Chapter 4 Reproduction (Part I)

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Chapter 4 Reproduction
Spermatogenesis
1
1. Spermatogenesis:
- Spermatogenesis is the formation of sperm
- it occurs in the seminiferous tubules
2. Spermatogenesis in male:
(a) Germinal epithelial cells divide many times through mitosis to form
spermatogonia.
(b) Spermatogonia undergo growth to form primary spermatocytes.
(c) Primary spermatocytes divide by first meiotic division to produce

haploid secondary spermocytes.
(d) Secondary spermocytes undergo a second meiotic division to form

spermatids.
(e) The spermatids develop tails and mature into sperms (spermatozoa)
2
Female Reproductive system
Structure of ovum
3
1. Oogenesis:
- Oogenesis is the formation of ovum
- It starts in the ovaries of the feotus before birth
2. Oogenesis in female:
(a) Germinal epithelial cells divide many times through mitosis to form oogonia.
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(b) Oogonia undergo growth to form primary oocytes.
(c) Primary oocytes are surrounded by a layer of follicle cells and are called
primary follicles.
(d) Every month from puberty onwards, one oocyte undergoes first meiotic
division to become a secondary oocyte and a polar body. Both are haploid.
(e) The secondary oocyte undergoes the second meiotic division until metaphase
II. The secondary oocyte which is lined by layers of follicle cells is called a
secondary follicle.
(f) The secondary follicle increase in size to form Graafian follicle. At intervals of
approximately 28 days in women, the Graafian follicle merges with the wall of the
ovary, the ovary wall ruptures, the secondary oocyte is released into the oviduct.
This process is known as ovulation.
(g) When fertilization occurs, the secondary oocyte enters the Fallopian tube and
complete the second meiotic division to form an ovum (n) and a polar body (n).
(h) The haploid polar body formed during meiosis I also undergoes meiosis II to
form another two haploid polar body.
(i) All three polar body will eventually degenerate.
Essay: compare and contrast the similaties and differences of spermatogenesis and
oogenesis
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Menstruation and hormonal change
1. Menstrual cycle = The monthly cycle of changes that occur in the female body
which is associated with the ovulation and the discharge of blood.
2. Menstruation is the discharge of excess blood and tissues of the endometrium

when the uterine lining breaks down during the menstrual cycle. It normally lasts
for about 4 to 5 days.
3. Puberty is the period which marks the beginning of maturity in both males and
females. During this period, there are various physical, emotional and
physiological changes that are associated with the development of the reproductive
system.
4. In female, puberty is characterized by the onset of menstruation.
5. Menstrual cycle can be divided into three stages:
(a) Menstruation stage (menstruation occurs, 1st day to 5th day)
(b) Follicle development stage (from the end of the menstruation to ovulation, 6th
day to 14th day)
(c) Corpus luteum stage (from the ovulation to the beginning of next menstruation,
15th day to 28th day)
Hormones Gland secretion Function

FSH
LH
Oestrogen
6
Progesterone
Changes of hormone
Date Changes in Hormones

0 to 7
7
8 to 14
15 to 21
8
22 to 28
4. Effects of hormonal imbalance in the menstrual cycle on woman:
(a) Premenstrual syndrome (PMS)
- PMS is a combination of physical and emotional symptoms that are related to

the menstrual cycle.
- It occurs in the week before menstruation
- Symptoms:
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(i) Emotional and mental symptoms:
Irritability
Tension
Depression
low self-esteem
lack of concentration
(ii) Physical symptoms:

Headaches
Fatigue
Feeling bloated
Breast tenderness
Abdominal pain
Sleep disturbances
Appetite change
(b) Miscarriage
- Cause: Failure in the production of progesterone, causing the thickness of the

endometrium to be reduced
- Result: The embryo cannot be embedded securely in the endometrium and

miscarriage occurs.
(c) Menopause
- Cause: The ovary becomes inactive and stop producing ovum, causing less
FSH and LH to be produced. Thus, the ovary produces less progesterone and
oestrogen. Ovulation and the menstrual cycle become irregular and finally stop.
- Symptoms:
Hot flushes
Night sweats
Sleeping disorder
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Osteoporosis
Mood changes
Weight gain
Hair loss
- Treatment: Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT)
4.3 Early development of a foetus
4.3.1 Fertilisation
a. During sexual intercourse, about 500 million sperms will be ejaculated into the
vagina in the form of semen.
b. Through the vagina, the sperms move into the uterus and towards the Fallopian
tube.
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c. When the sperms reach the Fallopian tube, there are only a few hundred of
sperms left.
Of all the sperms that managed to move towards the secondary oocyte, only one
sperm will fertilise the secondary oocyte.
a. In the Fallopian tube, the first sperm that reaches the secondary oocyte will
penetrate into the egg membrane with its head.
b. Upon entry of the sperm, the secondary oocyte is stimulated to undergo

meiosis II. An ovum and a polar body are formed.
c. The nucleus of the sperm then fuses with the nucleus of ovum to form a
zygote. This process is called fertilization.
d. The middle piece and the tail of the sperm will be left behind outside the
ovum.
e. The newly fertilized ovum (zygote) will form a fertilization membrane around
itself so that other sperms will not be able to penetrate it.
4.3.2 Development of zygote
a. After fertilization, the zygote moves down the Fallopian tube and attaches to
the uterine wall.
b. The zygote takes about 3 to 4 days to reach the uterus.
c. As the zygote moves down the Fallopian tube, it divides repeatedly through
mitosis to form a blastocyst.
d. The zygote undergoes mitosis to form a zygote with two cells.
e. Both cells then divide to form a zygote with four cells
f. Subsequently, mitosis occurs to form a zygote with eight cells, sixteen cells, and
finally a zygote with a few hundred cells.
g. When the zygote reaches the uterus, it has become a solid ball with hundreds of
cells, called morula.
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h. Eventually, the mass of hundreds of cells changes into a fluid-filled sphere

called blastocyst. The blastocyst consists of an outer layer of cells and an inner cell
mass.
i. The outer layer of cells will later develop into a placenta and the inner cell mass
will develop to form an embryo.
j. About seven days after fertilization, the blastocyst is fully formed and attached
itself to the endometrium of uterus and is embedded in it. This process is called
implantation.
4.3.3 Implantation of Blastocyst
a. During implantation, the outer layer of blastocyst attaches to the endometrium

using its extended projections called trophoblastic villi.
b. The villi secrete enzymes to dissolve the cells in the uterine wall, forming a
cavity that allows the blastocyst to be embedded into the wall.
c. The villi with rich supply of blood capillaries extend into the endometrium to
implant the blastocyst.
d. In the endometrium, the inner cell mass in the blastocyst will develop to form
the embryo.
e. The villi from the embryonic tissues and the cells of the uterine wall will form
the placenta.
f. The embryo will develop to form a foetus within two months
g. The foetus will then develop throughout the whole term and is then born as a
baby.
4.3.4 The Formation of Twins
1. Formation of identical twins
- One sperm fertilized one ovum to form one zygote.

- The zygote divides into two cells to form two separate embryos.
- Two embryo develop into two foetuses.
- Each foetus has its own umbilical cord but shares the same placenta.
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- Both twins are at the same sex.

- They have same genetic content and look alike.
2. Formation of fraternal twins
- Two separate sperms fertilized two ova that released at the same time to form
two separate zygotes.
- The two zygotes develop to form two separate embryos.
- Two embryos develop into two foetuses.
- Each foetus has its own umbilical cord and individual placenta.
- Both twins are at the same sex or different.
- They have different genetic content and appearance.
3. Formation of siamese twins
- One sperm fertilized one ovum to form one zygote.

- The zygote divides into two cells but incompletely.
- The two embryos formed are stilled joined to each other at certain parts.
- The two foetuses share one placenta.
Comparison between identical twins and fraternal twins
SIMILARITIES
1. Both involve the fertilization of sperm with ovum.
2. Both involve mitosis in the development of zygote.
DIFFERENCES
One ovum is fertilized by one sperm.
Two ova are fertilized by two separate sperms.
The zygote divide after fertilization
The zygote does not divide after fertilization
Both foetus share one placenta
Each foetus has its own placenta
Both twins are of the same sex.
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Both twins may or may not be the same sex.

Both twins look alike
Both twins have some similar and some different characteristics as present among
siblings.
4.3.5 The Structure And The Role Of Placenta
1. Placenta = an organ by which the embryo is attached to the uterus wall.
2. It is made of:
(a) embryonic tissues (formed by the chorionic villi)
(b) maternal tissues (formed by the uterine lining)
3. During implantation, trophoblastic villi from the blastocyst are extended into
the uterine wall to form placenta. Each villus has a network of blood capillaries
that are separated from the mother.
4. The placenta joined to foetus by umbilical cord.
- The umbilical cord has two blood vessels to transport the substances between
the placenta and the foetus
(a) Umbilical vein: transport oxygen and nutrients that diffuse from the mothers
blood into the placenta to the foetal blood.
(b) Umbilical artery: transport carbon dioxide and nitrogenous waste from foetal
blood out of the placenta to the mothers blood.
5. The function of placenta:
(a) Forms a selective barrier between the mothers blood and the foetals blood.
(b) Allows exchange of substances between the mothers blood and the foetals
blood.
(c) Allows the embryo of foetus to attach to the uterine wall.
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(d) Transports antibodies from the mother to the foetus.
(e) Secretes hormone progesterone and oestrogen to maintain the thickness of

endometrium so that the embryo is firmly attached to the uterine wall in the uterus.
6. Adaptation of placenta for its function:
(a) Numeous villi in placenta:

- to increase the surface area for diffusion.
(b) Thin membrane which separate the foetals blood capillaries from the mothers
blood capillaries
- to facilitate diffusion
(c) Both the uterine wall and the placenta are supplied with a network of blood
capillaries
- to increase the chances of diffusion.
4.4 APPRECIATING THE CONTRIBUTION OF SCIENCE AND

TECHNOLOGY TO HUMAN REPRODUCTION
4.4.1 Birth control techniques
There are 5 ways to prevent pregnancy:
(1) Natural methods:
(i) The calendar technique / Rhythm method
- The couple should not have sexual intercourse on the days when the female is
fertile.
- This method assumes that ovulation takes place 14 days before menstruation,
so sexual intercourse should not take place 3 days before and 3 days after
ovulation.
(ii) The temperature technique
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- This method is based on the fact that a womans body temperature drops a bit
before ovulation and becomes higher after ovulation.
- The body temperature needs to be recorded everyday at the same time with an
ovulation thermometer.
- It is safe to have sexual intercourse after the body temperature has increased
continuously after 3 days.
(iii) The mucous technique
- This method is used to determine the fertile period by observing and

recording the quantity and thickness of mucus that is discharged from the cervix
during the menstrual cycle.
- After menstruation, the mucus is dry and thick.
- Nearing ovulation, the mucus becomes thinner, elastic and flow easily.
- A few days after ovulation, the mucus becomes thick again.
- The sexual intercourse should be avoided as soon as watery mucus is seen

until 4 days after the last day of watery mucus.
(iv) The withdrawal technique
- In this method, the penis is removed from the vagina during sexual
intercourse before the sperms are ejaculated.
(2) Physical methods
(i) The condom
- A rubber device that is used on penis to prevent sperms from entering the
uterus during ejaculation.
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(ii) The diaphragm
- A rubber device worn by a woman at the cervix to prevent sperms from

entering fallopian tube.
(iii) The intrauterine device (IUD)
- A device that is made from plastic or metal and is shaped in the form of a T,
twisted or rolled.
- The IUD is placed inside the uterus of the woman by doctor.
- The IUD can prevent the embryo from attaching itself to the wall of uterus.
(3) Chemical methods
(i) The contraceptive pile
- Contraceptive pills contain hormone oestrogen and progesterone to prevent

formation of follicle and ovulation.
- A contraceptive pill is taken every day for 21 days. The intake is stopped for
seven days. During this period, menstruation occurs.
- After menstruation, the intake of the pill is resumed.
(ii) Spermicide
- Spermicides are used to kill sperms that are ejaculated into the vagina.
- Spermicides can be in the form of jelly, cream or spray and are applied in the
vagina before sexual intercourse.
(4) Sterilisation methods
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(i) Tubal ligation
- In woman, both fallopian tubes are blocked or cut so that the sperm can no
longer reach the ova.
(ii) Vasectomy
- The sperm ducts are cut and tied so that the sperms do not enter the penis.
- Sperms are stilled being produced by testes but are unable to reach the
urethra. They are disintegrate and are eventually reabsorbed. Seminal fluid is still
produced but does not contain sperms.
4.4.2 Overcoming infertility
1. Causes of sterility problem
(a) In Women:
(i) No ovulation due to hormone imbalances.
(ii) No implantation due to damages or abnormality in the uterus.
(iii) Blocked fallopian tubes
(b) In men:
(i) Low sperm count
(ii) Blocked sperm duct
(iii) Impotence
(iv) Inactive or abnormal sperms
2. Techniques to overcome sterility
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(a) Sperm bank
- This technique is used for a woman whose husband suffers from infertility,
sterility or suffers from a genetic disease.
- Sperms from a donor are frozen and kept in a sperm bank (in liquid nitrogen
at -172 0C).
- The profile of the donor is recorded.
- The sperms from the sperm bank is injected into the fallopian tube of a
woman during ovulation.
(b) Artificial insemination
- This technique is used if the mans sperms are unable to function or if the
sperm count is low.
- Sperms are taken from the husband and transferred into the vagina of the wife
during her ovulation period.
(c) In Vitro fertilization (IVF)
- This technique is used if the fallopian tubes are blocked or damaged.
- Woman is treated with high dose of FSH to stimulate the development of a

large number of follicles.
- Laparoscope is used to remove a number of secondary oocytes from ovaries

through abdomen before ovulation.
- Sperms from the husband are placed in a test tube filled with a culture
solution that is similar to the fluid in the fallopian tube.
- The secondary oocytes are then placed in the laboratory dish that contains the
sperms. Fertilization occurs in the dish.
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- The fertilized eggs (zygotes) formed are allowed to develop in the laboratory
dish.
- After 12 hours, zygotes are transferred into a different culture medium which
supplies nutrients for further development.
- At the eight cells stage, one zygote is placed inside the uterus via cervix.
- The zygote the gets attached to the endometrium wall and continue to develop
normally in the uterus.
(d) Intrafallopian transfer
- This technique involves in the transfer of gamete or zygote into the Fallopian
tubes.
(i) Gamete Intrafallopian Transfer (GIFT)
- transfer of gametes (sperms and secondary oocytes) into the fallopian tubes.
(ii) Zygote Intrafallopian Transfer (ZIFT)
- sperms and secondary oocytes are placed in the laboratory dish where
fertilization occurs.
- The zygote is transferred into the fallopian tubes.
(e) Surrogate mother
- This technique is used when the wife cannot conceive.
- The sperms and ova are contributed by the parents or the sperms may obtain
from the sperm bank and the ova from the surrogate mother.
- Either sperms or an embryo is transferred to the uterus of the surrogate

mother.
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The surrogate mother pregnant and once the baby is born, the baby will be handed
over to the couple.
4.5 Formation of female gamete and male gamete in plants
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Formation of embryo sac in ovule
23
Formation of pollen grain in anther
24
Formation of the pollen tube, zygote and triploid nucleus
Pollination, Transferring mature pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of a
flower.
Fertilisation
in plants
1.When a pollen grain reaches a stigma of a plant, the secretion of a

sugar solution in a stigma stimulates the pollen grain to germinate
and form a tube known as pollen tube.
2.The pollen tube grow down the style towards the ovule.
Meanwhile, the generative nucleus divides by mitosis to form two
male gamete nuclei.
3.The male nuclei follow the tube down the pollen tube.
4.When the pollen tube reaches the ovary, it penetrates the ovule
through micropyle.
5.The tube nucleus disintegrates, the tip of the tube bursts, leaving a
passage for the male nuclei to enter the embryo sac.
6.One male gamete nucleus fuses with the egg nucleus to form a
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diploid zygote.
7.The other male gamete nucleus fuses with the two polar nuclei to
form a triploid nucleus.
8.The synergid cells and the antipodal cells degenerate.
9.The process is known as DOUBLE FERTILISATION.

Developmen 1. Zygote divides by mitosis to form embryo. The triploid
t of seed and endosperm develop into endosperm, the food storing tissue of
fruits the seed.
2. Embryo differentiate to to form a radicle, plumule, and
cotyledon.
3. Integuments form the seed coat to protect the embryo and
endosperm.
4. The ovules develops into seeds.
5. Ovary develops into a fruits.
6. Petal and stamens shrivel and fall away.
Growth in 1. Cell Division Stage meristematic cell divides by mitosis to

multicellular cause increase in length of the stem. Meristematic cells
organisms have large nuclei, no vacuoles and compact vacuoles and thin
cell walls.
2. Cell enlargement stage- Cells elongate and expand by

nutrients and water by osmosis. Vacuoles increase in size.
Small vacuoles enlarge to form central vacuole (vacuolation).
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3. Cell differentiation stage- Cells differentatiates into

permanent tissues.
Two type of meristem cells which are involved in the growth of plant:
(a) Apical meristem
- Consists of meristem tissue in the tips of shoot and root.

- Causes the increase in length
27
- Involves in the primary growth
(b) Lateral meristem

- Consists of vascular cambium and cork cambium.
- Causes the increase in diameter
- Involves in the secondary growth
2. Primary growth
- Occurs at the tips of shoot and root of all plants
- Importance:
(i) Increases the height of the shoot and the length of roots
(ii) The primary xylem and phloem involves in transportation in plant
(iii) The primary xylem also provides mechanical support to the plant
3. Secondary growth
- Occurs in woody plants

- Importance:
(i) Provide additional support to large woody plants
(ii) Produce more xylem and phloem tissues to sustain the transport of water,
mineral salt and products of photosynthesis in plants
(iii) Produce new xylem and phloem to replace old and damaged xylem and
phloem tissues
28
Primary Growth of plants
Primary Growth Secondary Growth
1.Primary growth occurs at the tip of the shoots and roots. It increases the length os shoots and
roots.
2.Primary growth involves the apical meristerms at the tip of the shoots and roots that divide
actively through mitosis
3.The process of primary growth results in the formation of primary permanent tissues such as
primary xylem, primary phloem and primary cortex.
Secondary growth:
Activity of vascular cambium:
(a) The vascular cambium in the vascular bundle divides actively through mitosis to form a
cambium ring.
(b) The inner cells of the cambium ring differentiate to form secondary xylem, while the outer
cells produce the secondary phloem.
(c) As a result, the primary xylem is pushed towards the pith while the primary phloem is push
towards the epidermis.
Activity of cork cambium
(a) The cells of the cork cambium divide actively to form an outer layer of cork cells and an
29
inner secondary cortex.
(b) The walls of the cork cells contain a waxy substance called suberin that makes the cork
waterproof to prevent water loss.
(c) The cork layer forms a protective bark on the surface of the woody stem.
5. Secondary growth in dicotyledon roots
Activity of vascular cambium:
(a) The vascular cambium in the vascular bundle divides actively through mitosis to form a
cambium ring.
(b) The cells of the cambium ring divide to produce secondary xylem, on the inside and
secondary phloem on the outside.
Activity of cork cambium
(a) Cork cambium produces secondary dermal tissues.
(b) Old root with secondary growth function as an anchor for the plant in the soil and a transport
for the water and mineral salts between the younger roots and the shoot system.
6. Annual growth rings:
- In spring, vascular cambium is more active and forms larger and thinner-walled xylem
vessels. This allows more water to be transported to the new leaves at the start of the growing
season.
- In autumn, the cambium is less active and forms narrower xylem vessels. However, the
xylem vessels becomes more lignified to provide additional support to the plant.
- The wood formed in spring is lighter in colour while the wood formed in autumn is darker
in colour.
- As a result, the cross sections of tree trunks shows a pattern of alternating light and dark
regions (annual growth rings).
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7. The necessity and importance of secondary growth to plants:
(a) To increase the diameter of the plant stems and roots for additional mechanical support.
(b) To produce wood (secondary xylem) to support and strengthen the growing plant.
(c) To produce more secondary xylem and phloem to accommodate the increase in demand for
water, mineral and organic nutrients.
(d) To produce new xylem and phloem tissues to replace the old and damaged ones.
(e) To produce thick and tough bark to reduce water evaporation from the surface of the stems
(f) To increase the opportunity to produce seed and propagate as plants that undergo secondary
growth live longer.
8. The economic importance of plants that undergo secondary growth:
(a) Have high commercial value as they produce valuable timber.
(b) Have woody parts that are strong and hard that makes them suitable as beams for buildings.
(c) The presence of the medullary rays is an attractive feature in furniture and decorative items.
(d) Fruit trees that shows secondary growth bear fruit for several years.
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9. Differences between plants that undergo secondary growth and those that do not.
Plants that undergo secondary growth Plants that do not undergo secondary growth
32
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2. The growth curve of animals with exoskeletons / insects
The growth curve of animals which have exoskeletons is in the form of steps.
The inflexible external skeleton does not facilitate a smooth growth rate. Hence, an insect
undergoes moulting periodically during growth.
Moulting or ecdysis is the process of removing an old exoskeleton and replacing it with a
new larger one.
During ecdysis, atmospherics air is sucked into the body of an insect to expand it and
replace it with a layer of exoskeleton that is new, soft and still elastic.
While the body of the insect is expanding, the existing exoskeleton will break
Before the new exoskeleton hardens, growth takes place actively to increase the size of the
animal
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35

Chapter 4 Reproduction (Part I)

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M&S Learning Centre 0122026649

- Spermatogenesis is the formation of sperm

- it occurs in the seminiferous tubules

(b) Spermatogonia undergo growth to form primary spermatocytes.

(c) Primary spermatocytes divide by first meiotic division to produce

(d) Secondary spermocytes undergo a second meiotic division to form

Female Reproductive system

- Oogenesis is the formation of ovum

- It starts in the ovaries of the feotus before birth

(b) Oogonia undergo growth to form primary oocytes.

(i) All three polar body will eventually degenerate.

Menstruation and hormonal change

2. Menstruation is the discharge of excess blood and tissues of the endometrium

4. In female, puberty is characterized by the onset of menstruation.

5. Menstrual cycle can be divided into three stages:

(a) Menstruation stage (menstruation occurs, 1st day to 5th day)

Hormones Gland secretion Function

Date Changes in Hormones

4. Effects of hormonal imbalance in the menstrual cycle on woman:

(a) Premenstrual syndrome (PMS)

- PMS is a combination of physical and emotional symptoms that are related to

- It occurs in the week before menstruation

(i) Emotional and mental symptoms:

(ii) Physical symptoms:

- Cause: Failure in the production of progesterone, causing the thickness of the

- Result: The embryo cannot be embedded securely in the endometrium and

4.3 Early development of a foetus

b. Upon entry of the sperm, the secondary oocyte is stimulated to undergo

4.3.2 Development of zygote

b. The zygote takes about 3 to 4 days to reach the uterus.

d. The zygote undergoes mitosis to form a zygote with two cells.

e. Both cells then divide to form a zygote with four cells

h. Eventually, the mass of hundreds of cells changes into a fluid-filled sphere

4.3.3 Implantation of Blastocyst

a. During implantation, the outer layer of blastocyst attaches to the endometrium

f. The embryo will develop to form a foetus within two months

4.3.4 The Formation of Twins

1. Formation of identical twins

- One sperm fertilized one ovum to form one zygote.

- Both twins are at the same sex.

2. Formation of fraternal twins

3. Formation of siamese twins

- One sperm fertilized one ovum to form one zygote.

Comparison between identical twins and fraternal twins

Both twins may or may not be the same sex.

4.3.5 The Structure And The Role Of Placenta

1. Placenta = an organ by which the embryo is attached to the uterus wall.

4. The placenta joined to foetus by umbilical cord.

5. The function of placenta:

(c) Allows the embryo of foetus to attach to the uterine wall.

(d) Transports antibodies from the mother to the foetus.

(e) Secretes hormone progesterone and oestrogen to maintain the thickness of

6. Adaptation of placenta for its function:

(a) Numeous villi in placenta:

4.4 APPRECIATING THE CONTRIBUTION OF SCIENCE AND

4.4.1 Birth control techniques

There are 5 ways to prevent pregnancy:

(1) Natural methods:

(i) The calendar technique / Rhythm method

(ii) The temperature technique

(iii) The mucous technique

- This method is used to determine the fertile period by observing and

- After menstruation, the mucus is dry and thick.

- A few days after ovulation, the mucus becomes thick again.