Chapter 5 Cell Division

2 types of cell division 1. Mitotic cell division

2. Meiosis

Mitotic cell division 1. Interphase

2. Mitosis
3. Cytokinesis

Types of cells that undergo mitosis 1. In plant,meristematic tissues of plant

such as root tips, bud tips, vascular
cambium, cork cambium
2. Somatic cells in human body

Definition of mitosis The process of nuclear division which results

in the formation of two genetically identical
daughter nuclei.

Significance of mitosis 1. Replaces dead cells.

2. Allow damaged cells to be repaired.
3. Increase the number of cells allowing
growth and development in
multicellular organism.
4. Maintain the cells that have the
identical genetic materials as the parent
cell.

Somatic cell 1. Diploid cell

2. Contain the chromosome number as 2n

Gametes or reproductive cell 1. Contain half of the chromosome

number

Human somatic cell -Contains 46 chromosomes (2n=46)

-23 chromosome inherited from maternal
origin
-23 chromosome inherited from paternal origin
-23 ( paternal ) + 23 ( maternal ) = 46
chromosome

Human reproductive cell Contains 23 chromosomes (n=23)

Homologous chromosomes -sets of chromosomes have the similar features

Chromosome Consists of a DNA double helix and proteins

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DNA -deoxyribose nucleic acids
-contains hundred or thousand of gene

Cell cycle in mitotic cell division -Interphase ( G1, S, G2 phase)

-M phase
-cytokinesis

G1 phase 1. Synthesis proteins and new organelles

which required for cell division
2. Chromosomes are not condensed.
3. Nucleus becomes larger.
4. Rate of metabolic is high.

S Phase 1. Synthesis of DNA

2. A duplicated chromosomes consists of
two identical sister chromatids which
contains the identical copies of
chromosomes DNAs molecule.

G2 Phase 1. Cell continues to grow and

metabolically active.
2. Enzymes and proteins are synthesized.
3. Accumulate energy and ready to go into
M phase.

M Phase 1. Prophase
2. Metaphase
3. Anaphase
4. Telophase

The process of mitosis and cytokinesis

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Prophase

1. Chromosomes condense and each chromosome consists of two sister chromatids joined at
the centromere.
2. Spindle fibres begin to formed and centriole migrates to opposite poles.
3. Nucleolus and nuclear membrane disappear.
Metaphase

1. Centromeres of all chromosomes lined up on the equator of the cell which is known as
metaphase plate.
Anaphase

1. The two sister chromatids start to separate at the centromere.

2. Spindle fibre shortened, sister chromatids are pulled to each pole as daughter
chromosomes.
Telophase

1. Chromosomes start to uncoil and revert to chromatin again.

2. Spindle fibre disappear and a new set of nuclear membranes and nucleolus re- forms.
Cytokinesis

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 1. Also known as process of cytoplasmic division.
2. Plasma membrane is pulled inward forming cleavage furrow.
3. The cleavage furrow deepens until the cell separates into two cells.
Difference between animal cells and plant cells

1. Plant cells form spindle fibres without centrioles.

2. Cytokinesis of plant cells are different:
-membrane-enclosed vesicles collect at the equator between two nuclei.
-vesicles joined to form a cell plate.
-cell plates begins to grow until fuses with the plasma membrane.
-new cell wall and plasma membrane are formed and divide the cells into two daughter
cells.
-cellulose produced to strengthen the cell.
Effect of uncontrolled mitosis

1. Cancel cells divide freely and uncontrollably and finally lead to a tumour.
2. The cancer cells compete with the surrounding normal cells.
3. The cancer cells intrude on and spread to other tissues.

Factors of cancer

1. Damage to the DNA

2. Mutation
3. Radiations
4. Chemical compounds like tar and tobacco
5. Carcinogenic compounds
Application of knowledge of mitosis

1. Cloning

2. Tissue culture

Cloning

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 1. Somatic cells are removed and grown in a culture.
2. The nucleus of an unfertilized egg is sucked out.
3. An electric impulse stimulate the fusion between the somatic cells and the egg.
4. The embryo formed is implanted into a surrogate mother (ovum donor)
5. The cells divided mitotically forming an embryo.
6. Dolly~dolly is borned.

Advantages of cloning:
1.multiply the copies of useful genes in a shorter period.
2.cloned plants bear fruits faster.
2.transgenic crops are more resistant to herbicides, pests, and disease.
4.Genetically modified food does not rot easily.
5.doesnt need pollinating agent.
6.transgenic bacteria can be used to control environmental pollution.

Disadvantages of cloning:
1.long term side effects.
2.maybe cause mutation which produced mutants that harm the environments.
3.does not show genetic variations. Drastic change to environmental may wipe out all species at
the same time.
4.may transfer the gene to weeds through virus.
5.cloned animals have shorter lifespan

Tissue culture technique

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 1. Explants are cut out from plant tissues.
2. Enzymes are used to digest the cell walls forming protoplast.
3. Protoplast are sterilized and placed in a glass container contain nutrient call culture
medium.(contains glucose, amino acid,minerals)
4. Protoplast start to divide mitotically produce aggregates of cells.
5. Aggregates of cells develop into callus and callus develop into embryo.
6. The embryo develop into plantlet and then transfer to soil for growth.

Advantages:
1.produces young plants with desirable traits.
2.produce genetically identical plants.
3.produce large number of plants for commercial purpose.

Meiosis

Where does meiosis occur?

1.testes and ovaries in animal
2.anthers and ovaries in plant

To produce haploid gamete so that a diploid zygote is form after fertilization.

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Meiosis I

1. Prophase I

- Chromosomes condensed.
- Homologous chromosomes form bivalent through synapsis.
- Non-sister chromatids exchange segment of DNA at chiasmata.This process is known as
cross over.
- Nucleolus and nuclear membrane disappear.
- Centrioles moves to opposite of the cell.

Metaphase I

- Pairs of Homologous Chromosomes align themselves side by side as tetrads at the

metaphase plate.
Anaphase I

- Spindle fibres pull the homologous chromosomes apart and they moves to opposite poles.
- At the end, each pole has only two chromosomes(each with two sister chromatids).
- The centromere ________ breaks.

Telophase I

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Meiosis II

Prophase II

1. Chromosomes remained in condense state.

2. Spindle fibres begin to formed and centriole migrates to opposite poles.
3. Nucleolus and nuclear membrane disappear.

Metaphase II

1. Centromeres of each chromosomes lined up on the equator of the cell which is known as
metaphase plate.

Anaphase II

1. The two sister chromatids start to separate at the centromere.

2. Spindle fibre shortened, sister chromatids are pulled to each pole as daughter
chromosomes.

Telophase II

1. Nucleolus and nuclear membrane re-formed.

2. The spindle fibre breaks down.

Cytokinesis

As a result, 4 haploid daughter cells are formed.

Chapter 6 Type of Nutrition
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Autotrophic nutrition Heterotrophic nutrition
1.Photosynthesis Heterotrophs may practice holozoic
Green plant that carries out photosynthesis nutrition, saprophytism or parasitism.
called as photoautotrophs.
2.Bacteria synthesis organic compounds into
their nutrients are called as chemoautotroph.

Factors affecting daily energy Malnutrition

requirement
1.Protein deficiency-
1.age kwashiorkor,marasmus
2.sex 2.Calcium,Phosphorus and Vitamin D-
3.pregnancy and lactation osteoporosis and osteomalacia
4.occupation 3.Excessive intake of carbohydrates-
5.size or body weight obese,cardiovascular disease,high
6.Climate blood
pressure,atherosclerosis,stroke,diabetes
mellitus, cancers
4.Excessive intake of lipid-
Atheroscelerosis,Arterioscelerosis,heart
attack, hypertension,stroke
5.Excessive intake of minerals-salts
cause kidney stone,kidney failure
6.Excessive intake of proteins-increase
the uric acid content in the blood,uric
acid form crystal in the soft tissues
leads to gout.
Food Digestion

1.Digestion break down

a.Carbohydrates into glucose

b.Proteins into amino acids

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c.lipids into glycerol and fatty acids

Caobohydrates, proteins and lipids are broken down into their monomers through
hydrolysis by digestive enzyme so that they can be absorbed easily into our
blood stream.

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