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1.0) Introduction
The earthing system of an electrical substation For earth faults with return paths to offsite
comprises all interconnected earthing facilities of a generation sources, a low resistance earthing grid
specific area with the earthing grid as its main relative to remote earth prevents dangerous ground
element. In general, it consists of a mesh of potential rises (touch and step potentials)
buried and supplemented by ground rods vertically resistance path (relative to remote earth) for voltage
thrusted in specific places of the installation site [1]. transients such as lightning and surges / over
voltages
Equipotential bonding helps prevent However, where there are decoupled networks (e.g.
electrostatic build up and discharge, which can cause long transmission lines to remote areas of the plant),
sparks with enough energy to ignite flammable then touch and step potential calculations should be
atmospheres performed for the remote area only.
The earthing system provides a reference In [3] it was stated that a good earthing system has a
potential for electronic circuits and helps reduce low resistance to remote earth to minimize the
electrical noise for electronic, instrumentation and ground potential rise (GPR).
communication systems In order for an earthing design to be safe, it needs to
This calculation is based primarily on the guidelines provide a way to carry the electric currents into the
provided by IEEE Std 80 (2000), "Guide for safety ground under both normal and faulted conditions.
in AC substation earthing". Lightning protection is Also, it must provide assurance that a person in the
excluded from the scope of this calculation (refer to vicinity would not be endangered. Because there is
the specific lightning protection calculation for more no simple relation between the resistance of the
details). earthing system and the maximum shock current a
The earthing calculation aids in the proper design of person can experience, a complete analysis must be
the earthing system. Using the results of this done to consider many different aspects such as the
calculation, one can: location of the ground electrodes, soil
Determine the minimum size of the earthing characteristics. According to [4] it was assumed
conductors required for the main earth grid that any earthing object can be safely touched, but
Ensure that the earthing design is appropriate to that is not always the case. A low substation ground
prevent dangerous step and touch potentials (if resistance doesnt guarantee safety. There are no
this is necessary) simple relation between the ground system
This calculation should be performed when the resistance and the maximum shock current that a
earthing system is being designed. It could also be person might be exposed to. In [5] different
done after the preliminary design has been formulae to calculate the earth resistance of several
completed to confirm that the earthing system is configurations of rods; a short horizontal wire, a
adequate, or highlight the need for improvement / buried horizontal plate, a horizontal strip and a ring
redesign. Ideally, soil resistivity test results got from of wire were proposed.
the site will be available for use in touch and step Recently studies of the horizontal earth electrode
potential calculations (if necessary). using the transmission line model were carried out.
The sizing of earthing conductors should always be Their results showed that the voltage drop along the
performed, but touch and step potential calculations horizontal electrode was significant due to
(per IEEE Std 80 for earth faults with a return path inductance, but only a certain length, the effective
through remote earth) are not always necessary. length, contributed to current dissipation. The
For example, when all electricity is generated on-site effective length was shown to increase with
and the HV/MV/LV earthing systems are increasing soil resistivity [6].
interconnected, then there is no need to do a touch In [7], an analytical model of a horizontal earth
and step potential calculation. In such a case, all electrode based on an equivalent transmission line
earth faults would return to the source via the was used and it was demonstrated that no
earthing system (notwithstanding some small significant benefit could be achieved by extending
leakage through earth). the electrode length beyond the effective length.
A definition of the effective length as the length at 3.0 ) Recommendations for Resistance Values
which the voltage reaches 3% of its value at the from Different Standards:
A. NEC.
current injection point was also proposed in [8]. An
The National Electric Code (NEC), Section 250-84,
analytical expression was proposed to calculate the
requires that a single electrode consisting of rod,
effective length of a horizontal earth electrode based
pipe or plate that does not have a resistance to
on a formula from earlier work presented in [9].
ground of 25 ohms or less shall be augmented by
one additional electrode of the type listed in
2.0) Conventional Earthing & Earth Mat Design section 250-81 or 250-83. Multiple electrodes
A. Conventional Earthing should always be installed so that they are more
The conventional system of Earthing calls for than six feet (1.8m) apart. Spacing greater than six
digging of a large pit into which a GI pipe or a feet will increase the rod efficiency. Proper spacing
copper plate is positioned amidst layers of of the electrodes will ensure that the maximum
charcoal and salt. It is cumbersome to install only amount of fault current can be safely discharged
one or two pits in a day. Types of conventional into the earth.
Earthing are shown below: B. CPWD (CENTRAL PUBLIC WORKS
DEPARTMENT)
a. Pipe Earthing The earth resistance at each electrode shall be
b. GI Pipe Earthing measured. No earth electrode shall have a greater
c. Cast Iron Plate Earthing ohmic resistance than 5 ohms as measured by an
d. Copper Plate Earthing approved earth testing apparatus. In rocky soil the
resistance may be up to 8 ohms
The conventional system of GI pipe Earthing or Where the above stated earth resistance is not
copper plate Earthing requires maintenance and achieved, necessary improvement shall be made by
pouring of water at regular interval. additional provisions, such as additional
electrodes, different type of electrode or artificial
B. Earth Mat design
chemical treatment of soil etc., as may be directed
Substation earth system will have a combination of
by the Engineer-in-charge
buried horizontal conductors in rows and columns
C. IS 3043
and vertical electrodes. A sold metallic plate or a
The choice of using a common earth or separate
system of closely spaced bare conductors that
earths for the system of different voltages at a
are connected to and often placed in shallow
transforming point effect:
depths above a ground grid or elsewhere at the
The probability of breakdown occurring in a
earths surface, in order to obtain an extra protective
transformer between the higher and lower voltage
measure minimizing the danger of the exposure to
sides due to lighting or other surges and
high step or touch voltages in a critical operating
The safety of consumers or their property supplied
area or places that are frequently used by people.
by any low voltage system distributed from the
Grounded metal gratings placed on or above the soil
station against arises of potential of the earthed
surface, or wire mesh placed directly under the
neutral by a high voltage system earth fault at the
surface material, are common form of a ground mat.
Station. The former risk is reduced by use of a
common earth system and the latter danger only
arises if the resistance of the earth electrode system
is not sufficiently low to limit the rise of earth on a normal cable, where the limiting temperature is
potential to a safe value. There is advantage in that which would cause permanent damage to the
using a common earth where the earth electrode cable's insulation, the temperature limit for earthing
resistance, Including the parallel resistance of any grid conductors is the melting point of the conductor.
bonded metalwork, etc, to earth is 1 ohm or less as The minimum conductor size capable of
is usual at power stations large outdoor substations withstanding adiabatic temperature rise associated
or substations supplying a network of cables with earth fault is given by re-arranging IEEE Std 80
whose sheaths have a low impedance to earth . Equation 37 represented by (1)
10
4.0) Calculation Methodology
A = i t TCAP (1)
This calculation is based on IEEE Std 80 (2000), T T
ln 1 +
"Guide for safety in AC substation earthing". There K + T
are two main parts to this calculation:
Where is the minimum cross-sectional area of
Earthing grid conductor sizing
the earthing grid conductor (mm2)
Touch and step potential
is the energy of the maximum earth
calculations
fault (A2s)
IEEE Std 80 is quite descriptive, detailed and easy to
is the maximum allowable (fusing)
follow, so only an overview will be presented here
temperature (C)
and IEEE Std 80 is consulted for further details
is the ambient temperature (C)
is the thermal coefficient of resistivity
A. Prerequisites.
(C - 1)
The following information is required / desirable
is the resistivity of the earthing
before starting the calculation:
conductor (.cm)
A layout of the site
Maximum earth fault current into is a constant denoted by 20 C
fault levels), as discussed in IEEE Std 80 Section on range of soil resistivities based on the general
11.3.3. characteristics of the soil (i.e. wet organic soil = 10
5) Touch and Step Potential Calculations. .m, moist soil = 100 .m, dry soil = 1,000 .m
When electricity is generated remotely and there are and bedrock = 10,000 .m).
no return paths for earth faults other than the earth Step 2: Surface Layer Materials
itself, then there is a risk that earth faults can cause Applying a thin layer (0.08m - 0.15m) of high
dangerous voltage gradients in the earth around the resistivity material (such as gravel, blue metal,
site of the fault (called ground potential rises). This crushed rock, etc) over the surface of the ground is
means that someone standing near the fault can commonly used to help protect against dangerous
receive a dangerous electrical shock due to: touch and step voltages. This is because the surface
Touch voltages - there is a dangerous layer material increases the contact resistance
potential difference between the earth and a between the soil (i.e. earth) and the feet of a person
metallic object that a person is touching standing on it, thereby lowering the current flowing
Step voltages - there is a dangerous voltage through the person in the event of a fault.
gradient between the feet of a person IEEE Std 80 Table 7 gives typical values for surface
standing on earth layer material resistivity in dry and wet conditions
The earthing grid can be used to dissipate fault (e.g. 40mm crushed granite = 4,000 .m (dry) and
currents to remote earth and reduce the voltage 1,200 .m (wet)).
gradients in the earth. The touch and step potential The effective resistance of a person's feet (with
calculations are performed in order to assess whether respect to earth) when standing on a surface layer is
the earthing grid can dissipate the fault currents so not the same as the surface layer resistance because
that dangerous touch and step voltages cannot exist. the layer is not thick enough to have uniform
Step 1: Soil Resistivity resistivity in all directions. A surface layer derating
The resistivity properties of the soil where the factor needs to be applied in order to compute the
earthing grid will be laid is an important factor in effective foot resistance (with respect to earth) in the
determining the earthing grid's resistance with presence of a finite thickness of surface layer
respect to remote earth. Soils with lower resistivity material. This derating factor can be approximated
lead to lower overall grid resistances and potentially by an empirical formula as per IEEE Std 80
smaller earthing grid configurations can be designed Equation 27 represented in (2):
(i.e. that comply with safe step and touch potentials).
0.09 1
It is good practice to perform soil resistivity tests on C = 1 (2)
2h + 0.09
the site. There are a few standard methods for
Where is the surface layer derating factor
measuring soil resistivity (e.g. Wenner four-pin
is the soil resistivity (.m)
method). A good discussion on the interpretation of
is the resistivity of the surface layer
soil resistivity test measurements is found in IEEE
material (.m)
Std 80 Section 13.4.
h is the thickness of the surface layer
Sometimes it isn't possible to conduct soil resistivity
(m)
tests and an estimate must suffice. When estimating
This derating factor will be used later in Step 5 when
soil resistivity, it goes without saying that one should
calculating the maximum allowable touch and step
err on the side of caution and select a higher
voltages.
resistivity. IEEE Std 80 Table 8 gives some guidance
Where R is the earthing grid resistance with respect a is given by r. 2h for conductors buried at depth
b is the cross-sectional radius of an earthing current may have local return paths (e.g. local
electrode (m) generation) or there could be alternative return paths
K and K are constant coefficients depending on other than remote earth (e.g. overhead earth return
the geometry of the grid cables, buried pipes and cables, etc). Therefore a
The coefficient K can be approximated by the current division factor S must be applied to account
following relations given by (8)-(10): for the proportion of the fault current flowing back
. through remote earth.
For depth h = 0, K = + 1.41 (8)
Computing the current division factor is a task that is
.
For depth h = A, K = + specific to each project and the fault location and it
may incorporate some subjectivity (i.e. "engineering
1.20 (9)
judgement"). In any case, IEEE Std 80 Section 15.9
.
For depth h = A, K = + has a good discussion on calculating the current
The coefficient K can be approximated by the meaning that 100% of earth fault current flows back
transformer (i.e. either the terminals or the delta f is the system frequency (Hz)
windings). The maximum grid current I is lastly calculated by
C. Current Division Factor . (17):
Not all of the earth fault current will flow back I = I D (17)
through remote earth. A portion of the earth fault
Step 5: Touch and Step Potential Criteria C is the surface layer derating factor (as
One of the goals of a safe earthing grid is to protect calculated in Step 2)
people against lethal electric shocks in the event of is the soil resistivity (.m)
an earth fault. The magnitude of ac electric current t is the maximum fault clearing time (s)
(at 50Hz or 60Hz) that a human body can withstand The choice of body weight (50kg or 70kg) depends
is typically in the range of 60 to 100mA, when on the expected weight of the personnel at the site.
ventricular fibrillation and heart stoppage can occur. Typically, where women are expected to be on site,
The duration of an electric shock also contributes to the conservative option is to choose 50kg.
the risk of mortality, so the speed at which faults are
cleared is also vital. Given this, we need to prescribe Step 6: Ground Potential Rise (GPR)
maximum tolerable limits for touch and step Normally, the potential difference between the local
voltages that do not lead to lethal shocks. earth around the site and remote earth is considered
The maximum tolerable voltages for step and touch to be zero (i.e. they are at the same potential).
scenarios can be calculated empirically from IEEE However, an earth fault (where the fault current
Std Section 8.3 for body weights of 50kg and 70kg: flows back through remote earth), the flow of current
Touch voltage limit - the maximum potential through the earth causes local potential gradients in
difference between the surface potential and the and around the site. The maximum potential
potential of an earthed conducting structure during a difference between the site and remote earth is
fault (due to ground potential rise): known as the ground potential rise (GPR). It is
50kg person: E = important to note that this is a maximum potential
difference and that earth potentials around the site
(1000 + 1.5C )
will vary relative to the point of fault.
.
(18) The maximum GPR is calculated by (22):
. (V)
(19)
I is the maximum grid current found
Step voltage limit - is the maximum difference in earlier in Step 4 (A)
surface potential experienced by a person bridging a R is the earthing grid resistance found
distance of 1m with the feet without contact to any earlier in Step 3 ()
earthed object it is given by (20) (21) respectively. Step 7: Earthing Grid Design Verification
50kg person: E = Now we just need to verify that the earthing grid
. design is safe for touch and step potential. If the
(1000 + 6C ) (20)
maximum GPR calculated above does not exceed
70kg person: E = either of the touch and step voltage limits (from Step
D. Mesh Voltage Calculation. The geometric factor n is calculated from IEEE Std
The mesh voltage is the maximum touch voltage 80 Equation 85 as given in (25):
within a mesh of an earthing grid and is derived n = n n n n (25)
from IEEE Std 80 Equation 80 as given by (23): 2L
K KI n = (26)
L
E = (23)
L Where: n = 1for square grids otherwise, n =
Where : is the soil resistivity (.m)
I is the maximum grid current found
n = 1 for square and rectangular grids otherwise,
earlier in Step 4 (A) .
K perimeter (m)
A is the total area of the grid (m2)
1 D (D + 2h) h
= ln + L and L are the maximum length of the
2 16h d 8D d 4d
grids in the x and y directions (m)
K 8
+ ln (24) D is the maximum distance between any
K (2n 1)
two points on the grid (m)
Where D is the spacing between parallel grid
The irregularity factor K is calculated from IEEE
conductors (m)
Std 80 Equation 89 and presented in (27):
h is the depth of buried grid conductors
K = 0.644 + 0.148n (27)
(m)
Where n is the geometric factor derived in (25)
d is the cross-sectional diameter of a grid
The effective buried length L is found as follows:
conductor (m)
For grids with few or no earthing electrodes
K is a weighting factor for depth of burial
(and none on corners or along the
K = 1 + h
perimeter):
K is a weighting factor for earth electrodes
L = L + L (28)
/rods on the corner mesh
Where L is the total length of horizontal grid
K = 1for grids with earth
conductors (m)
electrodes along the grid perimeter
L is the total length of earthing electrodes
or corners
/ rods (m)
K = /
for grids with no earth
For grids with earthing electrodes on the
electrodes on the corners or on the
corners and along the perimeter:
perimeter
n is a geometric factor (see below)
Step 2: Surface Layer Materials and that the current division factor is 1 (all the fault
A thin 100mm layer of blue metal (3,000 .m) is current flows back to remote earth).
proposed to be installed on the site. The surface The X/R ratio at the fault is approximately 15, the
layer derating factor is: maximum fault duration 150ms and the system
nominal frequency is 50Hz. The DC time offset is
0.09 1
therefore given by (34):
C = 1 (33)
2h + 0.09 X 1
T = . (34)
By direct substitution of the above values of and R 2f
into (33) gives 0.7207. T = 0.04774s
Step 3: Earthing Grid Resistance The decrement factor is then given by (35):
D = 1 + 1e (35)
50m
Substituting the respective values of
T and t into (35)gives 1.1479.
Finally, the maximum grid current is got by
substituting the values of I and D into (17)
90m I = 3.559 KA
Figure 1. Proposed rectangular earthing grid Step 5: Touch and Step Potential Criteria
A rectangular earthing grid (see the figure right) Based on the average weight of the workers on the
with the following parameters is proposed: site, a body weight of 70kg is assumed for the
Length of 90m and a width of 50m maximum touch and step potential. A maximum
fault clearing time of 150ms is also assumed.
Grid conductors will be 120 mm2
and buried at a depth of 600mm The maximum allowable touch potential is:
.
1 1
1 +
1
(1000 + 6 0.7207 3000) =
= 300 + .
956 20 4500 20
1 + 0.6 5,664.03V
4500
= 2.2753 Step 6: Ground Potential Rise (GPR)
Step 4: Maximum Grid Current The maximum ground potential rise is:
Suppose that the maximum single phase to earth GPR = I R = 3559 2.2753 = 8,097V
fault at the HV winding of the transformer is 3.1kA
The GPR far exceeds the maximum allowable touch The irregularity factor K is: K = 0.644 +
and step potentials, and further analysis of mesh and 0.148n = K = 0.644 + 0.148
step voltages need to be performed. 6.4939 = 1.605
The effective buried length L is: L = L +
Step 7: Earthing Grid Design Verification
Mesh Voltage Calculation
The components of the geometric factor n , n , n
1.55 + 1.22 L = 890 +
and n for the rectangular grid are:
2L 2 890 1.55 + 1.22 66 =
n = = = 6.357
L 280
994.65m
L 280 Finally, the maximum mesh voltage is:
n = = = 1.022. . .
4A 44500 E = = =
.
Therefore the geometric factor is: n = n n
1661V
n n = 6.357 1.022 1 1 = 6.4939. The
average spacing between parallel grid conductors is: The maximum allowable touch potential is 1,720V,
which exceeds the mesh voltage calculated above
1 W L
D = + and the earthing system passes the touch potential
2 n 1 n 1
criteria (although it is quite marginal).
1 50 90
= + F. Step Voltage Calculation.
2 61 71
= 12.5 The geometric spacing factor K is:
where W and L are the width and length of the grid K = + + (1 0.5 ) =
respectively (e.g. 50m and 90m) n and n is the
+ + (1
number of parallel rows and columns respectively . . . .
Rg = 1.35 ohms
REFERENCES
[1] (2000) ANSI/IEEE Std.80, IEEE Guide for safety in AC
Substation Earthing, New York,
[2] J.G. Sverak et al., Safe substation earthing, Part I: IEEE T. on
Power Apparatus and Systems,100, 4281-4290, (1981);
Part II: IEEE T. on Power Apparatus and Systems, 101,
4006-4023, (1982)
[3] F. Navarrina, I. Colominas, M. Casteleiro, Analytical
Integration Techniques for Earthing Grid Computation by
BEM, Num. Met. in Eng. and Appl. Sci., 11971206,
CIMNE, Barcelona, (1992).
[4] I. Colominas, F. Navarrina, M. Casteleiro, A boundary
element numerical approach for earthing grid computation,
Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Engrg., 174, 73-90, (1999).
[5] R.J. Heppe, Computation of potential at surface above an
energized grid or other electrode, allowing for non-
uniform current distribution, IEEE T. Power Apparatus and
Systems, 98, 1978-1988, (1979).
[6] D.L. Garrett and J.G. Pruitt, Problems encountered with the
Average Potential Method of analyzing substation earthing
systems, IEEE T. on Power Apparatus and Systems, 104,
3586-3596, (1985).
[7] C. Mazett and G. M. Veca. Impulse Behaviour of Earthing
Electrodes, IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst., Vol 102,
no.6, PAS-9, 3148-3154, 1983.
[8] H.B. Dwight Calculation of resistance to ground.
Electrical Engineering, pp 1319- 1328, December 1936.
[9] S. Ghosh, S. Munshi, and J.R. Biswas. Computer aided
analysis of surge behaviour of an earthing counterpoise
discharging impulse current to ground, Journal of the
Institution of Engineers India, vol. 77, pp. 128-132,
November,1996.
[10] A.S. Farag, T.C. Cheng, and D. Penn.Earthing
terminations of lightning protective systems, IEEE Trans.
Dielectics Elect. Insul. V o l . 5 p p . 869877. 1998.