare
considered.

kg 2 m2
FD 0.5 U 2 CD A 0.51000 3 2 2 0.003135 2.55m2
m s
FD 15.99 N {Lowerthanthefullyturbulentvalue}

17.46 15.99
Error 100 9.2% high
15.99
Thus,theeffectofneglectingthelaminarregionandassumingtheentireplateis
turbulentisasexpected.

Question: Sincexcr=0.255m,whatwouldyouranswersrepresentifyouhad
calculatedtheRe,CD,andFDusingx=xcr=0.255m?

Answer: YouwouldhavethevalueofthetransitionReynoldsnumberandthe
dragcoefficientanddragforceoverthelaminarportionoftheplate
(assumingyouusedlaminarequations).

VII12
Ifyouhadusedturbulentequationsyouwouldhaveredmarksonyour
paper.

VII13
 VonKarmanIntegralMomentumAnalysis

Whilethepreviousresultsprovideanexcellentbasisfortheanalysisofflatplate
flows,complexgeometriesandboundaryconditionsmakeanalyticalsolutionsto
mostproblemsdifficult.

Analternativeprocedureprovidesthebasisforanapproximatesolutionwhichin
manycasescanprovideexcellentresults.

Thekeytopracticalresultsistouseareasonableapproximationtotheboundary
layerprofile,u(x,y).Thisisusedtoobtainthefollowing:

a. Boundarylayermassflow: ub d y
m
0

wherebisthewidthoftheareaforwhichtheflowrateisbeingobtained.

d u
b. Wallshearstress: w
d y y0

dP
Youwillalsoneedthestreamwisepressuregradient formanyproblems.
dx
TheVonKarmanintegralmomentumtheoryprovidesthebasisforsuchan
approximateanalysis.Thefollowingsummarizesthistheory.

Displacementthickness:

Considertheproblem
indicatedintheadjacent
y y=h+*
figure:
Streamline U U
Auniformflowfieldwith U

velocityUapproachesa h
solidsurface.Asaresult h
u
ofviscousshear,a *
boundarylayervelocity 0 Simulated
effect
profiledevelops. x

VII14
Aviscousboundarylayeriscreatedwhentheflowcomesincontactwiththesolid
surface.

KeyPoint:Comparedtotheuniformvelocityprofileapproachingthesolid
surface,theeffectoftheviscousboundarylayeristodisplace
streamlinesoftheflowoutsidetheboundarylayerawayfromthewall.

Withthisconcept,wedefine*=displacementthickness

*= distancethesolidsurfacewouldhavetobedisplacedtomaintainthe
samemassflowrateasfornonviscousflow.

Fromthedevelopmentinthetext,weobtain

u
*
1 dy
0 U
Thus,thedisplacementthicknessvariesonlywiththelocalnondimensional
velocityprofile.Therefore,withanexpressionforu/U,wecanobtain*=f().

Example:
2
u y y
Given: 2 determineanexpressionfor*=f()
U
Notethatforthisassumedformforthevelocityprofile:
1.Aty=0,u=0correctfornoslipcondition
2.Aty=,u=Ucorrectforedgeofboundarylayer
3.Theformisquadratic

Tosimplifythemathematics,

let=y/aty=0,0 aty=dy=d
u
Therefore: 2 2
U

VII15
 1
2 2 3

1
* 2
Substituting: 1 2 d
0 2 3 0

* 1
whichyields 3
Therefore,forflowsforwhichtheassumedquadraticequationapproximatesthe
velocity profile, streamlines outside of the boundary layer are displaced
approximatelyaccordingtotheequation
1
* 3
Thiscloselyapproximatesflowforaflatplate.

KeyPoint:WhenassumingaformforavelocityprofiletouseintheVonKarman
analysis,makesurethattheresultingequationsatisfiesbothsurfaceandfreestream
boundaryconditionsaswellashasaformthatapproximatesu(y).

MomentumThickness:

ThesecondconceptusedintheVonKarmanmomentumanalysisisthatof

momentumthickness

Theconceptissimilartothatofdisplacementthicknessinthatisrelatedtothe
lossofmomentumduetoviscouseffectsintheboundarylayer.

Considertheviscousflow y
c.v U U
regionsshowninthe U
adjacentfigure.
h
Defineacontrolvolumeas
shownandintegratearound
D(onfluid) u
*
Simulated
thecontrolvolumetoobtain 0
effect
thenetchangeinmomentum x

forthecontrolvolume.

VII16
VII17
IfD=dragforceontheplateduetoviscousflow,takingthefluidasthecontrol
volume,wecanwrite

D= (momentumleavingc.v.) (momentumenteringc.v.)

Completingananalysisshowninthetext,weobtain

u u
D U2 1 d y
0 U U

D/A
Usingadragcoefficientdefinedas CD 1 2
2
U

2 L
Wecanalsoshowthat CD
L
where:(L)isthemomentumthicknessevaluatedoverthelengthL.

Thus,knowledgeoftheboundarylayervelocitydistributionu=f(y)alsoallows
thedragcoefficienttobedetermined.

Momentumintegral:

The final step in the Von Karman theory applies the previous control volume
analysistoadifferentiallengthofsurface. Performingananalysissimilartothe
previousanalysisfordragDweobtain

Thisisthemomentumintegral
w d U d

* U
dx

dx
U2 for 2D, incompressible flow
and is valid for laminar or
turbulentflow.

VII18
 * d U * d P Therefore,thisanalysisalsoaccountsfor
where U theeffectoffreestreampressuregradient.
dx dx
Foraflatplatewithnonaccelerating
flow,wecanshowthat

d U
P const., U const., 0
dx
Therefore,foraflatplate,nonacceleratingflow,theVonKarmanmomentum
integralbecomes

w d 2 d

dx
dx
U 2
U

Fromthepreviousanalysisandtheassumedvelocitydistributionof

u y y 2
2 2 2
U

Thewallshearstresscanbeexpressedas

d u 2 2 y 2 U
w 2U (A)
d y w 2 y0

Also,withtheassumedvelocityprofile,themomentumthicknesscanbe
evaluatedas

u u
1 d y
0
U U
or

VII19
 2
2 2 1 2 2 d
0 15
Wecannowwritefromthepreviousequationforw

d 2 d
w U2 U2
d x 15 dx
EquatingthisresulttoEqn.Aweobtain

2 d 2 U
w U2
15 dx
or
15
d dx whichafterintegrationyields
U
1/ 2
30 x 5.48
or
U Re x

Notethatthisresultiswithin10%oftheexactresultfromBlasiusflatplatetheory.

Sinceforaflatplate,weonlyneedtoconsiderfrictiondrag(notpressuredrag),we
canwrite

w x 2 U 1
C fx 1 2 1
2
U 2
U 2

Substitutefortoobtain

2 U Re 0.73
C fx
5.48 12 U 2 Re x

VII20
Exacttheoryhasanumericalconstantof0.664comparedwith0.73fortheVon
Karmanintegralanalysis.

ItisseenthattheVonKarmanintegraltheoryprovidesthemeanstodetermine
approximateexpressionsfor

,w,andCf

usingonlyanassumedvelocityprofile.

Solutionsummary:

1. Assumeananalyticalexpressionforthevelocityprofilefor
theproblem.

2. Usetheassumedvelocityprofiletodeterminethesolutionfor
thedisplacementthicknessfortheproblem.

3. Usetheassumedvelocityprofiletodeterminethesolutionfor
themomentumthicknessfortheproblem.

4. UsethepreviousresultsandtheVonKarmanintegral
momentumequationtodeterminethesolutionforthe
drag/wallshearfortheproblem.

and7.3anddoesnothavetobeaccountedforseparately.

VII21