Applied Energy 87 (2010) 21092118

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Applied Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apenergy

A review of daylight illuminance determinations and energy implications

Danny H.W. Li *
Building Energy Research Group, Department of Building and Construction, City University of Hong Kong, Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Daylighting is recognized as an important element in architecture and a useful strategy in energy-ef-
Received 16 December 2009 cient building designs. Daylight gives a sense of cheeriness and brightness that can have a signicant
Received in revised form 2 March 2010 positive impact on the people. There is a scope for integrating daylight with electric light to reduce build-
Accepted 4 March 2010
ing energy use. The amount of daylight entering a building is mainly through window openings, which
Available online 23 March 2010
create in the indoor environment a more attractive and pleasing atmosphere, in addition to maximise
visual access to the pleasant views of the outside world. Determinations of the exterior and interior day-
Keywords:
light and lighting energy savings are key issues to demonstrate the benets based on daylighting designs.
Daylight illuminance
CIE standard skies
This paper provides a review of daylight illuminance determinations and the lighting energy reductions
Sky obstruction due to daylighting schemes. The study includes daylight measurements, prediction of daylight illumi-
Daylight factor nance under various sky conditions and potential electric lighting energy savings from daylight-linked
Lighting controls lighting controls. The article aims at providing building professionals, practitioners and researchers more
information and a better understanding of daylight for promoting effective daylighting designs and
evaluations.
2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2109
2. Daylight measurement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2110
3. Sky illuminance and luminance prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2110
4. Daylight prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2112
5. Lighting controls and energy saving implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2115
6. Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2116
Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2116
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2116

1. Introduction Building occupants desire natural lighting and an outside view

[13].
Daylighting is an effective and sustainable development strat- Most of fossil fuels are used to generate electricity [4] but there
egy for enhancing visual comfort, energy-efciency and green are many environmental adverse effects arising from the use of
building developments. Window openings provide a dual function such energy resources. Pollutants produced from the burning of
not only of admitting light for indoor environment with a pleasing the fossil fuels include carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen
atmosphere, but also of allowing people to maintain visual contact oxides and particulates which lead to acid rain and human respira-
with the outside world. Daylight is considered to be the best source tory diseases. Emission of carbon dioxide causes the formation of
of light for color rendering and its quality makes it the one light global warming and climate change. It indicates that electricity
source that most closely matches the human visual response. saved implies non-renewable fossil fuel conserved together with
the likely pollutants and greenhouse gases reductions [5]. Electric
lighting is one of the major energy consuming items accounting
* Tel.: +852 27887063; fax: +852 27887612. for 2030% of the total electricity use in fully air-conditioned ofce
E-mail address: bcdanny@cityu.edu.hk. buildings [6,7] and 10% for residential sector [8]. Natural light is an

0306-2619/$ - see front matter 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2010.03.004
2110 D.H.W. Li / Applied Energy 87 (2010) 21092118
economical means of lighting for a building. Using appropriate en-
ergy-efcient lamp ttings with lighting controls and proper day-
lighting schemes can help reduce the electrical demand and
improve vision efciency [9,10]. Recently, strong recognition has
been given to the contribution that daylight can make to energy
conservation in buildings [1113]. Proper daylight-linked lighting
controls have a strong potential for reducing building electricity
use [1416]. Field measurements on a few commercial buildings
using daylight-linked light controls revealed that the annual light-
ing energy can be saved by 3060% of total electric lighting con-
sumption [17,18]. Reduction of window area may not deteriorate
the daylighting performance but it can improve thermal insulation
and lower the cooling requirement. The energy savings derived
through the use of daylighting not only facilitate the sparing use
of electric lighting and reduced peak electrical demand, but also re-
duce cooling loads and offer the potential for smaller air-condition-
ing plants to be built [19,20].
The prediction of the daylight illuminance is a key stage in day-
lighting designs. The illuminance from natural sources is conven-
tionally estimated in terms of the daylight factor approach (DF)
through a calculation based on the traditional International Com-
mission on Illumination (CIE) overcast-sky excluding direct sun-
light [21]. The DF approach has gained favour owing to its
simplicity, but it is not exible enough to estimate the dynamic
variations in daylight illuminance as the solar position and sky
conditions changes [22]. The daylight availability is mainly inu-
enced by the luminance levels and patterns of the sky [23]. In
2003, the CIE adopted 15 standard skies [24] including the CIE
standard clear [25] and polluted [26] sky distributions, a uniform
luminance distribution and a close approximation to the CIE stan-
dard overcast-sky [27]. Skies of the same category have the same
well-dened sky luminance pattern and complicated mathemati-
cal expressions to model the sky distributions are not required
[28]. The luminance distribution for each sky standard can help
the determination of accurate daylight illuminance [29]. In many
modern urban cities, buildings are mainly high-rise towers con-
structed on small sites [30]. The shading effects to which many
Hong Kong buildings are subject due to the proximity of surround-
ing buildings can substantially restrict the quality and quantity of
daylight illuminance emanating directly from the sun and the sky
[31]. There are a number of regulations [32,33], codes of practice
[34] and design handbooks [35] that stipulate the provisions,
requirements and criteria for good natural light in buildings. The
determinations of daylight illuminance and lighting energy savings
can be performed via full-scale computer simulations [36] or sim-
ple calculation methods [37]. This paper provides an extensive re-
view on daylight illuminance data measurements, prediction
model developments and daylight-linked lighting controls for en-
ergy conservation.
2. Daylight measurement
Long-term data measurement is the most effective and accurate
method of setting up reliable daylight illuminance databases. Mea-
sured data include global and diffuse illuminance on a horizontal
surface, vertical daylight illuminance facing the four cardinal ori-
entations (i.e. N, E, S, and W) and sky luminance distributions. Hor-
izontal solar illuminance can be used in studying horizontal
fenestration such as roof-lights. Nevertheless, there are greater de-
mands for knowledge of daylight level on vertical surfaces as cur-
tain walling is one of the main design features in modern
architecture [30]. For daylighting applications, diffuse illuminance
is more important and widely considered. The use of direct sun-
light for providing natural light source in buildings is often ex-
cluded. Problems of glare, excessive brightness ratios and visual
discomfort support the exclusion. In addition, diffuse illuminance
is more energy-efcient in terms of luminous efcacy [38]. In a
side-lit room the interior daylight might be more nearly propor-
tional to the amount of daylight falling on the window, rather than
to the external horizontal daylight illuminance. For large illumi-
nance values, which are often accompanied by direct sunlight,
the differences between orientations can be substantial [39].
Long-term vertical daylight illuminance measurements can accu-
rately determine the orientation factors [40]. The daylight avail-
ability of a given surface is largely inuenced by luminance
levels and distributions of the sky. Recently, daylight illuminance
and sky luminance data have been measured in a number of places
under the International Daylight Measurement Project (IDMP)
which was launched in 1991 by the CIE [41]. As a result, new activ-
ity commenced in the eld of daylight measurement on a world-
wide scale. The measurements were taken mainly in high latitude
areas such as European countries, North America and Japan [42].
There are a few stations located in tropical and subtropical regions
including Singapore, Thailand and Hong Kong [4345]. The day-
light illuminance measurements are made by photometers which
have built-in adapters for the cosine corrections. The global (total)
outdoor illuminance on an unobstructed horizontal plane consists
of direct sunlight and skylight. The incident daylight on a vertical
surface is the sum of direct-beam, sky-diffuse and externally re-
ected components. The measurement of global illuminance is
quite straightforward and only an illuminance sensor is required.
For recording the vertical daylight illuminance screened from
ground reection may be required and the sensors can be shielded
by a matt black screen forming an articial horizontal at the level
of the centre of each photocell [41]. The photocell measuring dif-
fuse illuminance should be tted with a shadow-ring to shade
the thermopile from the direct sunlight. The shadow-ring is
painted black to minimize the effect of multiple reections. The
ring has a polar axis design requiring adjustment for solar declina-
tion every several days. The shadow-ring, however, does block off a
signicant portion of the sky-diffuse illuminance and a shadow-
ring correction factor is required. Because of the anisotropy of dif-
fuse sky with its maximum being close to the sun, correction factor
based on isotropy-sky-approach tends to underestimate diffuse
component under non-overcast days. Models incorporating both
geometrical and anisotropic effects are appropriate to correct the
sky-diffuse illuminance [46,47]. Horizontal direct sunlight data
can be computed by subtracting the corrected diffuse components
from the corresponding global values. Experimental work on the
sky luminance distribution is often performed using a sky scanner.
Recently, Soler and Robledo [48] conducted sky luminance mea-
surements with 35 illuminance sensors xed on a dome. Using
sky scanner, the sensor head rotates in altitude and azimuth to
measure the luminance at 145 circular sky patches by scanning
the sky hemisphere. The measurement method would lead to
uncovered regions of the sky and it gives the sky coverage of
approximately 68% [49]. Fig. 1 presents the sky grid pattern which
was suggested by Tregenza and Sharples [50] such that the whole
sky-dome can be considered for further analysis. To safeguard the
sensor, the scanner does not record luminance data near the sun by
using an automatic shutter. Typically, each sky scan is completed
within 4 min. To eliminate spurious data and erroneous measure-
ments, quality-control tests issued by the CIE [41] should be
adopted. After the tests, data of accepted quality are retained for
further analysis.
3. Sky illuminance and luminance prediction
Most fundamental daylight data for the surfaces of interest are
not usually readily obtainable [51]. Prediction methods include
 D.H.W. Li / Applied Energy 87 (2010) 21092118
Fig. 1. Measurement points for the sky scanner.
luminous efcacy approach, and anisotropic slope-illuminance and
sky distribution models. Measured solar irradiance data are more
readily available than measured daylight data and model develop-
ment is, therefore, mainly carried out for solar irradiance. In view
of the fact that solar irradiance and outdoor illuminance have sim-
ilar characteristics in nature and the approaches are purely geo-
metrical, the models established for solar irradiance prediction
have also been applied for daylight calculations [52,53]. Some
researchers assumed isotropy of sky-diffuse component [54,55]
while others adopted an approach of anisotropy [56,57]. A compar-
ative study on several prediction models against measured Hong
Kong was conducted and elaborated [58]. The circumsolar and
point source versions of the simplied Perez model using local
coefcients and coefcients proposed by Perez were examined
and reported [59]. Another common method of estimating daylight
adopted by researchers has been the derivation of illuminance
from the more widely measured solar irradiance using the lumi-
nous efcacy approach [38]. The luminous efcacy of daylight
(W/lm) dened as the ratio of daylight illuminance to solar irradi-
ance varies from place to place but far less than the absolute values
of illuminance. There are techniques for modeling luminous ef-
cacy using some climatic parameters [60]. It has been reported that
luminous efcacy of direct solar irradiance can be expressed as a
function of solar altitude (as) [61,62]. Luminous efcacy of sky-dif-
fuse irradiance however, appears to be relatively independent of as
and many empirical models have been developed under various
sky conditions [63,64]. The luminous efcacy models established
were mainly for the horizontal surface and very little work has
been done for the vertical and inclined planes. An approach to esti-
mate the vertical global luminous efcacy and the corresponding
vertical daylight illuminance using measured horizontal solar irra-
2111
diance and illuminance data was developed and proposed [65]. It
provides an alternative in estimating the vertical solar illuminance
where only the horizontal data are available.
An accurate estimation of the daylight available direct from the
sky is to acquire not just the total amount of light coming from the
sky but also the way that light is distributed over the sky vault. It
has been pointed out that the actual daylight illuminance of a room
is found to be related to the luminance pattern of the sky in the
direction of view of the window. This is of particular interest when
considering a point in a deep plan side-lit room which will only re-
ceive vertical daylight from a certain part of the sky. Sky luminance
distributions are less frequently measured than daylight illumi-
nance [66]. In general, sky condition can be categorized into over-
cast, partly cloudy, and clear sky type [67]. For conventional
daylighting applications, diffuse illuminance is crucial and broadly
used. Overcast skies are considered to provide the worst daylight-
ing conditions, and sunlight is completely impeded without any di-
rect component. Consequently, the diversity of daylight will be
improved under other sky conditions. Under prevailing overcast-
sky conditions, the sky-diffuse component is dominant. For places
where overcast days occur more frequently such as temperate re-
gions and areas during rainy seasons, investigating the overcast-
sky luminance is particularly important. Also, the overcast-sky
may be used as a component within more general sky luminance
models which treat the sky as a combination of overcast and cloud-
less. Therefore, studying the characteristics of the overcast-sky
luminance distribution has been a subject of great interest. Many
overcast-sky luminance distribution models have been developed
to describe the sky patterns [68]. The empirical Moon and Spencer
[69] equation for the luminance distribution of an overcast-sky
was adopted by the CIE in 1955 as the standard for overcast-sky
2112 D.H.W. Li / Applied Energy 87 (2010) 21092118
luminance. However, it has been pointed out in the literature that
the overcast-sky type is not unique. There are two patterns of over-
cast-sky, namely thin and heavy covered with bright and dark
clouds, respectively [70]. Under a heavy overcast-sky, the sky lumi-
nance distribution is independent of the solar azimuth and the ver-
tical outdoor illuminance would be the same for all orientations
[69,71,72]. The CIE overcast-sky is applicable when the complete
sky canopy is covered with isotropic dark clouds representing hea-
vy overcast-sky only. The thin overcast-sky may include a circum-
solar component and the sky luminance pattern is no longer
orientation independent [7375]. Recently, Enarun and Littlefair
[76] reported that the CIE overcast-sky performed the best among
all worldwide models adopted in southern England under fully
overcast skies. Our earlier work also found that the CIE standard
overcast-sky showed a good agreement with the Hong Kong over-
cast-sky luminance data [77,78]. For non-overcast skies, the lumi-
nance distributions are mainly affected by weather conditions and
the solar positions. Owing to the strong forward-scattering effect of
aerosols, the sky luminance patterns should be treated as aniso-
tropic, which would be quite complicated to formulate. Generally,
non-overcast-sky luminance patterns are proportional to the prod-
uct of two functions: a function of the angle between the sun and
the sky element, and a function of the zenith angle of the sky ele-
ment. To dene non-overcast daylight climates, some researchers
proposed various sets of constant coefcients for the two functions
once the sky conditions have been identied [26,79]. Others used
some climatic parameters to compute the sets of adjustable coef-
cients [80]. However, the criteria to distinguish individual non-
overcast skies were not always clear-cut and further sky classica-
tion was conducted using a number of climatic variables [81].
The sky luminance distributions are affected by various factors,
including solar position, turbidity and pollution content of the
atmosphere, and cloud amount, type, and pattern, which cause
numerous interactions of sunlight and skylight [82]. Previously,
a range of 15 standard skies based on detailed analysis of selected
luminance scans measured in Berkeley (37.6N, 122.4W) during
19851986, supplemented by data from scans recorded in Tokyo
(35.8N and 139.8E) and Sydney (33.9S and 151.2E) during
1992 were proposed [66]. The set of standard skies covers the
whole probable range of skies in the world. In 1999, Tregenza
studied these 15 sky luminance models using measured data from
four stations, namely, Singapore (1.5N and 103.8E), Fukuoka (Ja-
pan, 33.5N and 130.5E), Garston (UK, 51.7N and 0.4W) and
Shefeld (UK, 53.5N and 1.5W) [83] representing tropical humid
and temperate maritime climates. He concluded that the standard
set provided a good overall framework for categorizing actual
skies and a subset of four luminance distributions were adequate
to describe the sky conditions appearing at each station. Similar
ndings using Hong Kong data were reported in our previous
work [84]. The distributions for individual standard skies are char-
acterized by continuous mathematical expressions that change
smoothly in luminance from the horizon to the zenith and with
angular distance from the sun [85]. The standard formula dening
the relative luminance distribution on any standard sky can be
combining gradation function u(Z) and indicatrix function f(v)
as follows:
L f vuZ
1
LZ f Z s u0
where L is sky luminance in an arbitrary sky element (cd/m2); Lz is
sky luminance at the zenith (cd/m2); Z is zenith angle of a sky ele-
ment (rad); Zs is zenith angle of the sun (rad); v is scattering angle
between the sun and a sky element (rad).
The standard gradations are dened by appropriate a and b vari-
ables as:
uZ 1 a expb= cos Z
2
u0 1 a exp b
The relative scattering indicatrix can be modeled by an expo-
nential function with adjustable coefcients c, d, and e as:
f v 1 cexpdv  expdp=2 e cos2 v
3
f Z s 1 cexpdZ s  expdp=2 e cos2 Z s
The scattering angle can be calculated from the following
formula:
v arccoscos Z s  cos Z sin Z s  sin Z  cos j/  /s j 4
where / is the azimuth angle of a sky element (rad) and /s, is azi-
muth angle of the sun (rad).
The exponential term exp(dv) represents the effect of Mie scat-
tering, which decreases rapidly with distance from the sun. The
cos2v term is due to Rayleigh scattering and is zero at 90 to the
direction of the sun [75]. Both gradation and indicatrix functions
are of six types. The combinations can form a large number of skies
but only 15 relevant types were selected for the standard set.
Investigations of the standard sky luminance patterns have been
conducted under various climatological and geographical locations
[86]. Each sky standard represents by a unique sky luminance pat-
tern and the corresponding climatic parameters and indices should
be within certain ranges. The important issue would be the fre-
quency of occurrence for the individual standard skies appearing
at a given location [87]. To classify the standard skies, the lumi-
nance distributions of individual standard skies were modeled
and evaluated against the scanned sky luminance readings in
terms of root-mean-square error (RMSE). The standard sky se-
lected is the one with the lowest RMSE [88]. However, luminance
distributions for the whole sky are far less available. In interpreting
sky conditions, climatic parameters were often used as weighting
factors to indicate the degree of sky clearness such that sky lumi-
nance distributions can then be classied. The ratio of zenith lumi-
nance to horizontal diffuse illuminance (Lz/Dv) can characterize the
momentary sky brightness and theoretically can identify the 15
standard sky patterns. However, the Lz/Dv theoretical curves for
the 15 standard skies are not parallel and they intersect each other
at solar altitude of 35 or more. Using Lz/Dv for a place where high
solar altitude dominates can lead to ambiguous results. Bartzokas
et al. [89,90] modied the Lz/Dv sky classication method to study
the daylight climates at two cities in Central Europe but the perfor-
mance of the approach was not further evaluated. There are a num-
ber of appropriate climatic parameters to identify the daylight
climates [91]. Previously, we used a number of common climatic
parameters and the probabilistic neural network (PNN) approach
for classifying standard skies [9294].
4. Daylight prediction
The evaluation of visual comfort and energy-efciency due to
daylighting requires an accurate estimation of the amount of day-
light for any point within the internal space. Traditionally, the illu-
minance from natural sources is often determined in terms of
daylight factor (DF), which is the ratio of the internal illuminance
to the outdoor illuminance simultaneously available on a horizon-
tal plane from the whole of an unobstructed sky (Es) with the cal-
culations being based on an unobstructed overcast-sky [21].
Without direct sunlight, the global and diffuse components have
very close values and the effect due to solar position can be ig-
nored. The sky luminance distribution is symmetrical about the ze-
nith and changes with the elevation above the horizon such that
the vertical outdoor illuminance would be the same for all orienta-
tions. The internal daylight illuminance for a particular point can
be analytically computed under this simple sky pattern. In theory,
 D.H.W. Li / Applied Energy 87 (2010) 21092118
even though the daylight outdoors may change, the DF will remain
constant as the interior illuminance is also varying with the exte-
rior daylight. Constancy and association with the concept of adap-
tation are the advantages of the conventional DF method [95]. The
point-by-point DF approach has shown convincingly the effective-
ness of daylight-linked controls in spacing energy on electric light-
ing [96]. In 1975, Longmore proposed the concept of average
daylight factor (DFave), which indicates the visual sufciency of
the daylighting in space as a whole rather than at any particular
point, for daylighting calculations [97]. The formula is based on
the theory of the split-ux principle that divides the ux entering
the room through the window into two parts: (a) light coming di-
rectly from the sky and obstructions above the horizon on a verti-
cal surface (Ea); and (b) reected light coming from below the
horizon on a vertical surface (Eb). Mathematically, DFave is ex-
pressed as:
 
C 1 C 1 Rfw C 2 Rcw
tW 5
Afw A1  R
where A is the total area of all the interior surfaces (m2); Afw the
area of oor and lower parts of the walls below the mid-height of
the window, excluding the window wall (m2); C1 (i.e. Ea/Es) and
C2 (i.e. Eb/Es) the conguration factors of the daylight ux incident
on the mid-height of the window pane from above and below the
horizon, respectively (dimensionless); R the average reectance of
all the interior surfaces (dimensionless); Rcw the average reectance
of the ceiling and upper walls above the mid-height of the window
excluding the window wall (dimensionless); Rfw the average reec-
tance of the oor and lower parts of the walls below the mid-height
of the window, excluding the window wall (dimensionless); t the
overall transmittance of the window (dimensionless); and W is
the window area (m2).
The rst term comprises the light due directly to the visible sky
and any light from the surfaces of obstructions above the horizon-
tal to the reference plane (i.e. sky component and externally re-
ected component). The second term represents the mean
internally reected component [21]. This approach was simplied
to eliminate the conguration factors by a number of researchers
[98100]. In principle, DFave can be estimated by using consider-
ably less detailed input data than the parameters provided by
point-by-point calculations. More importantly, DFave could be a
useful daylighting criterion during the initial-design stage as it
can be related directly to window area. A survey of daylight predic-
tion methods revealed that many architectural designs and con-
struction practices used hand calculations based on different
simple design tools including the DFave approach to conduct day-
lighting designs [101]. The daylighting design criteria recom-
mended by design manuals are often expressed in terms of DF or
DFave. Practitioners and designers like to present their design
schemes in DF for evaluation. However, the DF approach is not
exible enough to predict the dynamic variations in daylight illu-
minance [102]. It has been reported that the ratio of indoor to out-
door illuminance can vary substantially [103]. There are signicant
experimental errors involved in making DF measurements in real
buildings under real skies [104]. First, it is quite difcult to access
an unobstructed horizontal place. Second, DF approach is based on
an overcast-sky which depends on the sky condition at a given
time and sky conditions vary from time to time. Third, for a side-
lit room, the external measurement is affected by areas of sky that
may contribute little to the interior measurement. The DF calcula-
tion has also been extended to include clear sky conditions using a
number of charts and tables [105] and simple calculation ap-
proaches [106]. However, the sun position dependent nature
means that a set of design aids was only applicable to a given solar
location and window orientation and the simple method was not
2113
accurate enough for points near to the window wall. By assuming
the vertical illuminance on the window plane is equal to the hori-
zontal sky illuminance, the DFave concept for clear skies was also
proposed [107].
Daylight illuminances inside a room are not in general propor-
tional to the external illuminance, but depend on the exact sky
luminance distribution at that time. This is because a point in a
room will receive direct light only from certain areas of the sky
and the illuminance within a room is not equally sensitive to
changes in the luminance of different parts of the sky luminance
level and patterns. As developed by Tregenza and Waters [108],
the concept of daylight coefcient (DC) that considers the changes
in the luminance of sky elements offers a more effective way for
calculating indoor daylight illuminance under various sky condi-
tions and solar locations. The DC depends on the geometry of the
room and its exterior environment, the reectances of many sur-
faces, and the transmittance of the windows. Hence, building char-
acteristics and the surrounding climatic conditions are separated.
The total daylight illuminance, E, at the point is then given by:
Z Z
E La/ Da/ DSa/ 6
where La/, is the luminance of the sky element at a and / (cd/m2);
Da/, the corresponding daylight coefcient (dimensionless); DSa/,
the angular size of the sky element (sr).
For all, but the simplest cases (e.g. direct light from the CIE stan-
dard overcast-sky via glass with a constant light transmission va-
lue on an unobstructed horizontal surface), it is not possible to
compute analytically and numerical techniques can be used as:
X
E Da/ La/ DSa/ 7
a/
This gives the illuminance for a particular point as the sum of n
products of D, L and DS for each sky patch. Due to the advance-
ments of computer technology, there has been a steady increase
in the use of computer simulation technique to evaluate daylight-
ing schemes. Mardaljevic [109] examined the DC approach using a
lighting simulation package called RADIANCE [36] and measured
data from the unfurnished ofce of the Building Research Estab-
lishment (BRE). Reinhart and Herkel simulated the indoor illumi-
nance distributions for two ofce geometries with six different
RADIANCE-based daylight simulation methods including DC ap-
proach [110]. Studies of the DC method using simulation software
to estimate indoor daylight in a daylit classroom and corridor were
conducted and the ndings showed reasonably good agreement
with the measured data [111,112]. The DC approach is time con-
suming but it is more accurate than using DF method. Simple cal-
culations tools in the forms of diagrams, nomograms and
equations would be useful to architects and engineers when differ-
ent daylighting schemes and concepts are being considered. The
natural lighting entering the glazing into building interior comes
from the sun and sky, and the reected components from sur-
rounding buildings and the ground both above and below horizon.
Under an unobstructed sky, natural light comes directly from the
sky (i.e. sky component) and reected internally (i.e. reected light
originally from the sky and the ground) reaching reference points
in the interior of a building. Examples include top oors in high-
rise buildings and houses in low density residential areas. A nomo-
graph approach that consists of a chart and two scales A and B to
determine the daylight illuminance for the CIE standard skies was
established [113,114]. Fig. 2 plots the nomograph for the CIE
cloudless polluted sky (sky number 13) and similar techniques
can also be applicable to the other CIE standard skies. By drawing
a line between the values on scale A and RI on the chart, the inter-
cepting point on scale B is the direct illuminance from a particular
sky patch. The sky component (SC) at a point in the room would
2114 D.H.W. Li / Applied Energy 87 (2010) 21092118

Fig. 2. Nomograph calculating daylight illuminance for the CIE standard sky (No. 13).

Fig. 3. Waldram diagram with droop lines.

be the sum of the daylight of the sky patches viewed by the win- window faade of a side-lit room faces half of the sky, Ea is given
dows. By sketching the window opening on the Waldram diagram by:
(as shown in Fig. 3) [115], the number of sky zones visible from
the reference point can be counted accordingly. For the inter-re- X
145
Ea Li cos2 ai cos/  /N i dai d/i For 0  h  p=2; p=2
ected component (IRC), the split-ux principle is applied (i.e. i1
the 2nd term of Eq. (5)). Under unobstructed skies, the congura-
 /  /N  /=2; 0 otherwise 8
tion factor C1 is the ratio of Ea to the horizontal diffuse illuminance
of the whole sky (Es). It is not possible to compute analytically for Mathematically, the ground reected component can be written
non-overcast skies and a numerical technique should be employed as:
[28]. Using a numerical method means that the sky must be sub-
divided into nite zones. Increasing the sky vault division would Ed Es qg with direct component Ed 9
lead to a more precise value of illuminance determination, but it Es qg without Ed 10
requires longer computation time [116]. Cheung and Chung
[117] set 5 intervals of altitude and azimuth angles to divide where qg, the ground reectance (dimensionless)
the hemispherical screen into 1296 patches. It is recommended When the sun is behind the reference building under a non-
that splitting the celestial hemisphere into 145 angular patches overcast-sky, a well-dened sunlit and shadow will be casted on
in bands of constant elevation in a 3-way symmetry about the ze- the ground surface. Eqs. (9) and (10) can be used to determine
nith would be the appropriate subdivision [118] and sky scanner the ground reected component for sunlit and shaded surfaces,
measurements are based on such a pattern [41]. As the vertical respectively [119]. The performance of the proposed calculation
 D.H.W. Li / Applied Energy 87 (2010) 21092118 2115

procedures was validated against those obtained via computer nation of buildings. The fraction of sunlit surface was examined in
simulation program, scale model and full-scale measurements detail and presented in terms of solar geometry [131]. Calculation
[120,121]. The simplied procedures for calculating the point-by- tools in the form of simple equations and diagrams through com-
point DF can be applied to modify the traditional DFave approach puter simulation analysis were established. The performance of
so that the DFave under the 15 CIE standard skies can be deter- the proposed method was evaluated against the daylight illumi-
mined [122]. nance obtained by other independent computer simulations and
In modern urban cities, many buildings are constructed close to full-scale measurements under real sky conditions.
each other, the shading effect from nearby building can be signi-
cant and reected components can be the main sources of interior
5. Lighting controls and energy saving implications
lighting. A long urban canyon is one of the common skyline fea-
tures and a number of studies were based on this horizontal band
Appropriate lighting controls can improve visual performance,
[123,124]. The daylight illuminance on a vertical plane (Ev) consists
occupant satisfaction and energy-efciency [132]. Broadly speak-
of light coming directly from the sky (Ea) and reected daylight
ing, there are two basic categories of photoelectric lighting con-
from surrounding buildings (Erb) and ground (Erg) both above and
trols. The rst type of control provides for either on or off state,
below the horizon. Most useful light entering the glazing into
and the second allows the level to be set between maximum and
building interior comes from a cone of light 100 centred to the
minimum levels by dimming (top-up). An onoff control is de-
normal of the glazing. The amount of this reected light is depen-
signed to switch articial lighting on and off automatically as the
dent on how well these surrounding surfaces are illuminated and
daylight levels falls and rises through a predetermined level. How-
the reectance of these surfaces. It means that most available day-
ever, one problem with this control type is the frequency of switch-
light for windows of lower and middle oors of a building sur-
ing on and off, particularly during unstable weather conditions
rounded by high-rise buildings is primarily through reected
when daylight levels are uctuating around the switching illumi-
light from the opposite buildings with various reectance values.
nance. Frequent switching on and off can irritate occupants and re-
The ground reected component would be small and a low ground
duce the lamp life. There exist several variants to the onoff
reectance of 0.2 is always adopted. For convenience, the tradi-
control, namely differential switching, time delay and solar reset
tional approach considers the effect of external obstruction using
to reduce the number of switching operation [133]. A differential
a mean angle of vertical obstruction with an average fraction of
switching has two switching illuminances: one at which the lights
the luminance of the sky. If the fraction of the luminance of the
are switch on, and another, at which the lights are off. A time delay
sky is not known, it is often to assume a value of 0.1 for a uniform
means that there is no further switching until the lapse of a preset
sky and 0.2 under the CIE overcast-sky [21]. Basically, surface
time period after the last switching or after reaching a preset target
reectance can be found using a narrow eld spot luminance meter
daylight illuminance value. In solar reset switching, the lighting
and an illuminance meter or from measurements of the surface
can only be switched off at certain set times of a day. To a good
luminance of the unknown material against that for a known stan-
approximation (ignoring differential switching or dead band), the
dard under the same outdoor conditions [125]. In practice an esti-
fraction of the working year that electric lighting would be off un-
mation of the optical reectance obtained from measurements of
der a simple onoff control is given by the fraction of the working
the surface luminance presents a number of practical difculties
year that the daylight threshold illuminance level is exceeded. For
in real buildings as their external surfaces are rarely accessible.
daylighting designs and calculations, a cumulative frequency dis-
Other factors complicating the measurement include faade sur-
tribution of daylight availability can be used for determining the
face texture, stability of sky conditions, presence of glazing sur-
necessary use of articial lighting, and the probable energy savings
faces and differing exposure between test samples and reference
from onoff controls [134]. Based on the cumulative frequency
standard [126]. A small imprecision in surface exposure can cause
brightness curves of uorescent lamp ttings, the lighting energy
large uncertainties in illuminance predictions. To eliminate the
savings and number of switching operations for a standard on
drawbacks due to on-site measurements, the mean surface reec-
off photoelectric control were determined [135]. Top-up controls
tance for the building faade was estimated using lighting simula-
vary the light output of lamps in accordance with the prevailing
tion techniques [127]. By modifying the split-ux formulae,
daylight level [136]. For uorescent lighting, dimmers fall into
Tregenza [128] developed an appropriate tool to estimate the Ev
two main types [134]. In main frequency control, the power con-
for windows facing large external obstructions under the tradi-
sumed in the ballast is roughly proportional to the lamp output.
tional CIE overcast-sky. However, important parameters such as
When the illuminance on the workplane (Ex) exceeds the target
the effective mean external reectance (qo) and the direct skylight
workplane illuminance (Ein), the fractional power consumed will
received by the ground (Eg) were not further quantied. Also, the
be zero (i.e. switching off). Otherwise, the fraction of the working
reected light from ground (Erg) to the vertical window surface
year when daylighting is sufcient for a top-up control (Ft) can
may include certain amount of reected light due to building be-
be written as [137]:
low the horizon. Such issues may induce uncertainties and errors
when the design tool is used. Under non-overcast skies, the day- F t F o 1  F b Io =Eo 11
light including strong sunlight reected from ground (street) and
opposite facades, can be an important source of interior lighting where Fo, is the fraction of the working year when daylighting alone
and the diffuse light from the sky can be insignicant [129]. Exter- can achieve the required indoor design illuminance using an onoff
nally reected daylight should be evaluated in detail while an esti- control (dimensionless); Eo, is the required outdoor illuminance
mation of sky-diffuse illuminance is sufcient. Inter-reections, which will provide sufcient indoor illuminance; Io, is the summa-
between the external building surfaces, buildings and ground, oc- tion of the products of frequency and its corresponding illuminance
cur when the reference vertical plane faces large external obstruc- in mid-point of a given interval up to Eo (lux); Fb, is the fraction of
tion. Tregenza also proposed simple calculation procedures for power consumption of the undimmed lamp and ballast
determining the daylight illuminance in rooms facing sunlit streets (dimensionless).
[129]. Calculation models of vertical daylight illuminance in a Using high frequency dimming ballasts, the lamps cannot be
heavily obstructed environment under overcast and non-overcast dimmed smoothly to total extinction. In normal operation their
skies were formed [130,131]. The sunlight reected by vertical fa- residual light output and power consumption will occur through-
cades and ground can represent an important source in the illumi- out working hours even if the daylight illuminance exceeds Ein; un-
2116 D.H.W. Li / Applied Energy 87 (2010) 21092118
less the circuit is turned off by an occupancy sensor, time switch or
manually. Therefore, a high frequency dimming system may result
less energy and cost savings than an on/off switching in very well
daylit spaces when the daylight intensities far exceed the design
illuminance [138]. To estimate the fractional energy saving for high
frequency controls, two technical parameters, namely, the mini-
mum light output ratio (Rf) and the corresponding fractional power
consumption (Rw) are required. When the daylight illuminance on
the workplane Ein exceeds the design illuminance (Edes) times
(1  Rf), the fractional energy saving (Fs) = 1  Rw. When Ein is less
than Edes(1Rf), Fs is given as:
1  Rw Ein
Fs 12
1  Rf Edes
Accordingly, the energy savings in electric lighting (Esav) are gi-
ven by [139]:
Esav LPD  Af  F s  T 13
2
where LPD is the installed lighting power density (W/m ), Af is the
oor area (m2), and T is the total operating hours (h).
Daylighting design techniques are often best illustrated through
eld measurements that form an essential part to provide reliable
operational and energy performance data and establish design
guidelines [140]. The theory of electric lighting savings due to day-
light is well understood and theoretical models have been devel-
oped to predict energy savings for different control schemes
[141]. Empirical data obtained via eld measurements, however,
would help conrm the usefulness, suitable and accuracy of theo-
retical models [142] and provide the much needed information for
building professionals. Actual lighting energy expenditures in
existing buildings and their characteristics are important informa-
tion for building owners and operators develop energy conserva-
tion strategies and management programmes [143]. Field
measurements of ofces [17,18], classrooms [144] and a daylit cor-
ridor [145] using daylight-linked lighting controls were performed.
The success of a daylighting scheme depends very much on a
good understanding of the subtle interactions of a large number
of design features. Building energy simulation, which provides
effective design decision support, has been proved useful in ana-
lyzing daylighting schemes [146]. In Hong Kong, the local govern-
ment adopted a voluntary basis performance-based building
energy code to promote energy-efcient designs in buildings and
computer simulation software is required to illustrate the trade-
off alternatives in detail [147]. Simple design methods in the forms
of simple equations, charts and diagrams through comprehensive
computer simulation studies are useful during the initial-design
stage, when different design schemes and concepts are being con-
sidered and evaluated. Building professionals do make simulations
using computer programs after the design schemes have been
nalized for submission and presentation. For daylighting analysis,
energy variations from certain input factors may be more signi-
cant than the others, indicating that such variables should be paid
particular attention in terms of technical and economic points of
view during the design process. Sensitivity analysis is done to
quantitatively compare the changes on the output with respect
to the changes in the input. Once the relationships of these two
parameters of the system are understood, all relevant variables
can be appropriately designed to achieve the best performance.
Sets of curves illustrating the incremental electricity use, peak
electricity demand and peak cooling plant capacity with daylight-
ing designs were developed [148,149]. A number of correlation
equations which could indicate the energy savings due to daylight-
ing under the impact of external obstructions were formed [31]. A
sensitivity analysis was performed to test how the annual building
electricity use and peak electrical demand with daylighting
schemes would be affected by changes the input parameters
including window-to-wall ratio, visual transmittance of glazing,
overhangs and side ns [150]. Good t linear regression models
were found for overhangs and side ns while window-to-wall ratio
and light transmittance of glazing could be tted by cubic equa-
tions. With more information on daylighting systems becoming
available, it is envisaged that more buildings will integrate day-
lighting designs and daylighting credits could be included in build-
ing energy policy enhancing a more energy-efcient and greener
building development.
6. Conclusions
This paper presents the research work on daylight and the ap-
proaches for estimating daylight and lighting energy savings with
daylighting schemes. The aspects and technologies including data
measurements, prediction model development and daylight-linked
lighting controls were reviewed comprehensively. The work could
be useful for building professionals and researchers to estimate the
availability of daylight, to compute accurately the interior daylight
illuminance and to determine the long-term energy use of internal
spaces with appropriate daylight-linked lighting controls. In en-
ergy conscious design daylighting is treated as one of energy-ef-
cient options. The ndings could help architects and engineers
adopt proper daylighting schemes and promote energy-efciency
in buildings and sustainable developments. Other important day-
light topics including visual comfort issues, optical reectance for
external surfaces and daylight reference years will be conducted
in near future.
Acknowledgement
The work described in this paper was fully supported by a Gen-
eral Research Fund from the Research Grants Council of the Hong
Kong Special Administrative Region, China [Project no. 9041470
(CityU 117209)].
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