3/29/2017 AlbertCamus(StanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy)

Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

AlbertCamus
FirstpublishedThuOct27,2011

AlbertCamus(19131960)wasajournalist,editorandeditorialist,playwrightanddirector,novelistand
authorofshortstories,politicalessayistandactivistandarguably,althoughhecametodenyit,a
philosopher.Heignoredoropposedsystematicphilosophy,hadlittlefaithinrationalism,assertedratherthan
arguedmanyofhismainideas,presentedothersinmetaphors,waspreoccupiedwithimmediateandpersonal
experience,andbroodedoversuchquestionsasthemeaningoflifeinthefaceofdeath.Althoughhe
forcefullyseparatedhimselffromexistentialism,Camusposedoneofthetwentiethcentury'sbestknown
existentialistquestions,whichlaunchesTheMythofSisyphus:Thereisonlyonereallyseriousphilosophical
question,andthatissuicide(MS,3).Andhisphilosophyoftheabsurdhasleftuswithastrikingimageof
thehumanfate:Sisyphusendlesslypushinghisrockupthemountainonlytoseeitrollbackdowneachtime
hegainsthetop.Camus'sphilosophyfoundpoliticalexpressioninTheRebel,whichalongwithhis
newspapereditorials,politicalessays,plays,andfictionearnedhimareputationasagreatmoralist.Italso
embroiledhiminconflictwithhisfriend,JeanPaulSartre,provokingthemajorpoliticalintellectualdivide
oftheColdWareraasCamusandSartrebecame,respectively,theleadingintellectualvoicesoftheanti
CommunistandproCommunistleft.Furthermore,inposingandansweringurgentphilosophicalquestionsof
theday,CamusarticulatedacritiqueofreligionandoftheEnlightenmentandallitsprojects,including
Marxism.In1957hewontheNobelPrizeforliterature.HediedinacaraccidentinJanuary,1960,attheage
of46.

1.TheParadoxesofCamus'sAbsurdistPhilosophy
2.NuptialsandCamus'sStartingPoint
3.Suicide,AbsurdityandHappiness:TheMythofSisyphus
3.1SuicideasaResponsetoAbsurdity
3.2TheLimitsofReason
3.3CriticismofExistentialists
3.4HappinessinFacingOne'sFate
3.5ResponsetoSkepticism
4.MurderandRebellion:TheRebel
4.1RebellionvsRevolution
4.2AgainstCommunism
5.PhilosopherofthePresent
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1.TheParadoxesofCamus'sAbsurdistPhilosophy
TherearevariousparadoxicalelementsinCamus'sapproachtophilosophy.Inhisbooklengthessay,The
MythofSisyphus,Camuspresentsaphilosophythatcontestsphilosophyitself.Thisessaybelongssquarely
inthephilosophicaltraditionofexistentialismbutCamusdeniedbeinganexistentialist.BothTheMythof
Sisyphusandhisotherphilosophicalwork,TheRebel,aresystematicallyskepticalofconclusionsaboutthe
meaningoflife,yetbothworksassertobjectivelyvalidanswerstokeyquestionsabouthowtolive.Though
Camusseemedmodestwhendescribinghisintellectualambitions,hewasconfidentenoughasaphilosopher
toarticulatenotonlyhisownphilosophybutalsoacritiqueofreligionandafundamentalcritiqueof
modernity(onethatanticipatedpostmodernism).Whilerejectingtheveryideaofaphilosophicalsystem,
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Camusconstructedhisownoriginaledificeofideasaroundthekeytermsofabsurdityandrebellion,aiming
toresolvethelifeordeathissuesthatmotivatedhim.

TheessentialparadoxarisinginCamus'sphilosophyconcernshiscentralnotionofabsurdity.Acceptingthe
Aristotelianideathatphilosophybeginsinwonder,Camusarguesthathumanbeingscannotescapeasking
thequestion,Whatisthemeaningofexistence?Camus,however,deniesthatthereisananswertothis
question,andrejectseveryscientific,teleological,metaphysical,orhumancreatedendthatwouldprovidean
adequateanswer.Thus,whileacceptingthathumanbeingsinevitablyseektounderstandlife'spurpose,
Camustakestheskepticalpositionthatthenaturalworld,theuniverse,andthehumanenterpriseremain
silentaboutanysuchpurpose.Sinceexistenceitselfhasnomeaning,wemustlearntobearanirresolvable
emptiness.Thisparadoxicalsituation,then,betweenourimpulsetoaskultimatequestionsandthe
impossibilityofachievinganyadequateanswer,iswhatCamuscallstheabsurd.Camus'sphilosophyofthe
absurdexplorestheconsequencesarisingfromthisbasicparadox.

Camus'sunderstandingofabsurdityisbestcapturedinanimage,notanargument:ofSisyphusstrainingto
pushhisrockupthemountain,watchingitrolldown,thendescendingaftertherocktobeginallover,inan
endlesscycle.LikeSisyphus,humanscannothelpbutcontinuetoaskafterthemeaningoflife,onlytosee
ouranswerstumblebackdown.Ifweacceptthisthesisaboutlife'sessentialabsurdity,andCamus'santi
philosophicalapproachtophilosophicalquestions,wecannothelpbutask:Whatroleisleftforrational
analysisandargument?Doesn'tCamusthephilosopherpresideoverthedeathofphilosophyinansweringthe
questionwhethertocommitsuicidebyabandoningtheterrainofargumentandanalysisandturningto
metaphortoanswerit?Iflifehasnofundamentalpurposeormeaningthatreasoncanarticulate,wecannot
helpaskingaboutwhywecontinuetoliveandtoreason.MightnotSilenusberightindeclaringthatitwould
havebeenbetternottohavebeenborn,ortodieassoonaspossible?[1]And,asFrancisJeansonwrotelong
beforehisfamouscriticismofTheRebelthatprecipitatedtherupturebetweenCamusandSartre,isn't
absurdistphilosophyacontradictioninterms,strictlyspeakingnophilosophyatallbutanantirational
posturethatendsinsilence(Jeanson1947)?

WasCamusactuallyaphilosopher?Hehimselfsaidno,inafamousinterviewwithJeanineDelpechinLes
NouvellesLittrairesinNovemberof1945,insistingthathedidnotbelievesufficientlyinreasontobelieve
inasystem(Camus1965,1427).Thiswasnotmerelyapublicposture,sincewefindthesamethoughtin
hisnotebooksofthisperiod:hedescribeshimselfasanartistandnotaphilosopherbecauseIthink
accordingtowordsandnotaccordingtoideas(Camus1995,113).Still,JeanPaulSartresawimmediately
thatCamuswasundertakingimportantphilosophicalwork,andinhisreviewofTheStrangerinrelationto
Sisyphus,hadnotroubleconnectingCamuswithPascal,Rousseau,andNietzsche(Sartre1962).Afterthey
becamefriendsSartrespokepubliclyofhisfriend'sphilosophyoftheabsurd,whichhedistinguishedfrom
hisownthoughtforwhichheacceptedtheexistentialistlabelthatCamusrejected.

ThisentrywillnegotiateCamus'sdeliberateambivalenceasaphilosopherwhilediscussinghisphilosophy.It
isnotjustamatterofgivingaphilosophicalreadingofthisplaywright,journalist,essayist,andnovelistbut
oftakinghisphilosophicalwritingsseriouslyexploringtheirpremises,theirevolution,theirstructure,and
theircoherence.Todosoistoseethathiswritingcontainsmorethanamoodandmorethanimagesand
sweeping,unsupportedassertions,althoughitcontainsmanyofboth.Camustakeshisskepticismasfaras
possibleasaformofmethodicaldoubtthatis,hebeginsfromapresumptionofskepticismuntilhefinds
thebasisforanonskepticalconclusion.Andhebuildsauniquephilosophicalconstruction,whosepremises
areoftenleftunstatedandwhichisnotalwaysarguedclearly,butwhichdevelopsindistinctstagesoverthe
courseofhisbrieflifetime.Camus'sphilosophycanbethusreadasasustainedefforttodemonstrateandnot
justassertwhatisentailedbytheabsurdityofhumanexistence.IntheprocessCamusanswersthequestions
posedbyTheMythofSisyphus,WhyshouldInotkillmyself?,andbyTheRebel,WhyshouldInotkill
others?.

2.NuptialsandCamus'sStartingPoint
Camus'sgraduatethesisattheUniversityofAlgierssympatheticallyexploredtherelationshipbetweenGreek
philosophyandChristianity,specificallytherelationshipofPlotinustoAugustine.Nevertheless,his
philosophyexplicitlyrejectsreligionasoneofitsfoundations.Notalwaystakinganopenlyhostileposture
towardsreligiousbeliefthoughhecertainlydoesinthenovelsTheStrangerandThePlagueCamus
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centershisworkonchoosingtolivewithoutGod.AnotherwaytounderstandCamus'sphilosophyisthatitis
anefforttoexploretheissuesandpitfallsofapostreligiousworld.

Camus'searliestpublishedwritingcontainingphilosophicalthinking,Nuptials,appearedinAlgeriain1938,
andremainthebasisofhislaterwork.Theselyricalessaysandsketchesdescribeaconsciousnessrevelingin
theworld,abodydelightinginnature,andtheindividual'simmersioninsheerphysicality.Yetthese
experiencesarepresentedasthesolutiontoaphilosophicalproblem,namelyfindingthemeaningoflifein
thefaceofdeath.Theyappearalongside,andrevealthemselvestoberootedin,hisfirstextendedmeditation
onultimatequestions.

Intheseessays,Camussetstwoattitudesinopposition.Thefirstiswhatheregardsasreligionbasedfears.
Hecitesreligiouswarningsaboutpride,concernforone'simmortalsoul,hopeforanafterlife,resignation
aboutthepresentandpreoccupationwithGod.AgainstthisconventionalChristianperspectiveCamus
assertswhatheregardsasselfevidentfacts:thatwemustdieandthereisnothingbeyondthislife.Without
mentioningit,Camusdrawsaconclusionfromthesefacts,namelythatthesoulisnotimmortal.Here,as
elsewhereinhisphilosophicalwriting,hecommendstohisreaderstofaceadiscomfortingrealitysquarely
andwithoutflinching,buthedoesnotfeelcompelledtopresentreasonsorevidence.Ifnotwithreligion,
wherethendoeswisdomlie?Hisansweris:withtheconsciouscertaintyofadeathwithouthopeandin
refusingtohidefromthefactthatwearegoingtodie.ForCamusthereisnosuperhumanhappiness,no
eternityoutsideofthecurveofthedays.Icanseenopointinthehappinessofangels(N,90).Thereis
nothingbutthisworld,thislife,theimmediacyofthepresent.

CamusissometimesmistakenlycalledapaganbecauseherejectsChristianityasbasedonahopeforalife
beyondthislife.HopeistheerrorCamuswishestoavoid.Rejectingthedelusionsofhope(N,74),
Nuptialscontainsanevocationofanalternative.CamusreliesforthislineofthoughtonNietzsche's
discussionofPandora'sBoxinHuman,AllTooHuman:alltheevilsofhumankind,includingplaguesand
disease,havebeenletlooseontheworldbyZeus,buttheremainingevil,hope,iskepthiddenawayinthe
boxandtreasured.Butwhy,wemayask,ishopeanevil?Nietzscheexplainsthathumanshavecometosee
hopeastheirgreatestgood,whileZeus,knowingbetter,hasmeantitasthegreatestsourceoftrouble.Itis,
afterall,thereasonwhyhumansletthemselvesbetormentedbecausetheyanticipateanultimatereward
(Nietzsche1878/1996,58).ForCamus,followingthisreadingofNietzscheclosely,theconventionalsolution
isinfacttheproblem:hopeisdisastrousforhumansinasmuchasitleadsthemtominimizethevalueofthis
lifeexceptaspreparationforalifebeyond.

Ifreligioushopeisbasedonthemistakenbeliefthatdeath,inthesenseofutterandtotalextinctionbodyand
soul,isnotinevitable,itleadsusdownablindalley.Worse,becauseitteachesustolookawayfromlife
towardsomethingtocomeafterwards,suchreligioushopekillsapartofus,forexample,therealisticattitude
weneedtoconfrontthevicissitudesoflife.Butwhatthenistheappropriatepath?TheyoungCamusis
neitheraskepticnorarelativisthere.Hisdiscussionrestsontheselfevidenceofsensuousexperience.He
advocatespreciselywhathetakesChristianitytoabjure:livingalifeofthesenses,intensely,hereandnow,
inthepresent.Thisentails,first,abandoningallhopeforanafterlife,indeedrejectingthinkingaboutit.Ido
notwanttobelievethatdeathisthegatewaytoanotherlife.Formeitisacloseddoor(N,76).

Wemightthinkthatfacingourtotalannihilationwouldbebitter,butforCamusthisleadsusinapositive
direction:Betweenthisskyandthefacesturnedtowarditthereisnothingonwhichtohangamythology,a
literature,anethic,orareligiononlystones,flesh,stars,andthosetruthsthehandcantouch(N,90).This
insightentailsobstinatelyrefusingallthelateronsofthisworld,inordertolayclaimtomypresent
wealth(N,103),namelytheintensehereandnowlifeofthesenses.Thewealthispreciselywhathope
cheatsusoutofbyteachingustolookawayfromitandtowardsanafterlife.Onlybyyieldingtothefactthat
ourlongingtoendurewillbefrustratedandacceptingourawarenessofdeathareweabletoopen
ourselvestotherichesoflife,whicharephysicalaboveall.

Camusputsbothsidesofhisargumentintoasinglestatement:Theworldisbeautiful,andoutsidethereis
nosalvation(N,103).Onlyinacceptingdeathandinbeingstrippedofallhopedoesonemostintensely
appreciatenotonlythephysicalsideoflife,butalso,henowsuggests,itsaffectiveandinterpersonalside.
Takentogether,andcontrarytoanunverifiablefaithinGodandafterlife,thesearewhatonehasandone
knows:Tofeelone'stiestoaland,one'sloveforcertainmen,toknowthereisalwaysaplacewherethe
heartcanfindrestthesearealreadymanycertaintiesforoneman'slife(N,90).

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OnlyifweacceptthatNietzscheisright,thatGodisdeadandthereisonlynothingnessafterwedie,willwe
thenfullyexperiencefeel,taste,touch,see,andsmellthejoysofourbodiesandthephysicalworld.Thus
thesensuousandlyricalsideoftheseessays,theirevocativecharacter,iscentraltotheargument.Orrather,
becauseCamusispromotingintense,joyous,physicalexperienceasopposedtoaselfabnegatingreligious
life,ratherthandevelopinganargumentheassertsthattheseexperiencesaretherightresponse.Hiswriting
aimstodemonstratewhatlifemeansandfeelslikeoncewegiveuphopeofanafterlife,sothatinreadingwe
willbeledtoseehispoint.Theseessaysmaybetakenascontaininghighlypersonalthoughts,ayoung
man'smusingsabouthisMediterraneanenvironment,andtheyscarcelyseemtohaveanysystem.Butthey
suggestwhatphilosophyisforCamusandhowheconceivesitsrelationshiptoliteraryexpression.

Hisearlyphilosophy,then,maybeconveyed,ifnotsummedup,inthispassagefromNuptialsatTipasa:

Inamoment,whenIthrowmyselfdownamongtheabsintheplantstobringtheirscentintomy
body,Ishallknow,appearancestothecontrary,thatIamfulfillingatruthwhichisthesun'sand
whichwillalsobemydeath's.Inasense,itisindeedmylifethatIamstakinghere,alifethat
tastesofwarmstone,thatisfullofthesignsoftheseaandtherisingsongofthecrickets.The
breezeiscoolandtheskyblue.Ilovethislifewithabandonandwishtospeakofitboldly:it
makesmeproudofmyhumancondition.Yetpeoplehaveoftentoldme:there'snothingtobe
proudof.Yes,thereis:thissun,thissea,myheartleapingwithyouth,thesalttasteofmybody
andthisvastlandscapeinwhichtendernessandglorymergeinblueandyellow.Itistoconquer
thisthatIneedmystrengthandmyresources.Everythinghereleavesmeintact,Isurrender
nothingofmyself,anddonnomask:learningpatientlyandarduouslyhowtoliveisenoughfor
me,wellworthalltheirartsofliving.(N,69)

Theintenseandglisteningpresenttellsusthatwecanfullyexperienceandappreciatelifeonlyonthe
conditionthatwenolongertrytoavoidourultimateandabsolutedeath.

3.Suicide,AbsurdityandHappiness:TheMythofSisyphus
3.1SuicideasaResponsetoAbsurdity

Thereisonlyonereallyseriousphilosophicalproblem,Camussays,andthatissuicide.Decidingwhether
ornotlifeisworthlivingistoanswerthefundamentalquestioninphilosophy.Allotherquestionsfollow
fromthat(MS,3).Onemightobjectthatsuicideisneitheraproblemnoraquestion,butanact.A
proper,philosophicalquestionmightratherbe:Underwhatconditionsissuicidewarranted?Anda
philosophicalanswermightexplorethequestion,Whatdoesitmeantoaskwhetherlifeisworthliving?as
WilliamJamesdidinTheWilltoBelieve.FortheCamusofTheMythofSisyphus,however,ShouldIkill
myself?istheessentialphilosophicalquestion.Forhim,itseemsclearthattheprimaryresultofphilosophy
isaction,notcomprehension.Hisconcernaboutthemosturgentofquestionsislessatheoreticalonethan
itisthelifeanddeathproblemofwhetherandhowtolive.

Camusseesthisquestionofsuicideasanaturalresponsetoanunderlyingpremise,namelythatlifeisabsurd
inavarietyofways.Aswehaveseen,boththepresenceandabsenceoflife(i.e.,death)giverisetothe
condition:itisabsurdtocontinuallyseekmeaninginlifewhenthereisnone,anditisabsurdtohopefor
someformofcontinuedexistenceafterdeathgiventhatthelatterresultsinourextinction.ButCamusalso
thinksitabsurdtotrytoknow,understand,orexplaintheworld,forheseestheattempttogainrational
knowledgeasfutile.HereCamuspitshimselfagainstscienceandphilosophy,dismissingtheclaimsofall
formsofrationalanalysis:Thatuniversalreason,practicalorethical,thatdeterminism,thosecategoriesthat
explaineverythingareenoughtomakeadecentmanlaugh(MS,21).

ThesekindsofabsurdityaredrivingCamus'squestionaboutsuicide,buthiswayofproceedingevokes
anotherkindofabsurdity,onelesswelldefined,namely,theabsurdsensibility(MS,2,tr.changed).This
sensibility,vaguelydescribed,seemstobeanintellectualmalady(MS,2)ratherthanaphilosophy.He
regardsthinkingaboutitasprovisionalandinsiststhatthemoodofabsurdity,sowidespreadinourage
doesnotarisefrom,butliespriorto,philosophy.Camus'sdiagnosisoftheessentialhumanproblemrestson
aseriesoftruisms(MS,18)andobviousthemes(MS,16).Buthedoesn'targueforlife'sabsurdityor
attempttoexplainitheisnotinterestedineitherproject,norwouldsuchprojectsengagehisstrengthasa
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thinker.Iaminterestednotsomuchinabsurddiscoveriesasintheirconsequences(MS,16).Accepting
absurdityasthemoodofthetimes,heasksaboveallwhetherandhowtoliveinthefaceofit.Doesthe
absurddictatedeath(MS,9)?Buthedoesnotarguethisquestioneither,andratherchoosestodemonstrate
theattitudetowardslifethatwoulddetersuicide.Inotherwords,themainconcernofthebookistosketch
waysoflivingourlivessoastomakethemworthlivingdespitetheirbeingmeaningless.

AccordingtoCamus,peoplecommitsuicidebecausetheyjudgelifeisnotworthliving(MS,4).Butifthis
temptationprecedeswhatisusuallyconsideredphilosophicalreasoning,howtoanswerit?Inordertogetto
thebottomofthingswhileavoidingarguingforthetruthofhisstatements,hedepicts,enumerates,and
illustrates.AshesaysinTheRebel,theabsurdisanexperiencethatmustbelivedthrough,apointof
departure,theequivalent,inexistence,ofDescartes'smethodicaldoubt(R,4).TheMythofSisyphusseeks
todescribetheelusivefeelingofabsurdityinourlives,rapidlypointingoutthemesthatrunthroughall
literaturesandallphilosophies(MS,12).Appealingtocommonexperience,hetriestorendertheflavorof
theabsurdwithimages,metaphors,andanecdotesthatcapturetheexperientiallevelheregardsaslyingprior
tophilosophy.

HebeginsdoingsowithanimplicitreferencetoSartre'snovel,Nausea,whichechoestheprotagonist
AntoineRoquentin'sdiscoveryofabsurdity.Camushadearlierwrittenthatthisnovel'stheoriesofabsurdity
anditsimagesarenotinbalance.Thedescriptiveandthephilosophicalaspectsofthenoveldon'taddupto
aworkofart:thepassagefromonetotheotheristoorapid,toounmotivated,toevokeinthereaderthedeep
convictionthatmakesartofthenovel(Camus1968,200).Butinthis1938reviewCamuspraisesSartre's
descriptionsofabsurdity,thesenseofanguishandnauseathatarisesastheordinarystructuresimposedon
existencecollapseinAntoineRoquentin'slife.AsCamusnowpresentshisownversionoftheexperience,
thestagesetscollapse.Rising,streetcar,fourhoursintheofficeorthefactory,meal,streetcar,fourhoursof
work,meal,sleep,andMondayTuesdayWednesdayThursdayFridaySaturdayandSundayaccordingtothe
samerhythm(MS,123).Asthiscontinues,oneslowlybecomesfullyconsciousandsensestheabsurd.

3.2TheLimitsofReason
Camusgoesontosketchotherexperiencesofabsurdity,untilhearrivesatdeath.ButalthoughCamusseeks
toavoidarguingforthetruthofhisclaims,heneverthelessconcludesthisabsurdreasoningwithaseriesof
categoricalassertionsaddressedtotheintelligenceabouttheinevitablefrustrationofthehumandesireto
knowtheworldandtobeathomeinit.Despitehisintentions,Camuscannotavoidassertingwhathe
believestobeanobjectivetruth:Wemustdespairofeverreconstructingthefamiliar,calmsurfacewhich
wouldgiveuspeaceofheart(MS,18).Turningtoexperiencesthatareseeminglyobvioustolargenumbers
ofpeoplewhosharetheabsurdsensibility,hedeclaressweepingly:Thisworldinitselfisnotreasonable,
thatisallthatcanbesaid(MS,21).Oureffortstoknowaredrivenbyanostalgiaforunity,andthereisan
inescapablehiatusbetweenwhatwefancyweknowandwhatwereallyknow(MS,18).

Withtheexceptionofprofessionalrationalists,peopletodaydespairoftrueknowledge(MS,18).Camus
assertsthatthehistoryofhumanthoughtischaracterizedbyitssuccessiveregretsanditsimpotences(MS,
18),andthattheimpossibilityofknowledgeisestablished(MS,25).Whenwritingmorecarefully,he
claimsonlytobedescribingacertainclimate,butinanycasehisbedrockassumptionsappearagainand
again:theworldisunknowableandlifeiswithoutmeaning.Oureffortstounderstandthemleadnowhere.

AviSagisuggeststhatinclaimingthisCamusisnotspeakingasanirrationalistwhichis,afterall,howhe
regardstheexistentialistsbutassomeonetryingtorationallyunderstandthelimitsofreason(Sagi2002,
5965).ForCamustheproblemisthatbydemandingmeaning,order,andunity,weseektogobeyondthose
limitsandpursuetheimpossible.Wewillneverunderstand,andwewilldiedespiteallourefforts.Thereare
twoobviousresponsestoourfrustrations:suicideandhope.ByhopeCamusmeansjustwhathedescribedin
Nuptials,thereligioninspiredefforttoimagineandliveforalifebeyondthislife.Or,second,astakenupat
lengthinTheRebel,bendingone'senergiestolivingforagreatcausebeyondoneself:Hopeofanotherlife
onemustdeserveortrickeryofthosewholivenotforlifeitselfbutforsomegreatideathatwilltranscend
it,refineit,giveitameaning,andbetrayit(MS,8).

WhatistheCamuseanalternativetosuicideorhope?Theansweristolivewithoutescapeandwithintegrity,
inrevoltanddefiance,maintainingthetensionintrinsictohumanlife.Sincethemostobviousabsurdity
(MS,59)isdeath,Camusurgesustodieunreconciledandnotofone'sownfreewill(MS,55).Inshort,he
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recommendsalifewithoutconsolation,butinsteadonecharacterizedbylucidityandbyacuteconsciousness
ofandrebellionagainstitsmortalityanditslimits.

3.3CriticismofExistentialists
Inhisstatementoftheproblemanditssolution,Camus'stone,ideas,andstylearereminiscentofNietzsche.
Godisdeadisofcoursetheircommonstartingpoint,asisthedeterminationtoconfrontunpleasanttruths
andwriteagainstreceivedwisdom.AtthesametimeCamusarguesagainstthespecificphilosophicalcurrent
withwhichNietzscheisoftenlinkedasaprecursor,andtowhichhehimselfisclosestexistentialism.The
MythofSisyphusisexplicitlywrittenagainstexistentialistssuchasShestov,Kierkegaard,Jaspers,and
Heidegger,aswellasagainstthephenomenologyofHusserl.Camussharestheirstartingpoint,whichhe
regardsasthefactthattheyallsomehowtestifytotheabsurdityofthehumancondition.Butherejectswhat
heseesastheirultimateescapismandirrationality,claimingthattheydeifywhatcrushesthemandfind
reasontohopeinwhatimpoverishesthem.Thatforcedhopeisreligiousinallofthem(MS,24).

Sartre,too,issubjecttoCamus'scriticismsandnotjustpoliticallyaswillbedescribedinthefollowing
section.AlthoughsomeoftheideasinTheMythofSisyphusdrewonSartre'sNausea(asnotedabove),in
1942Sartrewasnotyetregardedasanexistentialist.ButasSartre'sphilosophydeveloped,hewentonto
explorehowhumanactivityconstitutesameaningfulworldfromthebrute,meaninglessexistenceunveiled
inhisnovel[2](Aronson1980,7188).Intheprocess,theabsurdityofNauseabecomesthecontingencyof
BeingandNothingness,thefactthathumansandthingsaresimplytherewithnoexplanationorreason.As
Sartredescribedit,theabsurdistheuniversalcontingencyofbeingwhichis,butwhichisnotthebasisof
itsbeingtheabsurdisthegiven,theunjustifiable,primordialqualityofexistence(quotedinSagi2002,
57).Havingrootedhumanexistenceinsuchcontingency,Sartregoesontodescribeotherfundamental
structuresofexistence,corehumanprojects,andcharacteristicpatternsofbehavior,includingfreedomand
badfaith,allofwhichariseonthisbasis.Theoriginalcontingencyleadstoourdesiretoundoit,tothefutile
projecttofoundbeing,inotherwordstheuselesspassionoftheprojecttobecomeGod.

ForSartreabsurdityisobviouslyafundamentalontologicalpropertyofexistenceitself,frustratingusbutnot
restrictingourunderstanding.ForCamus,ontheotherhand,absurdityisnotapropertyofexistenceassuch,
butisanessentialfeatureofourrelationshipwiththeworld.ItmightbearguedthatSartreandCamusare
reallyquitesimilar,andthatthecorefutilityofSartre'sphilosophyparallelsthedespairCamusdescribes.
Afterall,ifSisyphus'slaborisultimatelyfutile,soistheprojecttobecomeGod.ButSartrerejectsthe
classicalpessimismanddisillusionmenthefindsinCamusandinsteadpossessesanunCamusean
confidenceinhisabilitytounderstandandexplainthisprojectandtherestofthehumanworld.Camus,on
thecontrary,buildsanentireworldviewonhiscentralassumptionthatabsurdityisanunsurpassable
relationshipbetweenhumansandtheirworld.Hepostulatesaninevitabledivorcebetweenhuman
consciousness,withitswildlongingforclarity(MS,21)andtheunreasonablesilenceoftheworld(MS,
28).Asdiscussedabove,Camusviewstheworldasirrational,whichmeansthatitisnotunderstandable
throughreason.

AccordingtoCamus,eachexistentialistwriterbetrayedhisinitialinsightbyseekingtoappealtosomething
beyondthelimitsofthehumancondition,byturningtothetranscendent.Andyetevenifweavoidwhat
Camusdescribesassuchescapisteffortsandcontinuetolivewithoutirrationalappeals,thedesiretodosois
builtintoourconsciousnessandthusourhumanity.Weareunabletofreeourselvesfromthisdesirefor
unity,thislongingtosolve,thisneedforclarityandcohesion(MS,51).Butitisurgenttonotsuccumbto
theseimpulsesandtoinsteadacceptabsurdity.Incontrastwithexistentialism,Theabsurdislucidreason
notingitslimits(MS,49).

Camusclearlybelievesthattheexistentialistphilosophersaremistakenbutdoesnotargueagainstthem,
becausehebelievesthatthereisnotruthbutmerelytruths(MS,43).Hisdisagreementrathertakesthe
subtlerandlessassertiveformofanimmanentcritique,pointingoutthateachthinker'sexistentialist
philosophyendsupbeinginconsistentwithitsownstartingpoint:startingfromaphilosophyoftheworld's
lackofmeaning,itendsupbyfindingameaninganddepthinit(MS,42).Thesephilosophers,heinsists,
refusetoaccepttheconclusionsthatfollowfromtheirownpremises.Kierkegaard,forexample,strongly
sensestheabsurd.Butratherthanrespectingitastheinevitablehumanailment,heseekstobecuredofitby
makingitanattributeofaGodwhohethenembraces.

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Camus'smostsustainedanalysisisofHusserl'sphenomenology.AlongwithSartre,Camuspraisestheearly
Husserliannotionofintentionality.Sartresawthisnotionasrevealingadynamicconsciousnesswithout
contentsthebasisforhisconceptionoffreedomwhileCamusispleasedthatintentionalityfollowsthe
absurdspiritinitsapparentmodestyofthoughtthatlimitsitselftodescribingwhatitdeclinestoexplain
(MS,43).However,CamuscriticizesHusserl'slatersearchinIdeasforPlatonicextratemporalessencesasa
quasireligiousleapinconsistentwithhisoriginalinsight.

3.4HappinessinFacingOne'sFate
Howthentoremainconsistentwithabsurdreasoningandavoidfallingvictimtothespiritofnostalgia?
TheMythofSisyphusfindstheanswerbyabandoningtheterrainofphilosophyaltogether.Camusdescribesa
numberofabsurdistfictionalcharactersandactivities,includingDonJuanandDostoevsky'sKirolov(The
Possessed),theater,andliterarycreation.AndthenheconcludeswiththestoryofSisyphus,whofully
incarnatesasenseoflife'sabsurdity,itsfutilityandhopelesslabor(MS,119).CamusseesSisyphus's
endlesseffortandintenseconsciousnessoffutilityasatriumph.Hisscornofthegods,hishatredofdeath,
andhispassionforlifewonhimthatunspeakablepenaltyinwhichthewholebeingisexertedtoward
accomplishingnothing(MS,120).Afterthedenseandhighlyselfconsciousearlierchapters,thesepages
condensetheentirelineofthoughtintoavividimage.Sisyphusdemonstratesthatwecanlivewiththe
certaintyofacrushingfate,withouttheresignationthatoughttoaccompanyit(MS,54).ForCamus,
Sisyphusremindsusthatwecannothelpseekingtounderstandtherealitythattranscendsourintelligence,
strivingtograspmorethanourlimitedandpracticalscientificunderstandingallows,andwishingtolive
withoutdying.LikeSisyphus,weareourfate,andourfrustrationisourverylife:wecanneverescapeit.

Butthereismore.Aftertherockcomestumblingdown,confirmingtheultimatefutilityofhisproject,
Sisyphustrudgesafteritonceagain.Thisisthehourofconsciousness.Ateachofthosemomentswhenhe
leavestheheightsandgraduallysinkstowardsthelairsofthegods,heissuperiortohisfate.Heisstronger
thanhisrock(MS,121).Whyusethewordssuperiorandstrongerwhenhehasnohopeofsucceeding
thenexttime?Paradoxically,itisbecauseasenseoftragedycrownshisvictory.Sisyphus,proletarianof
thegods,powerlessandrebellious,knowsthewholeextentofhiswretchedcondition:itiswhathethinksof
duringhisdescent(MS,121).Tragicconsciousnessistheconclusionofabsurdreasoning:livingfully
awareofthebitternessofourbeingandconsciouslyfacingourfate.

WhatthenisCamus'sreplytohisquestionaboutwhetherornottocommitsuicide?Fullconsciousness,
avoidingfalsesolutionssuchasreligion,refusingtosubmit,andcarryingonwithvitalityandintensity:these
areCamus'sanswers.Thisishowalifewithoutultimatemeaningcanbemadeworthliving.Ashesaidin
Nuptials,life'spleasuresareinseparablefromakeenawarenessoftheselimits.Sisyphusacceptsand
embraceslivingwithdeathwithoutthepossibilityofappealingtoGod.AllSisyphus'ssilentjoyis
containedtherein.Hisfatebelongstohim.Hisrockishisthing(MS,123).

Lucidlylivingthehumancondition,Sisyphusknowshimselftobethemasterofhisdays.Bybecoming
consciousofit,Camusissaying,hetakesownershipofit.InthissenseSisyphusreshapeshisfateintoa
conditionofwhollyhumanorigin.Whollymaybeanexaggeration,becauseafterall,deathisinevitable
anddespicable,butbyacknowledgingthis,Sisyphusconsciouslylivesoutwhathasbeenimposedonhim,
thusmakingitintohisownend.Inthesameway,Meursault,protagonistofTheStranger,comesto
consciousnessinthatbook'ssecondpartaftercommittingtheinexplicablemurderthatendsthebook'sfirst
part.Hehaslivedhisexistencefromonemomenttothenextandwithoutmuchawareness,butathistrial
andwhileawaitingexecutionhebecomeslikeSisyphus,fullyconsciousofhimselfandhisterriblefate.He
willdietriumphantastheabsurdman.

TheMythofSisyphusisfarfromhavingaskepticalconclusion.Inresponsetothelureofsuicide,Camus
counselsanintenselyconsciousandactivenonresolution.Rejectinganyhopeofresolvingthestrainisalso
torejectdespair.Indeed,itispossible,withinandagainsttheselimits,tospeakofhappiness.Happinessand
theabsurdaretwosonsofthesameearth.Theyareinseparable(MS,122).Itisnotthatdiscoveringthe
absurdleadsnecessarilytohappiness,butratherthatacknowledgingtheabsurdmeansalsoacceptinghuman
frailty,anawarenessofourlimitations,andthefactthatwecannothelpwishingtogobeyondwhatis
possible.Thesearealltokensofbeingfullyalive.Thestruggleitselftowardtheheightsisenoughtofilla
man'sheart.OnemustimagineSisyphushappy(MS,123).

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3.5ResponsetoSkepticism

WecancomparehisconclusionwithPyrrho'sskepticismandDescartes'smethodicaldoubt.Firstofall,like
Pyrrho,Camushassolvedhispressingexistentialissue,namely,avoidingdespair,byakindofresolution
entailedinacceptingourmortalityandultimateignorance.ButtherearetwocriticaldifferenceswithPyrrho:
forCamuswenevercanabandonthedesiretoknow,andrealizingthisleadstoaquickeningofourlife
impulses.ThislastpointwasalreadycontainedinNuptials,buthereisexpandedtolinkconsciousnesswith
happiness.ForCamus,happinessincludeslivingintenselyandsensuouslyinthepresentcoupledwith
Sisyphus'stragic,lucid,anddefiantconsciousness,hissenseoflimits,hisbitterness,hisdeterminationto
keepon,andhisrefusalofanyformofconsolation.

Obviously,Camus'ssenseofhappinessisnotaconventionalonebutSagiarguesitmayplacehimcloserto
Aristotlethantoanyotherthinkerinsofarasheischampioningthefullrealizationofhumancapacities(Sagi
2002,7980)CamusisalsosimilarinthistoNietzsche,whocalleduponhisreaderstosayyestolife,and
liveascompletelyaspossibleateverymoment.Nietzsche'spointwasthattobewhollyalivemeansbeingas
awareofthenegativeasofthepositive,feelingpain,notshunninganyexperience,andembracinglifeeven
initsstrangestandhardestproblems(Nietzsche1888/1954,562).Buthowisitpossiblethat,bytheendof
TheMythofSisyphus,Camushasmovedfromskepticism(aboutfindingthetruth)andnihilism(about
whetherlifehasmeaning)toadvocatinganapproachtolifethatisclearlyjudgedtobebetterthanothers?
Howdoeshejustifyembracinganormativestance,affirmingspecificvalues?Thiscontradictionrevealsa
certainsleightofhand,asthephilosophergiveswaytotheartist.ItisasanartistthatCamusnowmakeshis
caseforacceptanceoftragedy,theconsciousnessofabsurdity,andalifeofsensuousvitality.Headvocates
thiswiththeimageofSisyphusstraining,fullyalive,andhappy.

4.MurderandRebellion:TheRebel
AtthebeginningofTheRebel,Camuswritesasaphilosopheragain,returningtotheterrainofargumentby
explainingwhatabsurdistreasoningentails.Itsfinalconclusionistherepudiationofsuicideandthe
acceptanceofthedesperateencounterbetweenhumaninquiryandthesilenceoftheuniverse(R,6).Since
toconcludeotherwisewouldnegateitsverypremises,absurdismmustlogicallyacceptlifeastheone
necessarygood.Tosaythatlifeisabsurd,consciousnessmustbealive(R,6,tr.changed).Livingand
eatingarethemselvesvaluejudgments(Camus1968,160).Tobreatheistojudge(R,8).Asinhis
criticismoftheexistentialists,Camusadvocatesasinglestandpointfromwhichtoargueforobjective
validity,thatofconsistency.Withsuchstatementshehasclearlyabandonedskepticism.

Atfirstblush,however,thebook'ssubjectseemstohavemoreofahistoricalthemethanaphilosophicalone.
Thepurposeofthisessayistofacetherealityofthepresent,whichislogicalcrime,andtoexamine
meticulouslytheargumentsbywhichitisjustifieditisanattempttounderstandthetimesinwhichwelive.
Onemightthinkthataperiodwhich,inaspaceoffiftyyears,uproots,enslaves,orkillsseventymillion
humanbeingsshouldbecondemnedoutofhand.Butitsculpabilitymuststillbeunderstood(R,3).

Scholarsdisagreeoverwhethertheshifttosuchquestionsrepresentsanentirelynewphilosophyoris
continuouswithTheMythofSisyphus.TheissueisnotresolvedbytheexplanationsthatCamusgivesforhis
shiftinthefirstpagesofTheRebelwhichrangefromtheexampleoftheSisypheanindividualconfronting
absurditytothemassmurdersofthemiddlethirdofthetwentiethcentury.Theageofnegation,hesays,
oncefosteredaconcernforsuicide,butnowintheageofideologies,wemustexamineourpositionin
relationtomurder(R,4).Havetheageschangedinthelessthantenyearsbetweenthetwobooks,orhave
Camus'sinterestschanged?Hemayberighttosaythatwhethermurderhasrationalfoundationsisthe
questionimplicitinthebloodandstrifeofthiscentury,butinchanginghisfocusfromsuicidetomurder,it
isalsoclearthatCamusischanginghisopticfromtheindividualtooursocialbelonging.

CamushadbeenapoliticalactivistbeginningwithhismembershipintheAlgerianbranchoftheFrench
CommunistPartyinthemid1930s.Hespokeoftakinganewintellectualstepbeginningwithhisexperience
asamemberoftheResistancelivinginFranceduringtheGermanoccupation,whichheexpressed
artisticallybydescribingcollectiveactionagainsttheevilthreateningthecommunityinhisnovel,The
Plague.AsCamushimselflatersaid,ifthereisanevolutionfromTheStrangertoThePlague,ithasgone
inthedirectionofsolidarityandparticipation(Camus1965,758).Thislineofreflectionculminatedin
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Camusapplyingthephilosophyoftheabsurdinnew,socialdirections,andinansweringnew,historical
questions.HetriestospelloutthelogicofthisatthebeginningofTheRebel.

4.1RebellionvsRevolution
IftheabsenceofGodisthekeythemeofNuptials,andtheinevitabilityofabsurdityisthekeythemeofThe
MythofSisyphus,CamusincorporatesbothoftheseintoTheRebel,butalongsidethemhenowstresses
revolt.Theactofrebellionassumesthestatusofaprimarydatumofhumanexperience,liketheCartesian
cogitotakenbySartreashispointofdeparture.Camusfirstexpressedthisdirectlyundertheinspirationof
hisencounterwithBeingandNothingness.Butincallingitrevolthetakesitinadirectionsharply
differentthanSartre,whobuiltfromthecogitoanessayinphenomenologicalontology.Ignoring
completelytheontologicaldimension,Camusisnowconcernedwithimmediateissuesofhumansocial
experience.Revolt,tobesure,stillincludestherebellionagainstabsurditythatCamusdescribedinTheMyth
ofSisyphus,andonceagainhewillspeakofrebellingagainstourownmortalityandtheuniverse's
meaninglessnessandincoherence.ButTheRebelbeginswiththekindofrevoltthatrejectsoppressionand
slavery,andprotestsagainsttheworld'sinjustice.

Itisatfirst,likeTheMythofSisyphus,asingleindividual'srebellion,butnowCamusstressesthatrevolt
createsvalues,dignity,andsolidarity.Irevolt,thereforeweare(R,22)ishisparadoxicalstatement.But
howcananIleadtoawe?HowdoeswearefollowfromIrevolt?Howcantheindividual'sexperience
ofabsurdity,andtherebellionagainstit,stemfrom,produce,imply,orentailthewidersocialsenseof
injusticeandsolidarity?TheweinfactisthesubjectofTheRebel,althoughthetitleL'Hommerevolt
suggeststhatone'soriginalmotivationmaybeindividual.Actingagainstoppressionentailshavingrecourse
tosocialvalues,andatthesametimejoiningwithothersinsolidarity.

InTheRebelCamustakesthefurtherstep,whichoccupiesmostofthebook,ofdevelopinghisnotionof
metaphysicalandhistoricalrebellioninoppositiontotheconceptofrevolution.Applyinghisphilosophical
themesdirectlytopoliticsintheyearsimmediatelyaftertheLiberationofFrancein1944,Camushad
alreadyconcludedthattheMarxists,andespeciallyCommunists,wereguiltyofevadinglife'sabsurdityby
aimingatawholesaletransformationofsociety,whichmustnecessarilybeviolent.Andnow,inTheRebel,
hedescribesthisasamajortrendofmodernhistory,usingsimilartermstothosehehadusedinTheMythof
Sisyphustodescribethereligiousandphilosophicalevasions.

Whatsortofworkisthis?Inabooksochargedwithpoliticalmeaning,Camusmakesnoexplicitlypolitical
argumentsorrevelations,andpresentslittleinthewayofactualsocialanalysisorconcretehistoricalstudy.
TheRebelis,rather,ahistoricallyframedphilosophicalessayaboutunderlyingideasandattitudesof
civilization.DavidSprintzensuggeststhesetakenforgrantedattitudesoperateimplicitlyandinthe
backgroundofhumanprojectsandveryrarelybecomeconscious(Sprintzen1988,123).

Camusfeltthatitwasurgenttocriticallyexaminetheseattitudesinaworldinwhichcalculatedmurderhad
becomecommon.Applyinghisabsurdistideasandinsightstopolitics,inTheRebelCamusexplainswhathe
regardsasthemodernworld'sincreasinglyorganizedandcatastrophicrefusaltoface,accept,andlivewith
absurdity.Thebookprovidesauniqueperspectivepresentingacoherentandoriginalstructureofpremise,
mood,description,philosophy,history,andevenprejudice.

4.2AgainstCommunism

CamusinsistedthatbothCommunism'sappealanditsnegativefeaturessprangfromthesameirrepressible
humanimpulse:facedwithabsurdityandinjustice,humansrefusetoaccepttheirexistenceandinsteadseek
toremaketheworld.Validatingrevoltasanecessarystartingpoint,Camuscriticizespoliticsaimedat
buildingautopianfuture,affirmingoncemorethatlifeshouldbelivedinthepresentandinthesensuous
world.Heexploresthehistoryofpostreligiousandnihilisticintellectualandliterarymovementsheattacks
politicalviolencewithhisviewsonlimitsandsolidarityandheendsbyarticulatingthemetaphysicalroleof
artaswellasaselflimitingradicalpolitics.Inplaceofstrivingtotransformtheworld,hespeaksofmsure
measure,inthesenseofproportionorharmonyandoflivinginthetensionofthehumancondition.He
labelsthisoutlookMediterraneaninanattempttoanchorhisviewstotheplacehegrewupandtoevokein
hisreadersitssenseofharmonyandappreciationofphysicallife.Thereisnosubstantiveargumentforthe

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label,norisonepossiblegivenhismethodofsimplyselectingwhoandwhatcountsasrepresentativeofthe
Mediterraneanviewwhileexcludingotherse.g.,someGreekwriters,notmanyRomans.Inplaceof
argument,hepaintsaconcludingvisionofMediterraneanharmonythathehopeswillbestirringandlyrical,
bindingthereadertohisinsights.

AsapoliticaltractTheRebelassertsthatCommunismleadsinexorablytomurder,andthenexplainshow
revolutionsarisefromcertainideasandstatesofspirit.Buthemakesnocloseanalysisofmovementsor
events,givesnoroletomaterialneedsoroppression,andregardsthequestforsocialjusticeasa
metaphysicallyinspiredattempttoreplacethereignofgracebythereignofjustice(R,56).Afterhisinitial
generaldiscussionofrebellionagainstslaveryandoppression,inthehistoricalandlargestsectionofthe
bookhetreatsactualhistoricalassertionsofhumandignityaslittlemorethaneffortstooverthrowGod.

Furthermore,CamusinsiststhattheseattitudesarebuiltintoMarxism.Inaseriesofnewspaperarticlesin
1946entitledNeitherVictimsnorExecutionershedeclaredhimselfasocialistbutnotaMarxist.He
rejectedtheMarxistacceptanceofviolentrevolutionandtheconsequentialistmaximthattheendjustifies
themeans.[3]IntheMarxianperspective,hewrotesweepingly,ahundredthousanddeathsisasmall
pricetopayforthehappinessofhundredsofmillions(Camus1991,130).Marxiststhinkthis,Camus
asserted,becausetheybelievethathistoryhasanecessarylogicleadingtohumanhappiness,andthusthey
acceptviolenceaslegitimate.

InTheRebelCamustakesthisassertionafurtherstep:Marxismisnotprimarilyaboutsocialchangebutis
ratherarevoltthatattemptstoannexallcreation.Revolutionemergeswhenrevoltseekstoignorethe
limitsbuiltintohumanlife.ByaninevitablelogicofnihilismCommunismclimaxesthemoderntrendto
deifymanandtotransformandunifytheworld.Today'srevolutionsyieldtotheblindimpulse,originally
describedinTheMythofSisyphus,todemandorderinthemidstofchaos,andunityintheveryheartofthe
ephemeral(MS,10).Asdoestherebelwhobecomesarevolutionarywhokillsandthenjustifiesmurderas
legitimate.

AccordingtoCamus,theexecutionofKingLouisXVIduringtheFrenchRevolutionwasthedecisivestep
demonstratingthepursuitofjusticewithoutregardtolimits.Itcontradictedtheoriginallifeaffirming,self
affirming,andunifyingpurposeofrevolt.ThisdiscussionbelongstoCamus'shistoryofEuropeanpride,
whichisprefacedbycertainideasfromtheGreeksandcertainaspectsofearlyChristianity,butbeginsin
earnestwiththeadventofmodernity.Camusfocusesonavarietyofmajorfigures,movements,andliterary
works:theMarquisdeSade,romanticism,dandyism,TheBrothersKaramazov,Hegel,Marx,Nietzsche,
surrealism,theNazis,andabovealltheBolsheviks.Camusdescribesrevoltasincreasingitsforceovertime
andturningintoanevermoredesperatenihilism,overthrowingGodandputtingmaninhisplace,wielding
powermoreandmorebrutally.Historicalrevolt,rootedinmetaphysicalrevolt,leadstorevolutionsseeking
toeliminateabsurditybyusingmurderastheircentraltooltotaketotalcontrolovertheworld.Communism
isthecontemporaryexpressionofthisWesternsickness.

Inthetwentiethcentury,Camusclaims,murderhasbecomereasonable,theoreticallydefensible,and
justifiedbydoctrine.Peoplehavegrownaccustomedtologicalcrimesthatis,massdeatheitherplanned
orforeseen,andrationallyjustified.ThusCamuscallslogicalcrimethecentralissueofthetime,seeksto
examinemeticulouslytheargumentsbywhichitisjustified(R,3),andsetsouttoexplorehowthe
twentiethcenturybecameacenturyofslaughter.

Wemightjustlyexpectananalysisoftheargumentshespeaksof,butTheRebelchangesfocus.Human
reasonisconfusedbyslavecampsundertheflagoffreedom,massacresjustifiedbyphilanthropyorbya
tasteforthesuperhuman(R,4)thefirsttworefertoCommunism,thethirdtoNazism.Inthebodyofthe
text,Nazismvirtuallydropsout(itwas,hesays,asystemofirrationalterrornotatallwhatinterested
Camus),sharplynarrowingtheinquiry.Hisshiftisrevealedbyhisquestion:Howcanmurderbecommitted
withpremeditationandbejustifiedbyphilosophy?ItturnsoutthattherationalmurderCamuswas
concernedwithisnotcommittedbycapitalistsordemocrats,colonialistsorimperialists,orbyNazisbut
onlybyCommunists.

HedoesnotaddresstheHolocaust,andalthoughhishadbeenavoiceofprotestagainstHiroshimainthe
summerof1945,hedoesnotnowaskhowithappened.Asajournalisthehadbeenoneofthefewtoindict
Frenchcolonialism,buthedoesnotmentionit,exceptinafootnote.HowwasitpossibleforCamustofocus
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solelyontheviolenceofCommunismintheverymidstoftheFrenchcolonialwarinVietnam,andwhenhe
knewthatabitterstruggleoverAlgerialayahead?Itseemshebecameblindedbyideology,separating
Communismfromtheotherevilsofthecenturyanddirectinghisanimusthere.Camus'sideas,ofcourse,had
developedandmaturedovertheyearssincehefirstbeganwritingaboutrevolt.Butsomethingelsehad
happened:hisagendahadchanged.Absurdityandrevolt,hisoriginalthemes,hadbeenharnessedasan
alternativetoCommunism,whichhadbecomethearchenemy.ThephilosophyofrevoltbecameColdWar
ideology.

BecauseTheRebelclaimedtodescribetheattitudethatlaybehindtheevilfeaturesofcontemporary
revolutionarypolitics,itbecameamajorpoliticalevent.Readerscouldhardlymisshisdescriptionofhow
theimpulseforemancipationturnedintoorganized,rationalmurderastherebelbecomerevolutionary
attemptedtoorderanabsurduniverse.Inpresentingthismessage,Camussoughtnotsomuchtocritique
Stalinismasitsapologists.HisspecifictargetswereintellectualsattractedtoCommunismashehimself
hadbeeninthe1930s.

OneofthesetargetswasJeanPaulSartre,andtowardtheendofTheRebelCamusnowtookaimathis
friend'spolitics.Camusfocusesonthecultofhistoryagainstwhichtheentirebookisdirectedandhis
beliefthattheexistentialists,ledbySartre,hadfallenvictimtotheideathatrevoltshouldleadto
revolution.WithinCamus'sframework,Sartreischallengedastrying,likethepredecessorscriticizedinThe
MythofSisyphus,toescapetheabsurditywithwhichhisownthinkingbeganbyturningtoMarxism.Thisis
abitofastretchbecauseSartrewasstillseveralyearsfromdeclaringhimselfaMarxist,anditshows
Camus'stendencytowardssweepinggeneralizationratherthancloseanalysis.Butitalsoreflectshiscapacity
forinterpretingaspecificdisagreementinthebroadestpossibletermsasafundamentalconflictof
philosophies.

ThetextofTheRebelispunctuatedwithemphaticwordsofconclusion(alors,donc,ainsi,c'estpourquoi),
whicharerarelyfollowedbyconsequencesofwhatcomesbeforeandoftenintroducefurtherassertions,
withoutanyevidenceoranalysis.Anditisstuddedwithcarefullycomposedtopicsentencesformajorideas
whichoneexpectstobefollowedbyparagraphs,pages,andchaptersofdevelopmentbut,instead,merely
followoneanotherandsitundevelopeduntilthenextequallywellwroughttopicsentence.Thisisespecially
sointhebook'sfinalthreechapters,whichappeartobedrawingconclusionsfromearlierdiscussionsbut
timeandagainlaunchnewthemes.Still,despiteitsmanyweaknesses,thebookremainsanoriginaland
probingefforttounderstandhowthegreatmodernimpulsetofreedomwentawry.Anditshowsthe
interpretativepowerofCamus'sbasicthemes.TheRebelcontinuestoattractreaderstodaybecauseofits
critiqueofWesterncivilization,progress,andthemodernworlditself.

5.PhilosopherofthePresent
InTheRebel,acomplexandsprawlingessayinphilosophy,thehistoryofideasandliterarymovements,
politicalphilosophy,andevenaesthetics,CamusextendstheideasheassertedinNuptialsanddevelopedin
TheMythofSisyphus:thehumanconditionisinherentlyfrustrating,butwebetrayourselvesandsolicit
catastrophebyseekingreligioussolutionstoitslimitations.Therebelobstinatelyconfrontsaworld
condemnedtodeathandtheimpenetrableobscurityofthehumanconditionwithhisdemandforlifeand
absoluteclarity.Heisseeking,withoutknowingit,amoralphilosophyorareligion(R,101).Our
alternativesaretoacceptthefactthatwearelivinginaGodlessuniverseortobecomearevolutionary,
who,likethereligiousbelievercommittedtotheabstracttriumphofjusticeinthefuture,refusestolivein
thepresent.

HavingcritiquedreligioninNuptials,Camusisselfconsciouslyexploringthestartingpoints,projects,
weaknesses,illusions,andpoliticaltemptationsofapostreligiousuniverse.Hedescribeshowtraditional
religionhaslostitsforce,andhowyoungergenerationshavebeengrowingupamidanincreasingemptiness
andasensethatanythingispossible.Hefurtherclaimsthatmodernsecularismstumblesintoanihilisticstate
ofmindbecauseitdoesnotreallyfreeitselffromreligion.Thentheonlykingdomthatisopposedtothe
kingdomofgracemustbefoundednamely,thekingdomofjusticeandthehumancommunitymustbe
reunitedamongthedebrisofthefallenCityofGod.TokillGodandtobuildachurcharetheconstantand
contradictorypurposeofrebellion(R,103).Ourmodernneedtocreatekingdomsandourcontinuingsearch
forsalvationisthepathofcatastrophe.Thisisthepathofthemetaphysicalrebel,whodoesnotseethat

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humaninsurrection,initsexaltedandtragicforms,isonly,andcanonlybe,aprolongedprotestagainst
death(R,100).

Camus'sworkcanbeseenasaprecursortopostmodernism.Thepostmodernistsneverwhollyembraced
Camusastheirpredecessor,nodoubtbecauseofhiscentralmetaphysicalconcernwithabsurdityandrevolt,
andhispenchantforsweepingjudgmentsandreductiveanalyseswhichdifferentiatesTheRebelfromfar
lessambitiousandmoredescriptivebookslikeAdornoandHorkheimer'sDialecticofEnlightenment.Butin
manywaysTheRebelwasamodelgenealogydescribingtheappearanceofintrinsiccontradictionsofthe
modernspirit,andCamus'svisionofselflimitingrevoltisaprescientarticulationofapostMarxistand
postmodernleftistpolitics.

CamusremainsrelevantforhavinglookedaskanceatWesterncivilization,atprogress,andatthemodern
world,butattheheartofhisanalysesishisambivalentexplorationofwhatitisliketoliveinaGodless
universe.WhenthethroneofGodisoverturned,therebelrealizesthatitisnowhisownresponsibilityto
createthejustice,theorder,andtheunitythathesoughtinvainwithinhisowncondition,andinthiswayto
justifythefallofGod.Thenbeginsthedesperateefforttocreate,atthepriceofcrimeandmurderif
necessary,thedominionofman(R,25).Buttorestrainoneselffromthiseffortistofeelbereftofjustice,
order,andunity.Camusrecognizesthathopeandtherevolutionarydriveareessentialdirectionsofthe
Westernspirit,stemmingfromitsentireworldofculture,thought,andfeeling.

ThisleadstooneofthemostinterestingandperplexingaspectsofCamus'sthought:hisdeterminationto
criticizeattitudesthathefindstobenaturalandinevitable.Thepossibilityofsuicidehauntshumans,asdoes
thefactthatweseekanimpossibleorderandanunachievablepermanence.Camusneverdirectlyattacks
existentialistwriters,butlargelyconfineshimselftodescribingtheirinabilitytoremainconsistentwiththeir
initialinsight.Similarly,heisclearthroughoutTheRebelthatthemetaphysicalneedthatleadsto
Communism'sterrorandGulagisuniversal:hedescribesitanditsconsequencessothatwecanbetterresist
itinourselvesaswellasothers.HisreflexiveantiCommunismnotwithstanding,anunderlyingsympathy
unitesCamustothoseheopposes,becausehefreelyacknowledgesthatheandtheysharethesamestarting
points,outlook,stresses,temptations,andpitfalls.Althoughinpoliticalargumenthefrequentlytookrefuge
inatoneofmoralsuperiority,Camusmakesclearthroughhisskepticismthatthosehedisagreeswithareno
lessandnomorethanfellowcreatureswhogiveintothesamefundamentaldrivetoescapetheabsurdity
thatweallshare.

ThissenseofmoralcomplexityismosteloquentinhisshortnovelTheFall,whosesinglecharacter,
Clamence,hasbeenvariouslyidentifiedaseveryman,aCamuscharacter,andaSartrecharacter.Hewasall
ofthese.Clamenceisclearlyevil,guiltyofstandingbyasayoungwomancommitssuicide.InhimCamus
seekstodescribeandindicthisgeneration,includingbothhisenemiesandhimself.Clamence'slifeisfilled
withgoodworks,butheisahypocriteandknowsit.Hismonologueisfilledwithselfjustificationaswellas
theconfessionofsomeonetornapartbyhisguiltbutunabletofullyacknowledgeit.Sittingatabarin
Amsterdam,hedescendsintohisownpersonalhell,invitingthereadertofollowhim.IntellingClamence's
story,Camuswasclearlyseekingtoempathizeaswellasdescribe,tounderstandaswellascondemn.
Clamenceisamonster,butClamenceisalsojustanotherhumanbeing.

CamuswontheNobelPrizeforliteraturein1957,afterTheFallwaspublished.Thestory,aliterary
masterpiece,demonstratesauniquecapacityattheheartofhisphilosophicalwriting.Lifeisnoonesingle,
simplething,butaseriesoftensionsanddilemmas.Themostseeminglystraightforwardfeaturesoflifeare
infactambiguousandevencontradictory.Camusrecommendsthatweavoidtryingtoresolvethem.Weneed
tofacethefactthatwecanneversuccessfullypurgeourselvesoftheimpulsesthatthreatentowreakhavoc
withourlives.Camus'sphilosophy,ifithasasinglemessage,isthatweshouldlearntotolerate,indeed
embracethefrustrationandambivalencethathumanscannotescape.

Bibliography
PrimaryWorks

CollectedWorksinFrench

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Thtre,Rcits,Nouvelles,R.Quillot(ed.),Paris:Gallimard,1962.
Essais,R.QuillotandL.Fauon(eds.),Paris:Gallimard,1965.
uvresCompltes,Vols.IIV,R.GayCrosier(ed.)Paris:Gallimard,200609.

WorksinEnglish

ReferencemarksaregivenforcitedEnglishtranslations.

ThePlague,NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf,1948.
TheRebel:AnEssayonManinRevolt,NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf,1954[R].
TheMythofSisyphusandOtherEssays,NewYork:AlredA.Knopf,1955[MS].
TheFall,NewYork:AlredA.Knopf,1957.
Caligula,andThreeOtherPlays,NewYork:AlredA.Knopf,1958.
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NuptialsatTipasa,inLyricalandCriticalEssays,1968[N].
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TheStranger,NewYork:Vintage,1988.
BetweenHellandReason,Hanover,NH:WesleyanUniversityPress,1991[Availableonline].
ChristianMetaphysicsandNeoplatonism,inJ.McBride,AlbertCamus:PhilosopherandLittrateur,New
York:St.Martin'sPress,1992,pp.9316.
Notebooks19421951,NewYork:Marlowe,1995.
Notebooks19351942,NewYork:Marlowe,1996.
CamusatCombat:Writing194447,J.LviVatensi(ed.),Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,2006.

CamusandSartre

Sartre,J.P.,Camus'sTheOutsider,inLiteraryandPhilosophicalEssays,NewYork:CollierBooks,1962.
Sprintzen,D.A.,andA.vandenHoven(eds.),SartreandCamus:AHistoricConfrontation,Amherst,NY:
HumanityBooks,2004.

SecondaryWorks

Aronson,R.,1980,JeanPaulSartre:PhilosophyintheWorld,London:Verso.
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Foley,J.,2008,AlbertCamus:FromtheAbsurdtoRevolt,Montreal:McGillQueen'sUniversityPress.
Hanna,T.,1958,TheThoughtandArtofAlbertCamus,Chicago:H.RegneryCo.
Hughes,E.J.(ed.),2007,TheCambridgeCompaniontoCamus,Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.
Isaac,J.C.,1992,Arendt,CamusandModernRebellion,NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress.
James,W.,1896,IsLifeWorthLiving?TheWilltoBelieveandOtherEssaysinPopularPhilosophy,New
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Jeanson,F.,1947,AlbertCamusoulemensongedel'absurdit,RevueDominicaineno.53.
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McCarthy,P.,1982,Camus,NewYork:RandomHouse.
Nietzsche,F.W.,1878/1996,Human,AllTooHuman:ABookforFreeSpirits,M.FaberandS.Lehmann,
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,1888/1968,TwilightoftheIdols,inW.Kaufmann(trans.),ThePortableNietzsche,pp.463563,
Harmondsworth:PenguinBooks.
O'Brien,C.C.,1970,AlbertCamusofEuropeandAfrica,NewYork:Viking.
Plutarch,Moralia,Vol.II,F.C.Babbitt(ed.andtrans.),Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress.
Rizzuto,A.,1981,Camus'sImperialVision,Carbondale:SouthernIllinoisUniversityPress.
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3/29/2017 AlbertCamus(StanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy)

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