PowerSystemFundamentals

RelayApplications

PJMState&MemberTrainingDept.
 Objectives

AttheendofthispresentationtheStudentwillbeableto:
Describethepurposeofprotectiverelays
Identifyrelayprotectionschemecharacteristicsandcomponents
Describetheimpactofthelossofcomponentson
systemprotection
Identifythetypesoftransmissionlineprotectionand
theircharacteristics
Identifythetypesoftransformerprotectionandtheircharacteristics
Identifythetypesofbusprotectionandtheircharacteristics
Identifythetypesofgeneratorprotectionandtheircharacteristics

PJM2014 2 1/13/14
 BasicConcepts
in
Protection

PJM2014 1/13/14
 PurposeofProtectiveRelaying

Todetectandisolatefaultedormalfunctioning
equipmentinorderto:

1) limittheextentofthesystemdisturbanceand

2) maintainsystemreliability

PJM2014 4 1/13/14
 TheSource
Utility Distribution System

200 A MainServiceEntrancePanel

15 A 15 A 15 A Individuallyprotected
Protected BranchCircuits
Receptacles

72 Plasma TV

IndividualDeviceFuse
PJM2014 5 1/13/14
 BasicConcepts

RelaysaretheintelligenceinaProtectiveScheme
Theymonitorsysteminputsandoperatewhenthemonitored
quantityexceedsapredefinedlimit

Relayresponsewillinitiateadesirablesystemeventthatwillaidin
maintainingsystemreliability(i.e.tripacircuitbreaker,throttlebacka
unit,etc)

PJM2014 6 1/13/14
 BasicConcepts

OtherdeviceswhichareusedinconjunctionwithProtective
Relaysare:
CurrentTransformer(CTs)
PotentialTransformers(PTs)
OtherSensingDevices(e.g.Temperature,OilLevel,Pressure,etc.)
LogicCircuits(AnalogorMicroprocessor)
ThreePoleInterruptingDevices(CBs,CircuitSwitchers,Motor
OperatedDisc)

PJM2014 7 1/13/14
 BasicConcepts

MostRelayschemesworktocontrolaDCsystem

DCSystemusuallyhasrackofBatteriesandabatterycharger

GenerallycontrolsthetrippingofCBs

ThiswhyNERCcomplianceincludesDCControlCircuitryandBatteries
aspartoftheRelayStandards

PJM2014 8 1/13/14
 RelayScheme
Components

PJM2014 1/13/14
 DCControlSystems

Thepowersourceusedforcontrollingpowersystemequipmentmustbe
highlyreliableand notsubjecttointerruptionbypowersystemtransients
oroutages

AC
Protectionandcontrolcircuitsareindividuallyfusedtoguardagainst
disruptingtheentireDCsystemforproblemsonaparticularbranchcircuit

Amberlights oftenmonitortheDCsupplytoindividualbranchcircuits,
givingavisualindicationthatthecircuitisenergized

PJM2014 10 1/13/14
 DCControlSystems

Withfewspecialexceptions,DCsystemsoperateungrounded
Powerplantsandmostsubstationshavesomebatteryground
detection,veryoftenincludinggroundindicatinglamps thatvisually
alertpersonneltoinadvertentDCsystemgrounds

Full DC IllustrationOf
Voltage BatteryGroundDetectionLamps

Forthenormal,ungroundedcondition
shown,thetwolampseachhaveequal
DC DC voltagedroppedacrossthemandglow
Voltage Voltage withequalbrilliance

Intentional ground
reference connection
PJM2014 11 1/13/14
 DCControlSystems

IllustrationOfActualBatteryGroundIndicatingLamps

NormalBatteryGroundLamps BatteryGroundLampsIndicateASolidGround
ApproximatelyEqualBrilliance OnThePositiveSideOfTheDCSystem

ThissameprincipalofDCgrounddetectionisusedinmoresophisticated
devicesthatprovideanalarmcontactinsteadofjustavisualindication
AsingleinadvertentgroundonanungroundedDCsystemisnot
catastrophicthedangeristhatasecondinadvertentgroundcouldoccur
ontheoppositesideoftheDCsupply andshortoutthebattery!
PJM2014 12 1/13/14
 DCControlSystems

COMMONCAUSESOFBATTERYGROUNDS

PJM2014 13 1/13/14
 OverviewofPower
SystemProtection

PJM2014 1/13/14
 OverviewofPowerSystemProtection

Keyelementtoremember
ProtectiveSchemesaredesignedtohave:

OVERLAPPINGZONES
OFPROTECTION!

PJM2014 15 1/13/14
 OverlappingZonesofProtection

PJM2014 16 1/13/14
 OverviewofPowerSystemProtection

Criticalelementsofthepowersystemareprotectedby
PrimaryandBackuprelaysystems
PrimarySchemesaregenerallyhighspeedschemes
(operatespeed=1cycle)
BackupSchemescanalsobehighspeedbutdonthavetobe.
Systemconditionsdictateifthisschemehastobeasfastasthe
primaryscheme

PJM2014 17 1/13/14
 InstrumentTransformers

InstrumentTransformerschangeprimary voltagesand
currentsintosecondary quantitieshavingproportional
magnitudesandidenticalphaseanglerelationships
PrimarycurrentistransformedbyCTs(CurrentTransformers)andLCs
(LinearCouplers)
PrimaryvoltageistransformedbyPTs(PotentialTransformers)and
CCVTs(CouplingCapacitorVoltageTransformers)

PJM2014 18 1/13/14
 CurrentTransformers(CTs)

CTstransformhighmagnitudeprimaryampstosecondary
ampquantitieswithinthecurrentratingsofrelaysandmeters
CTratiosaretypicallyexpressedasPrimaryAmps/5
Forexample,ageneratorCTratioexpressedas25000/5 meansthat
5000ampsflowingintheprimarycircuitresultsin1ampflowingin
thesecondarycircuits
CTsthatfitaroundbreaker,generator,ortransformerbushingsare
calledbushingCTs;thesearethemostcommontypeofCTs

PJM2014 19 1/13/14
 CurrentTransformers(CTs)

ACTisanearlyidealcurrentsourcewithinthelimitsofits
construction,aCTproducesasmuchvoltageasnecessarytopush
secondarycurrentproportionaltotheprimarycurrentthrougha
connectedload,nomatterhowlargetheloadimpedance
OhmsLaw,V=ZxI,describeshowmuchvoltage,V,aCTmustproduceto
driveitscurrent,I,throughconnectedloadimpedance,Zas Z getsbigger,
Vmustalsoincreasetosatisfytheequation!

IfthesecondarycircuitofaloadcarryingCTis
opencircuited,theCTcanproducehighenough
voltagetoinjureorkillpersonnel

PJM2014 20 1/13/14
 SlipoverCTs

SlipoverCTs

IllustrationsOfExternallyAppliedCurrentTransformers
ABOVELEFT
SlipoverCTsinstalledona69kVcircuitbreaker
ABOVERIGHT
SlipoverCTsinstalledona500kVcircuitbreaker
BELOW
SimilartothebushingCTspicturedabove,thewindowCTsbelowhaveasingleturnprimary
windingcomprisedoftheprimarycurrentconductorpassingthroughthecenteroftheCT

PrimaryConductors

PJM2014 21 1/13/14
 LinearCouplers(LCs)

LCstransformhighmagnitudeprimaryampstosecondary
voltageswithinthevoltageratingsofrelaysandmeters
LinearCouplerscanbethoughtof ashavinganaircore
insteadofiron,likeaCT.Thisconceptualizationisnt
technically correct,butunlessyouplantoactuallybuilda
linearcoupleritsgoodenoughtodistinguishbetweenCTand
LCconstruction

PJM2014 22 1/13/14
 PotentialTransformer(PTs)

PTstransformprimaryvoltagestothe115VACor69VACsecondary
voltagesusedinrelayandmeteringcircuits
LargegeneratorsusuallyhavetwosetsofPTs,sometimesreferredtoas
the meteringPTs andtheregulatorPTs. Thesedesignationsdont
necessarilyidentifyfunction,sincebothsetsofPTsprovidevoltageto
variousprotectiverelaysandmeters
AlthoughonesetofPTs(theregulator PTs)isthepreferredsourceof
voltagetothegeneratorvoltageregulator,eithersetisusuallycapableof
servingthisfunction
Withafewexceptions,PTsarentusedattransmissionvoltage
levelsmosthighervoltageapplicationsuseaderivativeofthePT,the
CapacitancePotentialDevice

PJM2014 23 1/13/14
 CapacitancePotentialDevices

KnownasCCPDs (Coupling Capacitor Potential Devices) or

CCVTs(Coupling Capacitor Voltage Transformers)
Thesedevicesusevoltagedivision toreduceprimary
voltagestothe115or69VACneededbyrelaysand
meteringequipment:
Primaryvoltagedividesacrossporcelaincapacitancestacks,thehigher
thevoltagethemoreunitsinthestack.AtransformerintheCCVT
basedoesthefinaltransformationfromseveralthousandvoltsto
115/69VAC
Duetovoltagedivision,afailureinonestackcanactasarow
ofdominoesresultinginmorefailures

PJM2014 24 1/13/14
 DiagramOfCCVTConstruction

PrimaryvoltagedividesacrosscapacitancestacksC1,C2,andC3
VoltageacrossC3equalsapproximately20kV

Highvoltagelineorbus

C1

C2

C3
GroundingSwitch Relays

PJM2014 25 1/13/14
 IllustrationOf230kVCCVT Noticethatthe230kVCCVT IllustrationOf500kVCCVT
has2capacitorstacks,while
the500kVCCVTneeds3
stackstodividethehigher
primaryvoltage

Capacitor
Stacks

Transformer
Enclosure

Grounding
Switch

PJM2014 26 1/13/14
 OverviewofPowerSystemProtection

Aswithmostthings,thereisabalancebetweenpreserving
systemreliabilityandeconomics

Mustreviewthecostoftheprotectiveschemeagainstthe
probabilityofaparticulareventoccurring

PJM2014 27 1/13/14
 RelaySchemeDesignConsiderations

Sensitivity canschemedetectalleventsthatitis
supposedto?
Selectivity willitremoveonlythefaultedpiece
ofequipment?
Speed cantheschemeclearthefaultfastenoughtomaintain
orinsuresystemintegrity?
Reliability willtheschemebesecureanddependable?
Security nomisoperations
Dependability operatewhenitshould
Economy Providethedesiredlevelofprotectionforthe
leastcost
Simplicity Attempttokeepdesignsstraightforward
PJM2014 28 1/13/14
 RelayDevices

PJM2014 1/13/14
 Definition

Arelayisadevicethatwillchangeitsoutputcontactstatus
duetotheexcursionofamonitoredsysteminputbeyonda
presetvalue
Examples:
Currentexceedspresetvalue
Oillevelbelowrequiredspec
Temperatureaboverequiredspec

PJM2014 30 1/13/14
 GeneralFunctions:

Protective
removeasystemdisturbancefromthepowersystem
Regulating
insuressystemisoperatedwithinproperguidelines
Auxiliary
Otherlesscriticalfunctions(i.e.alarms,reclosing.etc.)

PJM2014 31 1/13/14
 Electromechanical

SolidState Microprocessor
PJM2014 32 1/13/14
 UniversalNumberingSystemforProtectiveRelays
IEEE Device Relay Function IEEE Device RelayFunction
# #
21 Distance Requiresacombinationofhigh currentand 63 Pressure Operatesonloworhighpressureofa
Relay lowvoltagetooperate.Thevariouszonesof Relay liquidorgas(oilorSF6)oronarate
thedistancescheme(Z1,Z2,etc.)assistwith ofchangeofpressure(sudden
determiningthelocationofthefault pressure)
25 Synchronizing Checksvoltagemagnitude,phaseangle, and 67 Directional Operatesifcurrentisabovea
Relay frequencytoverifysynchronismacrossaCB Overcurrent setvalueandflowinginthe
beforeallowingaclose designateddirection
27 Undervoltage Operates whenvoltagefallsbelowa 78 OutofStep Detectslossofsynchronism.
Relay setvalue
49 Thermal Relay Operateswhen thetemperature(usuallya 79 Reclosing Initiatesanautomaticclosingof
winding)risesaboveasetlevel Relay acircuitbreakerfollowinga
tripcondition
50 Instantaneous Operateswithnotimedelaywhencurrent 81 Frequency Operatesiffrequencygoesaboveor
Overcurrent risesaboveasetlevel Relay belowasetlimit
51 Time Operatesonatimedelayedbasis 86 Lockout Anauxiliaryrelaythatcanperform
Overcurrent dependingontheamountofcurrent Relay manyfunctions(includingtripping
aboveasetlevel ofbreakers)
andpreventsclosingofcircuit
breakersuntilitisreseteitherby
handorelectrically
52 Circuit CircuitBreaker 87 Differential Sensesadifferenceincurrents
Breaker Relay enteringandleavingpower
systemequipment
59 Overvoltage Operatewhenvoltageexceedsasetlimit 94 Tripping Auxiliaryrelaywhichisactivatedbya
PJM2014
Relay 33
Relay protectiverelayandwhichinitiates
1/13/14
trippingofappropriatebreakers
 TypicalPerformanceParameters:

Overcurrent
Requiredinput:CurrentfromCTs
Instantaneous Nointentionaltimedelay
Timedelayed Inversetime/currentcurve
CanprotectforbothPhaseandGroundfaults.Thephysicalconnection
determineswhatcurrent(phaseorground)therelaywillrespondto

PJM2014 34 1/13/14
 T

E
1X 10X 100X

Current
Inverse Curve Characteristic

PJM2014 35 1/13/14
 TypicalPerformanceParameters:

Over/UnderVoltage:
Requiredinput:VoltagefromPTs
Instantaneous Nointentionaltimedelay
Timedelayed Generallyafixeddelay
Generallyusedforautomaticsectionalizingcontrol(i.e.autotransfer
schemes,etc.)

PJM2014 36 1/13/14
 TypicalPerformanceParameters:

DirectionalCapability
RequiredInputs:CurrentandVoltage
Canbeastandalonerelayorassociatedwithanotherrelayelement
Directionalitymakesthelifeofaprotectionengineermucheasier
fromarelaycoordinationpointofview

PJM2014 37 1/13/14
 TypicalPerformanceParameters

SteppedDistanceRelaying
RequiresCurrentandVoltageinputs
OperatesontheV/I=Z(impedance)principle
Constantreachregardlessofsystem
Lesssusceptibletomisoperating onloadcurrent(whencomparedto
simplephaseovercurrentrelays)
UsuallyprovidesthreeZonesofProtection:
Zone1 InstantaneousOperation
Setforapproximately90%ofline
Zone2 FixedTimeDelayOperation
Settoseeentireline+margin
Zone3 FixedTimeDelayOperation
SetgreaterthanZone2

PJM2014 38 1/13/14
 Stepped Zone Distance Protection

Sub A Sub B Sub C

Zone3 2 Element (Time Delayed)

Zone
Sub C
Reactance

Sub B
Zone 2 Element (Time Delayed)

Zone 1 Element (Instantaneous Operation)

Sub A
Resistance

PJM2014 39 1/13/14
 BackupTransmissionLineProtection

NotethatZone1canonlybesettosee,atmost,90%ofthe
protectedline
Cannotbesettosee100%oftheline
Relaywouldnotbeabletodistinguishbetweenaninternalorexternal
fault
Settingrelaytosee100%oflinetoobtaininstantaneousclearing
wouldmostlikelyresultinanovertrip
ThisisonemajordisadvantageofaSteppedDistancescheme

PJM2014 40 1/13/14
 TransientLoadLimits

Loadcarryingcapabilityisanotherconcernwith
distancerelays
Transientlimitrepresentsthemaximumsecureload
carryingcapabilityoftheprotectiverelaysduringactual
operatingconditions
AsloadingincreasestheZviewedbytherelaymaycrossintotheZ
tripareaoftherelaysetting
Operatorsmustbeawareofanylinesthatarerestrictednotdueto
theirthermalcapability,butbytherelaysthemselves.

PJM2014 41 1/13/14
 TypicalPerformanceParameters:

Differential
Requiredinput:CurrentfromCTs
Relaygenerallyoperatesveryfast(1cycle)
NormalprotectionforGenerators,Transformersand
Bussections
CTssupplyingtherelayshouldbematchedsothatcurrents
intothezoneofprotectionareequaltothosecurrents
thatleave
Thedifference/mismatchincurrentisobservedintherelays
operatecoil

PJM2014 42 1/13/14
 DifferentialRelay

PJM2014 43 1/13/14
 DifferentialOperation

PJM2014 44 1/13/14
 TypicalPerformanceParameters:

OtherTypes(notallinclusive):
Frequency Typicallyusesvoltage
Reclosing SingleorMultishot
Thermal TransformerProtection
Auxiliary MasterTrip,52X,etc

PJM2014 45 1/13/14
 LockoutRelays

LockoutRelays
Specialdevicesoperatedbydozensoffunctionsthatprotect
generators,transformers,bussesandvariousotherpiecesof
switchyardequipment
Relayitselfdoesntprotect anything;instead,ithasmultiplecontacts
thatcausemultipledevices,likecircuitbreakers,tooperateinorderto
deenergizeorisolatefailedequipment
Serveanimportantfunction:iftheyfailedtotripforafault,for
example,theswitchyardGCBwouldstayclosedandtheequipment
wouldremainenergized
Becauseitssoimportant,theelectricalcoilthattripsthelockoutrelay
ismonitoredcontinuouslybyanamberlamplocatedimmediately
abovetherelay

PJM2014 46 1/13/14
 GeneratorLockouts

Theamberlampisnormallylittoindicatethreeimportantthingsaboutthe
LockoutRelay:
1) ThereisDCcontrolpoweravailabletothelockoutrelay
2) Thelockoutrelayoperatingcoiliselectricallyintact
3) Thelockoutrelayisresetandreadytotrip
Ifthelampisnt lit,itmeanstheresnoDCpoweravailable orthatthelockoutcoil
hasburnedopenineithercasethelockoutwouldntbeabletotrip,makingthisa
veryserioussituationthathastoberesolvedimmediately
TheLockoutRelay targetisanorangesemaphore directlyabovetherelay
handle.Whenthelockoutoperates,theamberlightgoesoutandthiscolored
targetappears
TheLockoutrelayhandlebeingatanangleinsteadofbeingperpendiculartothe
floorisanotherindicatoroflockoutoperation

PJM2014 47 1/13/14
 IllustrationsOfALockoutRelay
CAUTION
NEVERHOLDTHESERELAYSINTHE
RESETPOSITION
thiscanburnuptheoperatecoiland
maketherelayuseless!

RESET TRIPPED

PJM2014 48 1/13/14
 RelayBasicsExercises/Review

PJM2014 1/13/14
 Thepurposeofrelayprotectionistodetectandisolate
faultedequipmentto:

1)Limitextentofdisturbance
2) Preservecustomerservice
3)Maintainreliability

1. 1and2
2. 2and3
3. 1and3

PJM2014 50 1/13/14
 Oneoftheprimaryfunctionsofprotectiverelaysisto
ensurecontinuityofservicetocustomers.
A. True
B. False

PJM2014 51 1/13/14
 Whatparametersareusedasinputstorelays?

Rank Responses

PJM2014 52 1/13/14
 Relaysconvertsystemparametersintoelectricalsignals
andwhenthesesignalsreachasetpoint,therelay:

A. Initiatesatrip
B. Waitsforoperator
instructions
C. Triggersanalarm
D. Resetsitscounter

PJM2014 53 1/13/14
 Whatisadesirablecharacteristic
ofrelaysystems?
Rank Responses
1

2
3
4
5
6

PJM2014 54 1/13/14
 Whichofthefollowingareinput
devicesforrelayschemes?
A. CTs
B. PTs
C. BLTs
D. Wavetraps

PJM2014 55 1/13/14
 Inmostapplications,currenttransformersscale
downfullloadcurrentstoavalueof:
A. 1ampere
B. 2amperes
C. 4amperes
D. 5amperes

PJM2014 56 1/13/14
 Inmostapplications,potentialtransformersreduce
primarysystemvoltagetoapproximately:

A. 100volts
B. 115volts
C. 208volts
D. 240volts

PJM2014 57 1/13/14
 HowmanyturnswouldberequiredonaCTto
achievethe5amprelaycurrentifthefullload
currentwas400amps?
A. 40
B. 80
C. 100
D. 200

PJM2015 58 1/8/2015
 Currentandvoltagequantitiescanbecombinedina
relaycircuittodeterminetheimpedanceofaline.

A. True
B. False

PJM2014 59 1/13/14
 Whichofthefollowingaremajordesign
classificationsofrelays:
A. Electromechanical
B. SolidState
C. Virtual
D. Microprocessorbased

PJM2014 60 1/13/14
 TransmissionLineProtection

PJM2014 1/13/14
 TransmissionLineProtection

Atypicalpowersystemutilizesthreetypesoflinestodeliver
powertotheenduser.Theyare:
1) TransmissionLines
2) SubtransmissionLines
3) DistributionLines
WewillbefocusingontheTransmissionlineswhichare
definedaslinesoperatingat100kvandabove

PJM2014 62 1/13/14
 TransmissionLineProtection

Becausetheselinescarrylargeamountsofenergyandare
extremelyimportanttotheoperationofapowersystem,itis
necessarytousethemostadvancedrelayingmethodsto
insuretheirintegrity

Beingthatimportant,itisdesirabletohaveinstantaneous
clearingforallfaultsonthetransmissionlineundernormal
operatingconditions

PJM2014 63 1/13/14
 QuickReview

ATransmissionLinehasImpedance(Z)thatiscomposedof
resistance(R)andReactance(X)

Itcansymbolicallyberepresentedas:Z=R+jX

Consequently,onanRXimpedancediagram,anylinecanbe
graphicallyrepresented

Seeexample

PJM2014 64 1/13/14
 Graphical Representation of a Line Impedance

Sub A Inductive
Sub B
Reactance

Shunt Capacitance
For Overhead Lines, this
Sub B can generally be ignored.
Reactance
Inductive

Line Angle

Sub A
Resistance
PJM2014 65 1/13/14
 TransmissionLineProtection

Forreliability,transmissionlinesutilizePrimary andBackup
protectiveschemes

Thecriticalityofeachlineisevaluatedtodetermineifbackup
protectionshouldbeequivalenttoprimaryprotection.The
factorswhichinfluencethedecisionare:
SystemStabilityConcerns
RelayCoordinationConcerns

PJM2014 66 1/13/14
 TransmissionLineProtection

SystemStability
Ifstabilitystudiesindicatethatdelayedclearingoffaultsona
transmissionlinecauseaGeneratortogounstable,it
indicatesthatboththeprimaryandbackupprotective
schemesmustclearallfaultsinstantaneously

Thesestudiesaredoneaspartoftheinitial
engineeringprocess

PJM2014 67 1/13/14
 TransmissionLineProtection

RelayCoordination:

Ifprotectionstudiesdeterminethatcoordinationofbackup
relayschemescannotbeachieved,dualpilotprotection
schemesmustbeemployedonthelinetobeprotected
TypicallyhappensonLongLine/ShortLinesituations.
Seeexample

PJM2014 68 1/13/14
 Relay Coordination: Long Line/Short Line
Long Line (some R+jX) Short Line
(some R+jX)
Sub A X Sub B Sub C

Sub B Required
Zone 1 relay.
B
Sub A Required
Zone 2 relay.

Miscoordination exists because

Zone 2 of Sub A overreaches
Zone 1 of Sub B.
A R

PJM2014 69 1/13/14
 PrimaryTransmissionLineProtection

Toobtaininstantaneousclearingforallfaults,Pilot
Relaying isutilized
Thetermpilotimpliesthatacommunicationchannel
existsbetweenallterminalsoftheprotectedline
PowerLineCarrier
Telephonepair
FiberOptic
Microwave

PJM2014 70 1/13/14
 PrimaryTransmissionLineProtection

Severaltypesofpilotprotectionschemesexist.
Theoneswewillrevieware:
1) DirectionalComparison
2) DirectUnderreachingTransferredTrip
3) Permissive(Over&Underreaching)
4) PhaseComparison
5) ACPilotWire
6) OpticalFiberDifferential

PJM2014 71 1/13/14
 LogicGatesOverview

AND Gate A B Output NOT Gate

Needs2inputstogetanoutput Outputistheinverseoftheinput
0 0 0
A A Output
Output 0 1 0
B
1 0 0 A Output
1 1 1 0 1
1 0
OR Gate A B Output
Needs1inputtogetanoutput
0 0 0
A
B Output 0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

PJM2014 72 1/13/14
 DirectionalComparisonBlocking

Relayssettoseebeyondremoteterminals
Undernonfaultconditions,nosignalissentbetweenthe
terminalsoftheline
Toinitiateabreakertrip,twoconditionsmustbemet:
Operationofalocaltrippingrelay
AND
Absenceofablockingsignalfromremoteend
TestingofcommunicationpathisdonebyCarrier
Checkback Scheme

PJM2014 73 1/13/14
 DirectionalComparisonBlockingScheme

ToInitiateTrip:
OverreachingRelaymustoperate
AbsenceofBlockingSignalfromremoteend
Indigitallogic:

OverreachingRelay
AND Trip
BlockingSignal

AND: Needs two high inputs in order to

Invert provide an output

PJM2014 74 1/13/14
 DirectionalComparisonBlocking

PJM2014 75 1/13/14
 WaveTrapandCCVT

IllustrationOf
500kVWaveTrap&CCVT

Wave Thecarriersignalcouplestothetransmission
Trap linethroughtheCCVT

Thesignalentersandexitsthebaseofthe
CCVT,thenconnectstoanearbyimpedance
matchingtuningboxandthentothe
transmitter/receiverequipmentlocatedinside
thesubstationcontrolhouse

Thecarriersignaltrafficisbidirectional:
thelocalterminalbothtransmitsasignalto
theremoteterminalandreceivesasignal
CCVT fromit,allthroughthesamepathshownin
theillustration

Thewavetrapblocksthecarriersignalfrom
exitingthetransmissionlinethroughanypath
otherthanthroughtheCCVT

PJM2014 76 1/13/14
 TypicalBlockingCarrierControls
ReceivedSignalMeter
CarrierTestSwitch

CarrierBlockingSwitch

Notetheredyellowgreen
segmentsonthe
ReceivedSignalMeters
thereceivedcarriersignalis
strongenough ifitappears
inthegreen region,
soso intheyellow region,
andbad enoughtowarrant
blockingthecarrierrelayingif
inthered region

PJM2014 77 1/13/14
 DirectUnderreachingTransferTrip

Relayssettounderreachtheremoteterminal
Undernonfaultconditions,acontinuousGUARDsignalissent
bythelocaltransmitterandmonitoredbytheremotereceiver
Toinitiateabreakertrip,oneofthefollowingmustoccur:
Localunderreachingrelaymustoperate
OR
ReceptionofaTRIPsignalfromtheremoteendmust
ereceived
TestingofcommunicationpathiscontinuousviaGUARD
signal.Lossofguardwillgeneratealarm

PJM2014 78 1/13/14
 DirectUnderreachingTransferTripScheme

ToInitiateTrip:
UnderreachingRelaymustoperate
OR
Receiveatripsignalfromtheremoteend

Indigitallogic:
UnderreachingRelay
OR Trip
TripSignalfrom
RemoteEnd
OR: Needs one high input in order to
provide an output

PJM2014 79 1/13/14
 DirectUnderreachingTransferTrip

PJM2014 80 1/13/14
 PermissiveUnderreachingTransferTrip

Directtrippingrelayssettounderreachremoteend
Faultdetectorrelayssettooverreachremoteend
Undernonfaultconditions,continuousGUARDsignalissent
toremoteend
Toinitiateabreakertrip,oneofthefollowingmustoccur:
Theunderreachingrelaymustoperate
OR
TheoverreachingrelaymustrespondAND aTRIPsignal
mustbereceivedfromremoteend
CommunicationpathtestingiscontinuousviaGUARDsignal.
LossofGuardwillgenerateanalarm
PJM2014 81 1/13/14
 PermissiveUnderreachingTransferTripScheme

ToInitiateTrip:
UnderreachingRelaymustoperate
OR
OverreachingrelaymustoperateAND receiveatripsignal

fromtheremoteend
Indigitallogic:

Overreaching
Relay AND
TripSignalfrom
RemoteEnd
OR Trip
Underreaching
Relay
PJM2014 82 1/13/14
 PermissiveUnderreachingTransferTrip

PJM2014 83 1/13/14
 PermissiveOverreachingTransferTrip

Relayssettoseebeyondremoteterminals
Undernonfaultconditions,acontinuousGUARDsignalissent
Toinitiateabreakertrip,twoconditionsmustbemet:
Operationoflocaltrippingrelay
AND
ReceiptofTRIPsignalfromremoteend
TestingofcommunicationpathiscontinuousviaGUARD
signal.LossofGuardgeneratesalarm

PJM2014 84 1/13/14
 PermissiveOverreachingTransferTrip

ToInitiateTrip:
OverreachingRelaymustoperate
AND
Receiveatripsignalfromtheremoteend

Indigitallogic:

OverreachingRelay
AND Trip
TripSignalfrom
RemoteEnd

PJM2014 85 1/13/14
 PermissiveOverreachingTransferTrip

PJM2014 86 1/13/14
 TRIP GUARD MAINTSWITCH
Received Received ToKeyTRIP
Lamp Lamp ForRadialLine
Operation

ExampleOfClearlyLabeled
IndicationsandControls
OnaPOTTControlPanel

IllustrationsOf
TypicalPOTTScheme
IndicationsandControls

PJM2014 87 1/13/14
 PhaseComparison

Thisisadifferentialschemethatcomparesthephaseangle
differencebetweenthecurrentsattheterminalsofa
transmissionline
Ifcurrentsareinphase,nofaultispresenton
thislinesection
Ifcurrentsareoutofphasebyabout180degrees,an
internalfaultispresent
EquipmentusedissameasDirectionalComparisonscheme
Schemewastypicallyusedonthe500kVsystem

PJM2014 88 1/13/14
 Phase Comparison Relaying

WAVE TRAP WAVE TRAP

CT's CT's
A B
F2 F3

COUPLING COUPLING
CAPACITOR CAPACITOR

MIXING COMPARER COMPARER MIXING

NETWORK NETWORK
AND AND
LEVEL LEVEL
DETECTOR DETECTOR

TRANS- RECEIVER
MITTER

TRANS-
RF CHOKE RF CHOKE RECEIVER MITTER

PJM2014 89 1/13/14
 ACPilotWire

Formofdifferentiallineprotectionwherephasecurrentsare
comparedtodetermineifafaultisinternalorexternaltothe
protectedlinesegment(similartophasecomparison)
Requiresapairofwiresbetweenterminalstooperate.
Economicalforshortlines
Operationissimilartoabusortransformer
differentialscheme
Lossoftwowirepairwilldefeattrippingscheme.No
automatictestingofP.W.exists

PJM2014 90 1/13/14
 Pilot Wire Relaying (Current Differential)

Sub A Sub B

A B

Restraint Restraint

Mixing V V Mixing
Pilot Wires B
Network A Network
Insulating Insulating
Transformer Transformer

Operating Operating

PJM2014 91 1/13/14
 OpticalFiberDifferential

Relaysoperateonacurrentdifferentialbasis
Requirestheuseofopticalfibertotransitdigitalinformation
Thedigitalinformationcontainsthecurrentmagnitudesand
otherdiagnosticparametersandistransmittedcontinuously
betweenconnectedstations
Trippingisinitiatedwhendifferentialrelayexceedtherelays
restraintcharacteristic
Failureofthefibercommunicationpathwillautomatically
blocktheschemeandinitiateanalarm

PJM2014 92 1/13/14
 BackupTransmissionLineProtection

Canbeexactlylikeprimaryprotection.Dependsuponstability
orcoordinationconcerns

Ifstabilityandcoordinationarenotaconcern,nonpilot
relayingcanbeappliedasabackupscheme

PJM2014 93 1/13/14
 BackupTransmissionLineProtection

Innonpilotapplications,lineprotectiongenerallyconsistsof
thefollowing:
SteppedDistanceforPhaseProtection
DirectionalTimeandInstantaneousOvercurrentforGroundProtection
Duetotherecentintroductionofmicroprocessorbased
relays,additionalrelayfunctionsareavailableforuse.The
morecommonfunctionsinclude:
GroundSteppedDistanceelements
NegativeSequenceOvercurrentelements

PJM2014 94 1/13/14
 BackupTransmissionLineProtection

DirectionalOvercurrentGroundRelay
EquippedwithTime&Instantaneouselements
TimeElementmustbecoordinatedwithothergroundrelaysin
thesystem
Instantaneousrelaysmustbesetshortofremoteterminal(justlike
Zone1phaserelays)
Nondirectionalrelayscanalsobeappliediftheycanbecoordinated.
However,withthenewmicroprocessorrelays,directionalityis
available somightaswelluseit
Aidsincoordination

PJM2014 95 1/13/14
 BackupTransmissionLineProtection

Directionality howisitachieved?
Thedirectionalunitofarelayusesthecurrentfromthelinebeing
protected(i.e.phasecurrentforaphaserelayandresidualcurrentfor
agroundrelay)inconjunctionwithapolarizingquantityto
determinepowerflowdirection
Thepolarizingquantityistypicallyvoltage

PJM2014 96 1/13/14
 OtherFunctionsPerformed:

Wheneitheraprimaryorbackuprelayresponds,therelay
schemewillinitiate:

1) TrippingofthelineterminalCB(s)
2) Stopsendingcarrierblocking,sendtripsignal,etc.Dependsupon
relayscheme
3) InitiateBreakerfailurerelayscheme/DTT
4) Automaticreclosing(ifapplicable)

PJM2014 97 1/13/14
 BreakerFailureRelaying ShortDiscussion

Ifastuckbreakerconditionoccurs,abreakerfailurescheme
willbeinitiatedthatwilltripthenecessarylocalCBsneeded
toisolatethefailedCB
Inaddition,DirectTransferTripmaybeinitiatedtotripany
remoteCBsthatcouldsupplythefault.DTTwilltemporarily
blockautoreclosing
IfthefailedCBcanbeautomaticallyisolatedbytheopening
ofmotoroperateddisconnects,thiswilloccurandallow
reclosingofremoteCBs.IftherearenoMODs,reclosing
remainsblocked

PJM2014 98 1/13/14
 BreakerFailureRelayingShortDiscussion

DirectTransferTrip
Canbeusedforthefollowingpurposes:
Insuretrippingofremoteterminalfortransformerfaults
Cleartheremoteterminalforstuckbreakerconditionatthe
localstation
Generally,highsecurityisachievedbyusingtwo
transmitter/receiverpairs
Toinitiateatrip,bothreceiversmustdetecttheiruniquetrip
signalfromtherespectivetransmitter

PJM2014 99 1/13/14
 ReclosingPractices

Justasitisadvantageoustoclearafaultasfastaspossibleto
minimizetheshocktotheelectricalsystem,itisalso
advantageoustoreturnthetransmissionpathtoserviceas
soonaspossible
Sincemostfaultsontransmissionlinesaretransientinnature
(i.e.disappearwhencircuitisdeenergized),automatic
reclosingprovidesthemeansforreturningthepowersystem
toamorestablestate

PJM2014 100 1/13/14

 ReclosingPractices

Onthe230kVsystem,multishotreclosingmaybeemployed.
However,thiscandifferamongPJMmembercompanies

Onthe500kVsystem,itisastandardpolicytoutilizesingle
shotreclosingforlines.Thereclosure attemptwilltakeplace
5secondsafterthelinetrips

PJM2014 101 1/13/14

 ReclosingPractices

Whereisautomaticreclosingnotdesirable?
1) Ifprotectedlineisanundergroundcable
2) Iflinehasatappedtransformerthatcannotbeautomatically
disconnectedfromtheline
3) Iflineisjustbeingreturnedtoserviceandtrips

Allsituationsareusuallytakencareofbythecontrolscheme
duringdesignstage

PJM2014 102 1/13/14

 ReclosingPractices

ManualReclosing
Thisincludessupervisory(SCADA)controlinadditiontocontrol
handleclosures
Usedwhenswitchingequipmentinoroutofservice.(SCADAis
typicallyusedinsteadofcontrolhandleinordertoconfirm
itsavailability
ShouldfaultoccurassoonasaCBenergizesapieceofequipment,
noautomaticreclosingwilltakeplace

PJM2014 103 1/13/14

 ReclosingPractices

ManualReclosing
AlsousedforTryBack(testing)ofalineafterafault
Companypolicyshouldbefollowedwhenfaulttestingis
beingconsidered
Theoperatorshouldconsidertheeffectsthattestingmayhaveonthe
electricalsystem(shockingthesystemagain)
Ifpossible,itisalwaysbettertorequestapatroloflinebeforetrying
torestoreittoservice

PJM2014 104 1/13/14

 ReclosingPractices

Ingeneral,reclosingoftransmissionlineCBsissupervisedby
Synchrocheckrelays
Insuresthatthetwosystemsbeingtiestogetherareinsynchronism
witheachother(orclosetoit)
Ifthesystemsaresynchronizedsuchthattheanglebetweenthetwo
arewithindefinedlimits,reclosingwilloccur.Iftheyareoutsidethe
predefinedlimits,therelaywillblockreclosing

PJM2014 105 1/13/14

 ProtectiveRelayAlarmsViaSCADA

Dependingupondesign,receivingofanalarmcouldmean:
1) LowsignallevelsonPowerLineCarrierEquipment
2) LossofGuardononeormorePermissiveorDTTschemes

PJM2014 106 1/13/14

 RisksInvolved

DirectionalorPhaseComparisonSchemes
Withlowsignallevels,thereisagoodchancethattheprotectedline
couldovertrip forafault
PermissiveTransferredTripSchemes
Withacontinuouslossofguard,theschemewillshutitselfdown.
Littleriskofovertripping exists
Withasporadiclossofguard,noiseisbeingintroduced
intocommunicationchannel.Fairchanceofincorrect
trippingexists
Momentarylossofguardandreturntonormalhaslittlerisk
ofovertripping

PJM2014 107 1/13/14

 RisksInvolved

DirectTransferTrippingSchemes

Acontinuouslossofguardwillshutdownscheme.Littlerisk
ofovertripping exists

Sporadiclossofguardisindicationofnoisycommunication
channel.Thereisagoodchancethatanovertrip willoccur

Momentarylossofguardandreturntonormalisoflittle
concern.Lowriskofovertripping

PJM2014 108 1/13/14

 RankingofRisks(MosttoLeaseCritical)

1) SporadicLossofGuard DirectTransferredTripSchemes
2) LowSignalLevels DirectionalorPhaseComparison
3) SporadicLossofGuard PermissiveTransferredTripSchemes
4) ContinuousLossofGuard DirectTransferredTripSchemes
5) ContinuousLossofGuard PermissiveTransferred
TripSchemes
6) MomentaryLossofGuard DirectTransferredTripSchemes
7) MomentaryLossofGuard PermissiveTransferred
TripSchemes

PJM2014 109 1/13/14

 SpecialRelaySchemes

LoadSheddingviaUnderfrequency

CloseInFaultProtection

PJM2014 110 1/13/14

 UnderfrequencyLoadShed

Usedtomatchloadwithavailablegeneration
Inthisprogram,PJMMembercompaniesmustshed30%of
theirbaseload.Donein10%steps
UFloadsheddingiscoordinatedwithUFrelaysat
generatingstations

PJM2014 111 1/13/14

 CloseinFaultProtection

Inserviceforashortperiodoftimeafteratransmissionline
hasbeenreenergized(i.e.oneterminalclosed)
Simpleinstantaneousovercurrentrelaysareutilizedtotrip
thelineifafault(i.e.grounds)existontheline.Therelaysare
removedfromserviceafterashorttimedelay

PJM2014 112 1/13/14

 TransmissionLineProtection
Exercises/Review

PJM2014 1/13/14
 Thetwocategoriesofrelayschemescommonly
usedfortransmissionlineprotectionare:

A. Steppeddistance&
Overcurrent
B. Pilotbasedand
Overcurrent
C. PilotbasedandStepped
Distance
D. Undervoltageand
Overcurrent

PJM2014 114 1/13/14

 DistancerelayschemesemployOhmslawanddivide
whattwoquantitiestoobtainlineimpedance?

A. Voltage/Resistance
B. Voltage/Current
C. Current/Resistance
D. Current/Voltage

PJM2014 115 1/13/14

 WhatistheprimarydisadvantageofStepped
timedistancerelayscheme?

A. Doesntcovertheentire
line
B. Delayedclearingfor
certainfaults
C. Nooverlappingzonesof
protection
D. Lackofcoordination

PJM2014 116 1/13/14

 Identifyameansofcommunication
usedinpilotrelayschemes.
A. Microwave
B. Telephonepair
C. PowerLineCarrier
D. FiberOptic

PJM2015 117 1/8/2015

 Oneoftheprimaryadvantagesofusinganimpedance
(distance)relayforbackuptransmissionlineprotection
ratherthanovercurrentrelayis:

A. Ithasaconstantreach
B. Thereisnotimedelay
C. Notsusceptibletoload
currenttrips
D. Nondirectional
protection

PJM2014 118 1/13/14

 WhichofthefollowingarefeaturesofSteppedTimeDistancerelayschemes?
1.UsesImpedancerelays
2.Relaysaredirectional
3.Allrelayshaveasmalltimedelay
4.Relaysaretypicallygroupedinthreezones

A. 1,2and3
B. 1,2and4
C. 1,3and4
D. 2,3and4

PJM2015 119 1/8/2015

 AZone1impedancerelayissetonbothendsof
thelineandallowsinstantaneoustrippingto
protectwhatpercentageoftheline?
A. 100%
B. 90%
C. 75%
D. 50%

PJM2015 120 1/8/2015

 Pilotrelayschemesallowinstantaneoustripping
forwhatpercentageoftheprotectedline?
A. 100%
B. 90%
C. 75%
D. 50%

PJM2015 121 1/8/2015

 DirectionalPhaseComparisonschemesprotectfora
faultonthelinebecausethefaultwillcausewhat?

A. Maxcurrentflowoutof
theline
B. Currentflowatbothends
intothefault
C. Highvoltagespikesinthe
faultarea
D. Voltageflowtowardsthe
fault

PJM2014 122 1/13/14

 RelayTesting
ConsiderationsandConcerns

PJM2014 1/13/14
 RelayTesting

RelaytestingisimportanttoinsureRelaysandRelaySchemes
arefunctioningasdesigned

Becausetestingisusuallydonewhenprimaryequipmentis
energized,thereisariskthatunwantedoperationofrelay
schemesmayoccur

PJM2014 124 1/13/14

 Whycantrippingoccur?

Closeworkingconditions
Wiringerrors
ImproperBlockingorIsolatingofequipment
Inexperience(lackoftraining)
Accidental(bumppanelorrelay)

PJM2014 125 1/13/14

 ConsiderationsandConcernsforS.O.s:

Whenarequestisreceivedfromapersondoingtesting,
thinkabout:

Whatcoulditdotothesystem?Isthesystembeingoperatedina
mannerthatthelossoftheequipmentprotectedbytherelayscheme
willcauseseriousproblems(stability,voltage,overloadsetc.)
Wouldtheremovalofrelayschemegobeyondthesettingcriteriafor
otherrelayschemes

PJM2014 126 1/13/14

 ProtectionPractice:

ProtectionandCoordinationaretypicallybasedupon
theelectricalsystembeingnormal oralteredbyany
singlecontingency
Asinglecontingencyistheoutageofapieceofequipment
suchasaline,transformerorrelayscheme
Ifmorethanonepieceofequipmentisoutaged atastation,
protectionorcoordinationcanbecompromised
Therelayengineersshouldbecontactedtoinsureprotection
andcoordinationwillstillexist

PJM2014 127 1/13/14

 GeneralConsiderationsforDispatchers
FollowingaRelayOperation

PJM2014 1/13/14
 KnowyourcompaniespolicyregardingDispatcherresponseto
arelaytrip
Whodoyounotify?
Whotocalltoinitiaterepairs
Whotocalltoperformlinepatrols,substationinspections,etc.
Intercompanyresponse&notifications

PJM2014 129 1/13/14

 Datacollectionandfaultanalysis

Trytoobtainasmuchdataaspossibleforfuturedetailedanalysis(i.e.
relaytargets,Digitalfaultrecorderinformation,systemconditions)
Realtimeanalysiscomeswithexperience
Oftenknowingwhathastrippedmayleadtoadeterminationofthe
faultedpieceofequipmentorpotentialrelayproblem
(Seeexamples)

PJM2014 130 1/13/14

 Faultanalysis

Breakers1
thru7trip
open.Where
isthelikely
faultlocation?

PJM2014 131 1/13/14

 Faultanalysis

PJM2014 132 1/13/14

 ExerciseprudencebeforeTryingBack

500kVlineshaveasingleshotreclosingattemptafter
5.0seconds
Testingafter5minutesispossiblewithconcurrencefromPJM
andothers
NoTryBackshouldoccuron:
1) GeneratorSUtransformers
2) UndergroundCable(BusWork)
3) Indoorequipment

PJM2014 133 1/13/14

 TransformerProtection

PJM2014 1/13/14
 Transformers:

AttheheartoftheTransmissionSystem

Theymakethetransportoflargeamountsofelectricalenergy
economicallypossible

BecauseoftheircriticalitytotheBulkPowerSystem,high
speedclearingforfaultsisdesirable

PJM2014 135 1/13/14

 TransformerProtection

TypicalProblemsthatcanoccur:
InsidetheTank
1) WindingFaultstoGround
2) WindingTurntoTurnShorts
3) ExcessiveWindingand/orOilTemperature
4) Overloads(i.e.winding/oiltemperature
ExternaltoTank
1) BushingLeadFailure
2) BushingFlashover
3) LightningArresterFailure
4) ThroughFaults

PJM2014 136 1/13/14

 TransformerProtection

TransformerProtectionistypicallyprovidedby
differentialrelaying
Transformersprovideuniqueproblemsfordifferentialrelaying
thatmustbeaccountedfor:
1) Differentvoltagelevels(i.e.differentcurrentmagnitudes)
2) AutomaticTapChangers(LTCsorTCULs)associatedwith
transformerscausefurthermismatchbetweenhighsideandlow
sidecurrents
3) Energizingatransformercausesmagnetizinginrushcurrentwhich
appearsasaninternalfaulttothedifferentialrelay
4) BecauseofDeltaWyeconnections,thetransformerintroducesa30
degreephaseangleshiftthatmustbeaccountedfor

PJM2014 137 1/13/14

 CTConnectionsforTappedTransformer

PJM2014 138 1/13/14

 CTConnectionsforBusConnectedTransformer

PJM2014 139 1/13/14

 TransformerProtection

ItwasrecognizedearlythataperfectmatchofCTratios,
necessaryforthedifferentialrelay,waspracticallyimpossible
MismatchofCTsecondarycurrentscanbeovercomewitha
PercentageDifferentialCharacteristicrelay
Thistypeofrelayhasoperate andrestraint coilswhichare
connectedinamannerthatallowsforacertainamountof
CTmismatch

PJM2014 140 1/13/14

 TransformerProtection

Theinrushcurrentthatexistswhenatransformerisenergized
ishighinharmonics,particularlythesecondharmonic

TheuseofaHarmonicRestraintelementcandesensitizethe
differentialrelaytotheseharmonicsandprovidethe
necessarysecurityrequired

PJM2014 141 1/13/14

 Inrush Current
Applied Voltage

Typical Magnetizing Inrush Current Wave

Typical Offset Fault Current Wave

PJM2014 142 1/13/14

 TransformerProtection

The30degreephaseshiftthatisintroducedwhenprotecting
wyedeltatransformerbankscanbeovercomewiththe
properconnectionoftheCTssupplyingthedifferentialrelay

Thegeneralruleofthumb:
CTsonwyesideoftransformershouldbeconnectedindelta,whileCTs
onthedeltasideshouldbeconnectedinwye

PJM2014 143 1/13/14

 TransformerProtection

BottomLine:

Thedifferentialrelayistheidealdevicefortransformerprotectionin
thatittakesadvantageofthezonetypeofprotectiontoprovide
sensitivehighspeedclearingoftransformerfaults

PJM2014 144 1/13/14

 TransformerProtection

SincehighvoltagetransformersarecriticaltotheBulkPower
System,generallyprimaryandbackupdifferentialrelaysare
usedforprotection

Beyondusingtwodiscretedifferentialrelays,additional
devicesareusedtoprotectthetransformer

PJM2014 145 1/13/14

 TransformerProtection

SuddenPressureRelays:

Ifanarcingfaultoccursinsidethetransformertank,gasesare
generatedwhichcanbedetectedbyapressurerelay
Operationofthisrelaywillinitiatetrippingofthetransformer
Thisprotectionprovidesbackuptothedifferentialrelays

PJM2014 146 1/13/14

 TransformerProtection

GasAnalyzers(CombustibleGasRelay):

Lowmagnitudefaultsproducegasesastheybreakdowntheoiland
insulationinthetransformertank
Thegasanalyzerrelayconstantlymonitorsthegasspaceabovethe
transformeroilandwillactuateanalarmifgaslevelsexceeda
predeterminedlevel
AnAlarmprovideswarningofapossibleinternalfaultwhichcould
becatastrophic

PJM2014 147 1/13/14

 TransformerProtection

WindingTemperatureRelays:

WindingTemperature(referredtoasHotSpotprotection)insidethe
transformerissimulatedbyusingaCTtodriveaheatingelement
underoil
Asthetransformerbecomesloaded,theheatingelementproduces
moreheat
Astheheatincreasesandpredeterminedtemperaturelevelsare
reached,atemperaturesensingdevicewill:
1) Startadditionalcoolinggroups(ifpossible)
2) Alarmiftemperaturecontinuestoincrease
3) Tripthetransformer

PJM2014 148 1/13/14

 TransformerProtection

OilTemperatureRelays:

OiltemperatureismonitoredbyaTopOildeviceinsidethetank.
SimilartotheHotSpotprotection,whenpredetermined
temperaturelevelsarereached,atemperaturesensingdevicewill:
1) Startadditionalcoolinggroups(ifpossible)
2) Alarm
3) Tripthetransformer

PJM2014 149 1/13/14

 IllustrationsOfAnalogGaugeStyleWindingTemperatureandLiquid
TemperatureThermalDevices
PJM2014 150 1/13/14
 IllustrationOf
MicroprocessorBased
ThermalDevice
LiquidTemperature
istheupperunit
WindingTemperature
isthelowerunit

PJM2014 151 1/13/14

 TransformerProtection

TransformerNeutralOvercurrentRelay:

RelayisconnectedtoaCTlocatedontheneutralconnectionofaWYE
Groundedtransformer

UsedasBackUpprotectionforThroughFaults

Mustbecoordinatedwithothersystemgroundrelays

Operationofthisrelaywilltripthetransformer

PJM2014 152 1/13/14

 TransformerProtection

BlindSpotOvercurrentRelay:

Onoccasion,tappedtransformersareenergizedfromthelowside
only(i.e.highsideMOABisopen).Thisistypicallydonetomaintain
stationservice
LineRelayingmaynotrespondtoafaultthatcouldoccurbetweenthe
TransformerDiff.CTsandtheMOAB
ABlindSpotrelayisusedtodetectthiscondition
ItisinserviceonlywhenthehighsideMOABisopen
Willtripthelowsidecircuitbreakerstoisolatethefault

PJM2014 153 1/13/14

 CTConnectionsforTappedTransformer

Fault

PJM2014 154 1/13/14

 TransformerProtection

OtherProtectiveDevices:
LossofCoolingRelay Ifallfansand/oroilpumpsarelostforany
reason,thetransformerwillbetrippediftemperatureisabovea
predeterminedlevel
LowOilLevel Lackofproperoillevelcompromisestransformer
cooling.Thisdevicewillalarmandeventuallytripthetransformerifoil
leveldropsbelowacertainthreshold

PJM2014 155 1/13/14

 TransformerProtection

Operationofanyoftheaboverelayschemeswillinitiateother
protectivefunctions
Thephysicaldesignoftheelectricalsystemwilldefinewhat
additionalactionsaretaken
Someactionsinclude:
1) InitiateDirectTransferredTriptoremoteterminals
2) Initiatebreakerfailurerelaying
3) BlockreclosingofCBsthataretripped(untiltransformerisisolated)
4) Closethehighspeedgroundswitch
5) Initiatepermissivetrip/stopsendingblockingsignal,etc

PJM2014 156 1/13/14

 TransformerProtection

TurntoTurnshorts(nonfaultcondition)

Havenotdiscussedthisabnormalconditionmuch
Ingeneral,thisconditionisverydifficulttodetect initially
Asmoreandmoreinsulationdeteriorates,thisconditionmaycause
thegasanalyzerrelaytorespond
Otherwise,couldgoundetecteduntilwindingflashesovertoground.
Atthatpoint,normaltransformerprotectionwillrespondtoclear
thefault

PJM2014 157 1/13/14

 TransformerProtection

BecauseaBulkPowerTransformerisahighcostpieceof
equipment,automatictestingofthetransformerisgenerally
notincludedinthecontrolschemedesign
Ifthedifferentialrelayresponds,amastertripauxiliaryrelay
willtripandblockclosingofdeviceswhichcouldreenergize
thetransformer
Toreclosethelockedoutdevices,thismastertriprelaymust
behandreset

PJM2014 158 1/13/14

 OperatorsroleifTransformerProtectionOperates

Knowyourcompanypolicy!
Alertallthatneedtobeinformedoftheoperation
Beawareofstepsrequiredtoalleviatepossiblesystemoverloads,low
voltageconcerns,etc.

Ingeneral,donottest(tryback)thetransformeruntilitis
inspectedbyqualifiedindividuals

PJM2014 159 1/13/14

 BusProtection

PJM2014 1/13/14
 TypicalBusDesigns

SingleBus SingleBreaker
Leastflexibleofsubdesigns,butlowcost
RingBus
ImprovedFlexibility,maybedifficulttorelay.
BreakerandaHalf
Offersmostflexibility,butmoreexpensive
DoubleBusDoubleBreaker
SimilartoBreakerandaHalf

PJM2014 161 1/13/14

 SingleBus SingleBreakerArrangement

PJM2014 162 1/13/14

 RingBusArrangement

PJM2014 163 1/13/14

 BreakerandaHalfBusArrangement

PJM2014 164 1/13/14

 DoubleBreaker DoubleBusArrangement

PJM2014 165 1/13/14

 BusProtection

OntheBulkPowerSystem,themostcommonprotection
practicetoinsurehighspeedclearingoffaultsonbusworkis
touseDifferentialRelays
Older,lesscriticalstationsmayemployTimeand
InstantaneousOvercurrentrelaysconnectedinadifferential
scheme.Theseschemescanbelesssensitive,slowerorboth

PJM2014 166 1/13/14

 BusProtection

Generally,theCTsusedforBusProtectionarelocatedonthe
lineorequipmentsideofthecircuitbreaker.Consequently,
theCBiswithintheprotectionzoneofthebusdifferential
andthelineorpieceofequipment(overlappingzones
ofprotection)

CTsthatareconnectedinthedifferentialschemeshouldbeof
anaccuracyclassthatcanwithstandmaximumexpectedfault
currents(i.e.CTsshouldnotsaturate).Failureofapplication
engineerstoinsurethiscouldleadtoamisoperation

PJM2014 167 1/13/14

 BusProtection

Ifabusdifferentialrelayoperates,therelaywilltypicallydo
thefollowing:
1) EnergizeaMasterTripAuxiliaryRelay
2) Tripallsourcestothatbussection(viatheMasterTrip)
3) SetuptheResetoftheMasterTripRelayifbustestingistooccur
4) BlockreclosingofallCBsexceptthatoftheautomatictestingsource
(ifsoequipped)
5) InitiateBreakerFailure
6) InitiateanAlarm

PJM2014 168 1/13/14

 BusProtection

Onthe500kvSystem,automaticbustestingdoesnotoccur

Ingeneral,onvoltagelevelsbelow500kv,asingle
automatictestofthebusmightoccur.Thiscanvary
acrossthePJMterritory

PJM2014 169 1/13/14

 BusProtection

Iftheparticularstationisequippedwithbustestinganda
successfultestoccurs,allremainingCBsthatweretrippedwill
automaticallyreclose
Ifthebustestwasunsuccessful,allCBs,includingthetesting
CB,willbelockedout
Althoughautomaticreclosingisblocked,theoperatormay
havetheabilitytocloseaCBviasupervisorycontrol(SCADA)

PJM2014 170 1/13/14

 OperatorRoleisBusProtectionOperatestodeenergizeaBus

Knowyourcompanypolicy!
Alertallthatneedtobeinformedofoperation
Beawareofstepsrequiredtoalleviatepossiblesystemoverloads,low
voltageconcerns,etc.(soundfamiliar?)

Ifthebustripsandlocksout,notestingviaSCADAshould
occuruntilthestationisinspectedbyauthorizedpersonnel

PJM2014 171 1/13/14

DirectTransferredTrip(DTT)
Relaying
 Clearing Sequence For A Fault
On Brunner Island Transformer 20

WEST HEMPFIELD BRUNNER ISLAND

230/69 kV SUB 230 kV PLANT and SWITCHYARD

230 kV CB West Hempfield

East 230 kV GCB

230/13.8/4 kV
T20 MOD Transformer 20 To
13.8 kV and 4 kV
Lowside CBs
inside Plant

T20 HSGS

West Hempfield
West 230 kV GCB
69kV CB
 1) A fault occurs inside Transformer 20 at Brunner Island

WEST HEMPFIELD BRUNNER ISLAND

230/69 kV SUB 230 kV PLANT and SWITCHYARD

230 kV CB West Hempfield

East 230 kV GCB

230/13.8/4 kV
T20 MOD Transformer 20 To
13.8 kV and 4 kV
Lowside CBs
inside Plant

T20 HSGS

West Hempfield
West 230 kV GCB
69kV CB
 2) At Brunner Island, Transformer 20 protection operates to immediately trip the West
Hempfield East and West 230kV circuit breakers and the 13.8kV and 4kV Transformer 20
lowside circuit breakers. Simultaneously, a DTT TRIP signal is initiated to West Hempfield
Sub, the T20 HSGS closes and the T20 MOD starts to open
3) At West Hempfield, the 230kV line and 69kV transformer lowside breakers open
immediately upon receipt of the DTT TRIP signalall circuit breakers at West Hempfield
are open before the HSGS at Brunner Island closes fully into the transmission line

WEST HEMPFIELD BRUNNER ISLAND

230/69 kV SUB 230 kV PLANT and SWITCHYARD

230 kV CB West Hempfield

East 230 kV GCB

230/13.8/4 kV
T20 MOD Transformer 20 To
13.8 kV and 4 kV
Lowside CBs
inside Plant

T20 HSGS

West Hempfield
West 230 kV GCB
69kV CB
 4) At Brunner Island, the T20 MOD opens fully to physically isolate the fault and stops
the DTT TRIP signal to West Hempfieldall circuit breakers at West Hempfield reclose
automatically. The transmission line breakers at Brunner Island also reclose
automatically after the failed transformer is isolated, but the T20 lowside breakers are
designed to stay open.

WEST HEMPFIELD BRUNNER ISLAND

230/69 kV SUB 230 kV PLANT and SWITCHYARD

230 kV CB West Hempfield

East 230 kV GCB

230/13.8/4 kV
T20 MOD Transformer 20 To
13.8 kV and 4 kV
Lowside CBs
inside Plant

T20 HSGS

West Hempfield
West 230 kV GCB
69kV CB
Bus Protection
Illustration Of Automatic Bus Testing
In a Transmission Switchyard

Following a bus differential operation,

a preselected circuit breaker
automatically recloses to test the bus
Illustration Of Automatic Bus Testing
In a Transmission Switchyard

Following a bus differential operation,

a preselected circuit breaker
automatically recloses to test the bus
 Illustration Of Automatic Bus Testing
In a Transmission Switchyard

If the bus test is unsuccessful,

all circuit breakers lock out
and must be closed manually or by SCADA
 Illustration Of Automatic Bus Testing
In a Transmission Switchyard

On the other hand, if the bus test is successful, all

the other circuit breaker automatically reclose
after a time delay to ensure the bus is stable.
Bus Testing At Generating Stations
Automatic bus testing following a bus differential operation at a
generating station is given special consideration because of the
severe mechanical stresses placed on turbine-generator couplings
by a close-in bus fault
normally the impedance between the generator terminals and a
fault on a power line cushions the mechanical impact on the
turbine-generator
a bus fault, however, is essentially right at the terminals of the
GSU transformer, so we want to limit exposure of the generator to
such close-in faults as much as possible
for this reason, a tripped bus at a generating station should be
tested only with a transmission line energized from a remote
substation
this technique puts the testing source as far away as possible so
that the impedance of the transmission line limits the current
available to a persistent bus fault and thus minimizes added stress
on the local generators
 Illustration Of Automatic Bus Testing
At a Generating Station

G
G
G
1 2 3 4

Following a bus differential operation,

a preselected circuit breaker must
be closed to test the bus
which one is preferred here and why?
 TransformerandBusProtection
Exercises/Review

PJM2014 1/13/14
 Themostcommonlyusedrelayscheme
fortransformerandbusprotectionis:
A. Overcurrent
B. Undervoltage
C. Differential
D. Distance

PJM2015 185 1/8/2015

 Differentialrelayschemescomparethetotal
currentflowingintoadeviceto__________.

A. Areferencecurrent
B. Totalcurrentleavingthe
device
C. Totalvoltagedropacross
thedevice
D. Voltageflowthroughthe
device

PJM2014 186 1/13/14

 Adifferentialrelayschemeacrossatransformer
mustcompensatefor_____________________.

A. Voltageratioacross
thetransformer
B. Impedanceratioof
thetransformer
C. Currentratioacross
thetransformer
D. Resistanceratioof
thetransformer

PJM2014 187 1/13/14

 Automaticreclosure availabilityonsomerelay
schemesservestoimproveoverallreliabilityby
restoringcircuitsafterafaulthasbeencleared.

A. True
B. False

PJM2014 188 1/13/14

 GeneratorProtection

PJM2014 1/13/14
 D. C. Excitation
System

Prime Generator
Mover
Synchronizing
CB
Generator
Step Up
Transformer System

Aux.
Load

High Voltage
Bus
Emergency Diesel
Generator Start Up
Transformer

Typical Generating Plant Arrangement

PJM2014 190 1/13/14

 StationArrangement

AGeneratorisusuallyconnectedtothepowersystem
throughawyedeltatransformer(wyeonthehighvoltage
side,deltaonthegeneratorside)

Generatoritselfisconnectedwyewithitsneutralgrounded
throughahighimpedance

Purposeofthisgeneratorconnectionistolimitthehigh
magnitudecurrentswhichcouldflowforagroundfault

PJM2014 191 1/13/14

 StationArrangement

GeneratorInService
StartupTransformerisoutofservice
Plantauxiliaryloadsaresuppliedfromthestationservicetransformer
GeneratorOutofService
SinceGeneratorisoffline,thestationservicetransformerisout
ofservice
PlantauxiliaryloadsaresuppliedfromtheStartupTransformer

PJM2014 192 1/13/14

 StationArrangement

StationBlackout
Generatorhasjusttrippedorwasalreadyoffline

Thestartuptransformercanprovidenohelpbecausethisportionof
thehighvoltagesystemisinterrupted

Emergencygenerators(diesel)areusedtosupplytheplantauxiliary
loaduntilthesystemisrestored

PJM2014 193 1/13/14

 GeneratorUnitTripping

PJM2014 1/13/14
 GeneratorUnitTripping:

ThefrequencyoffailuresinRotatingMachinesislow,howeverfailures
cananddooccur
Beyondactualfailures,certainabnormalconditionscancause
generatorfailureifnotcorrectedquickly
Someoftheseharmfulconditionsare:
WindingFaults
Overheating
LossofField
SinglePhasing
Overloading
Overspeed
Motoring(turbine)
Overexcitation

PJM2014 195 1/13/14

 GeneratorUnitTripping:

Notalloftheproblemsmentionednecessarilyhavetocausea
unittrip.Ifdetectedquickly,measurescanbetakentomitigate
theproblem

Consequently,somerelayschemeswillfirstproduceanalarmtoalert
operatorsoftheproblem.Iftheproblemworsensbeforecorrective
actioncanbetaken,theschemewillinitiateaunittrip

PJM2014 196 1/13/14

 GeneratorUnitTripping:

Ifprotectivedevicesdocauseaunittrip,thefollowingactions
willoccur:
1) GeneratorSynchronizingCBistrippedandlockedout
2) NormalStationServicesupplyCBistripped
3) GeneratorDCfieldCBistripped
4) PrimeMoveristripped

PJM2014 197 1/13/14

 GeneratorUnitTripping:

Whenaunittrips,thefunctionoftheplantoperatoristo
stabilizetheprimemoverandauxiliarysystemstoinsurea
controlledshutdown

Thegenerationdispatcherspurposeisdependentupon
individualcompanyprocedures.Thiscouldinvolve
negotiationforadditionalgenerationornotifyingthat
companysenergymarketingfunction

PJM2014 198 1/13/14

 Overall
UnitProtection

PJM2014 1/13/14
 Areastobeprotectedandconcerns:

1) Generator WindingFault,Overloading,Overheating,
Overspeed,Underfrequency,LossofExcitation,Motoring,
PhaseUnbalance,OutofStep
2) Turbine Overspeed,Underspeed,Vibration,Temperature
3) Auxiliaries CableFaults,GroundsonSystem
4) StationService TransformerFaults,Leadfaults,etc

PJM2014 200 1/13/14

 Ground Relay
To Excitation Generator CB
R System Unit Differential
Relay

R
D.C. Field

GEN
Distribution
Transformer

R
Generator Differential Main Power
Relay Transformer Station Bus
Protection
Xfmer Diff. Relay
R

Station
Service Station Service
Load Transformer

Start Up Start Up CB
Station Service Transformer
Bus

Xfmer Diff. Relay

R
Station Service Bus R
Differential Relay

PJM2014 201 1/13/14

 ProtectiveRelaySchemesfortheGenerator:

GeneratorDifferential

WrapsonlytheStatorWindingsoftheGenerator

Sensitivetophaseandsomegroundfaults

Operationofthisrelaywillinitiateaunittrip

PJM2014 202 1/13/14

 Generator Differential

C
Rotor
(DC Field) B
A
Armature and
Stator Windings
High
Impedance
Neutral

87 Differential Relay
(B & C Phases are similar)

PJM2014 203 1/13/14

 ProtectiveRelaySchemesfortheGenerator:

OverallDifferential
WrapstheGenerator,Gen.StepupTransformer&Station
ServiceTransformer
Sensitivetophase&somegroundfaults
BacksuptheGen.Diff,GSUDiff.,StationServiceDiff,etc
LesssensitivethantheGen.Diff
Operationofthisrelaywillinitiateaunittrip

PJM2014 204 1/13/14

 TO
GRID SYSTEM
UNIT DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION
TO
EXCITATION
SYSTEM
D.C.
FIELD
GENERATOR
C.B.

GEN. STATION
BUS
GENERATOR (HIGH VOLTAGE)
NEUTRAL 87
TO GROUND
MAIN POWER
TRANSFORMER

STATION
LOADS TO
STATION GRID SYSTEM
SERVICE
STATION TRANSFORMER
SERVICE
BUS
(LOW VOLTAGE)

PJM2014 205 1/13/14

 ProtectiveRelaySchemesfortheGenerator:

OvercurrentProtection
ProvideBackupProtectionforGen.DiffScheme
Protectsthegeneratorfromsystemfaultsthatarenotclearedwithina
predeterminedtimeinterval
CoordinatedwithSystemOvercurrentschemes
Usuallytimedelayedtominimizetrippingfortransientsurges
orsynchronizing
Willinitiateaunittrip

PJM2014 206 1/13/14

 Generator Other Generator Protection Relays

To GSU
Transformer

CT

51G

PT
51 46 32 40 59 81

51 - Backup Overcurrent 32 - Reverse Power (Anti-motoring)

46 - Negative Sequence 51G - Generator Ground Overcurrent
40 - Loss of Field 59 - Overexcitation
81 - Underfrequency

PJM2014 207 1/13/14

 ProtectiveRelaySchemesfortheGenerator:

AntimotoringorReversePowerProtection:
ActuallyusedtoprotecttheTurbineinsteadofthegenerator
WhenGeneratortakesinpower,itisessentiallyasynchronousmotor
(nonharmfultogenerator)
Thismodeofoperation,ifsustainedcouldleadtoturbinebladefailure
Thisisonestandardmethodfortakingunitoffline
Maycausealarm,butwillinitiateaunittrip

PJM2014 208 1/13/14

 ProtectiveRelaySchemesfortheGenerator

NegativeSequenceProtection
Duringunbalancedfaults,NegativeSequencecurrentswillflow
Physically,120cyclerotorcurrentsareinducedinthesolidrotorforgings,
nonmagneticrotorwedgesandretainingrings.
TheI2Rlossquicklyraisestemperatureoftherotorandwouldeventually
causeseriousrotordamage
Willinitiateanalarmandtripunit

PJM2014 209 1/13/14

 ProtectiveRelaySchemesfortheGenerator:

GeneratorGroundFaultProtection
MethodofGeneratorGroundingaffectstheprotectionprovidedby
thedifferentialrelays
Thehigherthegroundingimpedance,thelowerthegroundfault
currentmagnitude
Todetecttheselowmagnitudefaults,NeutralOvercurrentoran
Overvoltagerelayschemeisemployed
Operationofthisrelayschemewillinitiateaunittrip

PJM2014 210 1/13/14

 Types of Generator Grounding Used

Generator Generator

51G Transformer

59
High Resistance
Neutral

Resistored Neutral with High Impedance Neutral

an Overcurrent Relay with Overvoltage Relay

PJM2014 211 1/13/14

 ProtectiveRelaySchemesfortheGenerator:

LossofFieldProtection
Whenlossoffieldoccursinasynchronousmachine,reactivepower
flowsfromthesystemintothemachine
Thereactiveflowcanbe2to3timesthegeneratorsratedload(i.e.
thermaldamage)
Relaysmonitorreversevar floworlowvoltage
Operationofthisrelaywillalarmandinitiateaunittrip

PJM2014 212 1/13/14

 ProtectiveRelaySchemesfortheGenerator:

LossofFieldProtection

LossofFieldindicatesthattroubleexistsin:
1) MainExciter
2) FieldWinding
3) OperatingErrorwhenmachineisinManualmode

PJM2014 213 1/13/14

 ProtectiveRelaySchemesfortheGenerator:

Overexcitation Protection

ConcernisfortheGeneratorFieldandmainGSUtransformersince
overexcitation cancausedamagingoverheatingduetocoresaturation
inaveryshorttime
ForGSUtransformerprotection,aVolts/Hertzrelayisapplied
Operationofrelaywilltripunit
ForFieldOverexcitation,VoltageorCurrentrelaysareemployed
Relaywillalarmorautomaticallyreducefieldtoallowablelimits

PJM2014 214 1/13/14

 ProtectiveRelaySchemesfortheGenerator:

Underfrequency Protection

IfSystemLoadexceedsthecapabilityofthemachine,thefrequency
willdecay
InPJM,machinesaretypicallysetfor57.5hz witha5.0second
timedelay
Systemloadsheddingschemesareusedtodumploadasrequired
Ifnotenoughloadisdisconnectedandfrequencydrops,relaywillinitiate
aunittrip
Ifunittrippingoccurs,pulloutyourBlackStartRestorationguide
becauseitwillbeneeded!

PJM2014 215 1/13/14

 GeneratorProtectionExercises/Review

PJM2014 1/13/14
 Listtheassociatedactionsthattypicallyoccurwhena
generatortrips:

PJM2014 217 1/13/14

 Whichrelayschemeprotectsthegenerator
fromstatorwindingfaults?

1. Lossoffield
2. GeneratorDifferential
3. Overspeed
4. Neutralovercurrent

PJM2014 218 1/13/14

 Whattypeofrelayisusedtoprotectthegenerator
fromalossofsynchronizationresultingfromexcessive
VARabsorption?
A. Overexcitation
B. LossofField
C. NegativeSequence
D. Differential

PJM2015 219 1/8/2015

 Whatmajorcomponentofageneratoris
protectedbyageneratorfieldoverexcitation
relay?
A. Turbine
B. GSU
C. Fieldwindings
D. Isophasebus

PJM2015 220 1/8/2015

 Whatisthenameofthismajorcomponent
ofageneratingunit?

PJM2014 221 1/13/14

 Whatisthenameofthismajorcomponent
ofageneratingunit?

PJM2014 222 1/13/14

 Whatisthenameofthismajorcomponent
ofageneratingunit?

PJM2014 223 1/13/14

 Whatisthenameofthismajorcomponent
ofageneratingunit?

PJM2014 224 1/13/14

 Whatisthenameofthismajorcomponent
ofageneratingunit?

PJM2014 225 1/13/14

 Whatisthenameofthismajorcomponent
ofageneratingunit?

PJM2014 226 1/13/14

 Whatisthenameofthismajorcomponent
ofageneratingunit?

PJM2014 227 1/13/14

 Summary

Describethepurposeofprotectiverelays
Identifyrelayprotectionschemecharacteristics
andcomponents
Describetheimpactofthelossofcomponentson
systemprotection
Identifythetypesoftransmissionlineprotectionand
theircharacteristics
Identifythetypesoftransformerprotectionand
theircharacteristics
Identifythetypesofbusprotectionandtheircharacteristics
Identifythetypesofgeneratorprotectionand
theircharacteristics
PJM2014 228 1/13/14
 Questions?

PJM2014 1/13/14
 Disclaimer:
PJMhasmadealleffortspossibletoaccuratelydocumentall
informationinthispresentation.Theinformationseenhere
doesnotsupersedethePJMOperatingAgreementorthe
PJMTariffbothofwhichcanbefoundbyaccessing:
http://www.pjm.com/documents/agreements/pjm
agreements.aspx

Foradditionaldetailedinformationonanyofthetopics
discussed,pleaserefertotheappropriatePJMmanual
whichcanbefoundbyaccessing:
http://www.pjm.com/documents/manuals.aspx

PJM2014 230 1/13/14

 ResourcesandReferences
PJM.(2013).PJMManual3:TransmissionOperations(rev43).Retrieved
fromhttp://www.pjm.com/~/media/documents/manuals/m03.ashx
PJM.(2011).PJMManual7:PJMProtectionStandards(rev0).Retrieved
fromhttp://www.pjm.com/~/media/documents/manuals/m07.ashx
Miller,R.&Malinowski,J.(1994).PowerSystemOperation.(3rd ed.).
Boston,MA.McGrawHill.

PJM2014 231 1/13/14