POSTER PAPERS

Chapter

A THEORETICAL
ANALYSISOF W.TROREFAILUREAND STABILITY IN SHALES

A. Hayatdavoudi E. Apande

The University of Southwestern

Louisiana Mobil Oil, Africa
Lafayette, Louisiana

The concept of controlling water loss to

Introduction
stop sloughing was introduced in the 1920' s. It
was known then that calciun in fresh water re-
Troublescmeshales have plagued the - strains clay from excessive swelling (theory of
leumindustryfor morethan50 years. Unst_ble osnosis) . This reinforced the belief that cal-
boreholes have been experienced when drilled into ciun-based mudssuch as lime, gypsumand calciun
shale formations; scme have been studied almost chloride shouldm'Ln/mizehydration of clays. L/me
at the beginning of rotary drilling. A little mudswere then introduced for this purpose and
progress has been made since then, but much is others in the 1930-1940decade
1. Theywereused
still to be learned. No simple solution exists for shale inhibition but wre not effective. In
so far, but good drilling practices combined with an attempt to improve thn, a special calcium-type
goodmudpractices have been helpful. mud became popular during the 1950's. Hole en-
largnent continued and they too were considered
It is well knownthat shales in general have ineffective. During the early 1960's, papers were
a strong affinity for water, and when water is published cla'nning that shale swelling could be
adsorbed, the stability of the shale section of a prevented by using high concentrations of chemical
well is reduced; cohesive strength will be re- thinner called Chrcme
Lignosulfonate
1. This began
duced, properties will be altered and shale will the era of highly treated lignosulfonate muds.
generally expand and/or crumble. The amount of Unfortunately, the hole enlargement problem con-
water a shale will adsorb depends on the charac- tinued. During the mid-1960's, oil based muds
teristics of its clay mineral and the ionic con- were used for the purpose of inhibition of shales.
centratic of surrounding fluid. Not until 1966 did Mondshine
2 suggestthat the
water phase be saturated with calcium chloride.
Fluid loss and the resulting hydration of an The cost of using oil basedmudwas consideredby
unstable formation can lead to serious downhole most operators not worth the additional hole sta-
problems. The rate of fluid loss dependsgreatly bility. The potassium chloride-polymer mudswere
on the pennbility of the deposited cake. In im- also used in many fields in the United States and
permeable formations, hcever, there is no western Canada. The use of these muds has been
loss of fluid into the formation. As such, shale, claimed to prevent clay swelling by inhibition and
becauseof its very low porosity and almost no encapsulation in scme areas of western Canada.
pennbility, could be termed impermeable. Yet They are also expensive and their general applica-
there is strong evidence that shale surfaces are tion is still experimental.
wetted by an invasion of fluid into the formation
through microfractures and jointed planes. It is To reduce filtrate loss when sloughing shale
this wetting that causes the shales to swell and becomesa problem during drilling is a reasonable
slough into the hole, resulting in problemssuch practice. This study will investigate the use of
as increased mudvolumeand treating costs, cationic organic additives to mudto form a pro-
bridges and fill-up, stuck pipe, overgaugehole, tective barrier betweenthe shale - which are pri-
poor cnent jobs and increased cementrequ_ire- marily composedof clays - and water that will
ments, and logging and completion difficulties. keep water frcm entering the microfractures and
will also prevent them frcm hydrating. In so
Drilling operations have been defeated by doing, an understandingof modernclay chemistry
severe shale problems, resulting in the hole being and the dispersive properties of cationic addi-
plugged and abandord after several weeks of tives in water based systemswill be our most
drilling. Shales are well knownas being diffi- valuable tools. This study will also present and
cult and costly to drill. Numerousfishing jobs solve a mathematical model for simulating cation
haveplagueddrilling operationsandthe cost of transport phencmenain fractured shales using the
reamingtight holes andweightingup the drilling Freundlich equilibrium adsorption isotherm. The
mudto control shale sloughinghas been high. studies will analyze wellbore failure and stabil-
ity as affected by cationic organic material.
571
572 ROCK MECHANICS: KEY TO ENERGY PRODUCTION

Clays cations are attracted around the particle by a net

negative charge in the clay particle in order to
In view of the unavoidmhle importance of clay constitute an electrically neutral system
6. This
during drilling operaticks, it is necessary to system is called the clay "micelie". The ions and
understand the basic clay chemistry in order to water within the micelles constitute the "double
control filtration of water from water-based muds. layer".
Clay will always be encountered as it may be added
intentionally or may enter the drilling fluid as a Osmotic swelling occurs because the ion con-
contamination through dispersion of drilled centration in the double layer water of the clay
solids. micelles is higher than in the free pore water.
3 Therefore, water is drawn towards the clay sur-
Grim pointed out that research using X-ray, face, diffusing the ions and giving rise to the
optical and dehydration methods have shown that double layer repulsive potential, which causes the
clay is composed of aggregates of extremely small mineral lattice to expand.
groups of minerals known as clay minerals: mont-
morillonite, (Na, K, M, Ca)0.33 (A1, M) 2 When the aqueous solution is separated frcm
Si4010 (OH)2 nH20; kaolinite, A12Si205 (OH)5; pure water by a semi-permeable membrane (the elec-
ilLite, (H30, K)A18 (Si, A1) 16040 (OH)8; and chlo- trical field around the negatively charged clay
rite, M3 (Si4010) (OH)12 ' M3 (OH)6- These clay particle acts as a Semi-permeable mmbrane), the
mineral units are predominantly flake- or platy- water tends to pass through it into the solution,
shaped particles, usum]ly less than 0.005 nm in thereby diluting it; this is called osmosis. The
the maximumlength direction. The thickness of'an pressure that must be applied to prevent this flow
individual clay platelet is on the order of 10 of water (swelling) is the osmotic pressure given
angstrcms (). The size indicates why clay can by the Van' t Hoff equation:
be held in suspension in water as a viscosifier
agent. = RT (C - Cb) ........ (1)

Clay-Water System where: PU = osmotic pressure, C = concentration of

cations, Cb = solute concentration outside the
Kelley,JennyandBrcn
4 haveshown
that the semi-permeable membrane, R = gas constant, and T =
water associated with clay minerals can be cate- temperature.
gorized as:

(1) Crystal Water: This is the natural water

in clay mineral used as an important
constituent of the clay building unit.
it is strcgly held within the unit that
Figure (1) The Clay Micelle in Pure Water
only high temperatures are required for
its release. (b) Surface Hydration

(2) Broken Bond Water: This water is ad- Surface hydration, scmetimes called "crystal-
sozbed on the edges of clay minerals line swelling", is an interfacial phenomenon
when excess charges develop as a result ccnon to many materials but especially to clays
of broken particles of clay. As the due to their high specific surface area. Water is
particle size is broken down into small absorbed between the lattice layers of the clay
pieces, so the ability of a clay to ad- crystal and lso on the surface of the particle.
sorb broken-bond water is increased. The hydration energy of the interlayer cations and
This phenomenonis the source of unde- the charge density on the clay crystal surface
sirable high viscosity in drilling determines the degree of water absorption.
fluids.
Monovalent cations, particularly in the case
(3) Planar Water: This water is adsorbed on of sodium montmorillonite, permit more fluid to be
the top and basal surfaces of the struc- adsorbed on the outer surfaces of the clay minerals
tural building unit of clays. Water is far in excess of the amount adsorbed in the inter
adsorbed by montmorillonites, forcing crystalline selling. Norrish7 has shown
that up
the individual crystal plates apart, to four molecular layers (50 gmH20/100 gm clay)
resulting in heaving and caving during could be adsorbed in intercrystalline sWelling
drilling. with little visible swelling, as this would in-
crease the C-axis (the vertical axis of a crystal
Mechani of Swelling unit layer) spacingto about20 . Withdivalent
cations, osmosis takes place only between the par-
The to swell_ing mechanismswell known by ticles.
clay mineralogists
5 are OsmoticandHydration
Swelling. Marshall
8 predicted
that swelling
stress
developed in shales can be calculated through a
(a) Osmotic Swelling knowledge of the activity of the water in the
shale and basic thermodynamic relationships:
As shown in Figure (1), a clay particle is
immersed in water. Sufficient exchangeable
 POSTER PAPERS 573

P burden for molecular and capillary attractive

Ph =-- in-- . ........ (2) forces to act. The invading drilling mud or fil-
trate breaks the bonds of hydration of the fracture
surfaces, weakening the shale mechanically and
where: P chemically, sloughing into the hole in relatively
hard fragments. This situation becomes worse when
Pofo high horizontal stresses mobilize the old fracture
planes. As a result the hole is enlarged. The
Ph, hydrational stress, Po, aqueous vapor pressure absence of monnorillonite in brittle shales sup-
of water in mud, P, aqueous vapor pressure of presses osmotic swelling and softening of the sur-
shale & water' of ydration. The absolute aure faces. This phenomena is ccmon in hard, non-dis-
R, gas constant, V, partial_molar volume of pure persible shales.
water, aw, water activity, f, fugacity of water in
the system,o, fugacity of pure water. (b) Swelling Shales

Nature of Hydration Most shales that contain an appreciable frac-

tion of montmorillonite will adsorb water by sur-
Located on the surfaces of each platelet of face hydration and cause unstable hole conditions.
the two clay platelets are the exchangeable When invaded by drilling mud filtrates, these
cations that bond the platelets together. If the shales will swell, creating a soft swollen zone
crystal cnes into contact with water, the water that cuases constriction of the hole12. The soft
penetrates between adjacent silica layers and zone, in general, displaces inwardly by high over-
spreads the platelets apart. The formation of a burden stresses, requiring that higher than usual
film of water on the outer surface and between the mud eights counteract the inward displacement.
layers of clays is a result of the negative charge
distribution on the clay surface and hydration of When shales contain relatively high native
the exchangecations . his film of water that is water content even before exposure to drilling
oriented and actually bored to the clay particle fluid, they are abnormally eak and unable to with-
has its greatest thickness between plates and is stand the differential stress imposed when they are
scmewhat thinner on the outer plane surfaces. It drilled. The mode of failure when the stress dif-
is least develope_ on the edges of the particles. ferential created by the relief of lateral stress
It has been sPown10 that this oriented water con- exceeds the yield strength of the formation is
trolled by the adsorbed exchangeable cation is plastic deformation of the wellbore.
denser and more viscous than ordinary liquid
water. These associated cations, depending on If the shales are under abnormally high
their charge and concentration, may be held very stresses, spalling will occur. The classical
close to the clay surface, causing an increase in theory13has shownthat whena hole is air-drilled
the attractive forces between particles and allows into rock under triaxial stress, the horizontal
only thin films of water to develop. However, if stress is relieved and the load is transferred
these cations dissociate frcm the particle (Ca- around the hole as a hoop stress which is maximum
dissociates less than Na+) , the attractive forces around the borehole walls. If the hoop stress is
are decreased and allow large volumes of water to greater than the elastic limit of the rock, the
penetrate into the inner layers of the clay. hole constricts, forming tangential fractures.
Th modeof failure is brittle. However, due to
The hydration of the clay particles is also the increase of radial stress with distance frcm
determined by the cation concentration of the the borehole face, the mode of deformation changes
surrounding fluid. When the cation concentration to ductile. Spalling is to be expected in areas
becomes too high, the associated cations are where the Porizontal stresses are high.
forced closer to the clay surfaces, increasing the
attractive forces between particles allowing less Asorption of Organic Ccpos
swelling.
Many years of investigation and understanding
Mode of Shale Failure of clay chemistry has produced scme kind of evi-
dence that certain reactions take place between the
Shales that cause wellbore failure fall into fundamental .cqmponents
of clay and organic mate-
general groups, namely brittle and swelling rial. Smith
14 reactedorganicbasesandtheir
shales 11 . salts with montmorillonite and presented evidence
that the reaction was one of ion exchange.
(a) Brittle Shales
The importance of the adsorption of these
he term "brittle shale" applies to a shale organic cations between the unit layers is that
that rmains massive and competent in air but dis- they protect the clay mineral frcm environental
integrates into hard, angular fragments when changes. Manyinvestigators15,16,17have shown
placedin water12. Thefragments,however,when that clay minerals enter the ion exchange reaction
rnoved frc water and broken open, are not swol- with organic cations and that the water-sorption
len, et or softened by the water. This behavior properties are reduced after reaction with such
is caused by water penetrating into a netDrk of ions. Gieseking18 confirmedthat montmorillonite
old microfractures or cleavage planes which have clays lost their tendency to swell by water sorp-
been partially rebonded by the eight of the over- tion when saturated with a variety of organic
$74 ROCK MECHANICS: KEY TO ENERGY PRODUCTION

cations. Jordan19has shownthat by replacing the balance as

21
:
exchareable inorganic cations of montmorillonite
with large organic amine ions, the clay's hydro- d2C dC dC
philic properties decreased while the organophilic
D --- V-- = -- . ........ (3)
properties increased, and as such exhibited pre- 6X2 6X 8t
ferential adsorption of soluble compoundsfron
dilute aqueous solution.

The above study of the affinity of organic

cations fron aluminosilicate clays ar the
C concentration of the organic cations
barriers which they form to prevent hydration
could be extended to help to eliminate sloughing dispersion coefficient
shales.
rate of cation exchange in the microfrac-
ture
Emulsions do offer scme advantages in the
adhesion of asphalt to aggregates. For example,
if the charge on the aggregate is negative, a
cationic ulsifier (e.g. fatty amines) which
carries a positive charge will permit bonding to
X Cartesian distance away from the face of
the wellbore
take place20; this is illustrated in Figure (2).

Figure (4) Fractured Wellbore (top view)

The rate of cation exchange, V, will depend

on the colloidal system and the clay mineral, say
Figure (2) Action of Cationic Organic Emulsion Na-clay. The law of mass action of the process may
(After MertensandWright20) be expressed conveniently by the following equa-
tion 22:
If all particles in the emulsion carry a similar
electrical charge, they repel each other and this mNa
- clay+ organic
cation
m+++ organic cation
aids in cation diffusion deeper into a network of +

fresh and/or old microfractures, their places on - clay m + mNa ......... (4)
the face of the wellbore automatically taken by
other cations dispersed in the drilling fluid The equation may be interpreted to represent
a definite chemical reaction which occurred upon
until all the charges are again neutralized. Tne
rate of cation exchange varies with the clay mixing the two products.
mineral, the nature, and concentration of the
cations. Figure (3) illusttes schematically the Kerr' s equation:
position of the organic cation during the process
of absorption through the microfractures. (Na- Clay)
m(Organic
Cation)
K = . . . (5)
(Cation - Clay) (Na)m
K = equilibrium constant

Tb dispersion coefficient, D, can be ex-

pressed as:

D = k V ......... (6)

where dispersion parameter

V = rate of ion exchare

Now let us refer to equation (3). The minus sign

Figure (3) Organic Cations as a Barrier Between in this equation denotes that diffusion takes
Shale and Water (not on scale) place in the direction of decreasing concentration.
Several assumptions are inherent in the equation,
which are: (a) chemical reaction between the orga-
Theoretical Develonent
nic cations and the cations of the in-place fluid
in shale is constant; (b) The rate of exchange ad-
A model for one-dimensional exchange-adsorp-
tion of organic colloidal cations in a fractured sorption is constant under isothermal conditions;
(c) The microfractures are hcrnogeneouswith a con-
hcmogeneousmedia can be obtained by a mass
 POSTER PAPERS 575

stant cross-sectional area; (d) Fluid and rock

N+i N N N
ccmprsilities are negligible; (e) Organic ca- Ci = R1Ci+
1 + S1C
i + Ci_1 ..... (13)
tion absorption into fractures occurs only in a
longitudinal direction, away frc the wellbore. where:

If the organic cations are adsorbed on the At D At V/2

media, i.e. on the surface of the microfracture,

equation (3) becc[nes21,23:

62C 6C 1 6F C At 2D
D-- - V .... +-- . ..... (7)
Si= 1 ....
X2 X %6t t AX
2 l+Q(i)
n-1
which is the Freundlich (or classical) Adsorption At D At V/2
Isotherm.

At moderately low concentrations, the varia-

T1=AX
2 i+Q(C)n-1
+--
AX i+Q
(i)n-1
tion of the adsorption with the conoentration can Equation
(13)hasonlyoneunknown,
i.e. i+1,at
be represented
by an empiricalequation24,25: the new time step (N+i), and every value on the
right hand side is known at the old time level (N) .
F = k n ........ (8) All values at the new time are solved by moving
through all the i-locations in the model in some
where: F is volume of cations adsorbed; k and n systematic manner. The above equation can there-
are empirically derived constants; and % is poro- fore be solved explicitly given the necessary
sity (fraction) or the equivalent of fracture void boundary and initial conditions.
space per total volune.
For a finite system the conditions used for
Differentiating equation (8): the model are:

8F 8(k) n-1 C C (x, o) = 0 x > 0

- --KnC -- ...... (9)
6t 6t t C (o, t) = 1.0

Combining equations (7) and (9): C (=, t)= 0 t > 0

62C 6C kn n-1 6C Note that the stability of this formulation de-

pends on the choice of the grid points, velocity
D6X
2- V--
6X = (1+--
C ) --
6t . . . . (10) and time step

A finite-difference form of equation (10) is: Mohr ' s Strength Theory

N N N N N Mohr's strength theory will be used to repre-

sent the strength of shale subjected to compressive
D( Ci+
1- 2C
i +Ci-1)- V(.
Ci+l- Ci_
1.) stresses. Figure (5) shows an element with stress
hX2 conditions producing failure (assume: zero tectonic
stresses) .
_c.1
(1+Q(C)
n-l)
(.1 - i.) At
...... (ll)

k - n
where: Q is -- , i is the microfracture divided

into cells located in grid (i increases with x Figure (5) with Stress Conditions Producing
away from the borehole, Figure 4); N is the old Failure (a) Wellbore (b) Saturated Rock Element
time level (all values known), and N+i is the new
t/me level (values unknown).

Simplifying equation (11):

N+i N At D N N N

n-1 (Ci+l - 2Ci + Ci-1)

- = .
At V
(12)

and simplifying further:

576 ROCK MECHANICS: KEY TO ENERGY PRODUCTION

Shales, like most rocks, resist failure by

cohesion between their particles as well as by the
internal friction
under ccditions
that can be mobilized.
of failure,
5bus,
the Coulcmb-Navier
c = lCi+l N + SIi +Tli1and(+-)is iricative
Of the sorption-desorption mechanism. As the
cciterion will be given as: shale adsorbs water by osmosis and/or surface hy-
dration, the shale internal pore pressure in-
If = Co + (- Pp) tan ...... (14) creases, thereby producing a decrease in the con-
fining pressure (normal stress) which causes the
In Figure (6) the state of stress is repre- shale to
sented by Mohr's circles. On circle (2) the line
that passes through A gives the angle of obliquity Brittle Shale 'Failure

(8 = tan-1 t -' Co)of the resultantstresswith Darley

12 showed
that holeenlargement
occurs
the x-axis. Failure will occur if 8 increases to in brittle shales mainly because filtrate breaks
the maximumangle of obliquity, 9. Circle (2) the cohesive forces between the fracture surfaces
represented a dry rock (8 < 9), assning the shale and scme type of mud erosive action. In this
formation is not subject to hydraulic pore pres- case, if we assume the values of equations (1) and
sure,
The
shift presence
ofhydraulic
pressure
will
Mohr's circle (2) to the left (1), in-
(2) go to zero, then equation (16) becomes:
creasing 8 to its maxim value, and failure will
occur on the plane represented by Ff.
zf = C + (- Pp) tang ....... (17)
where C < Co and depeDs on fracture surface
In Figure (6b) the angle, 2e, is twice the roughness. The decrease in the cohesion of the
angle between the major principal plane and the rock causes a corresponding decrease in the shear
plane of failure. stress required to produce'failure; consequently,
movementwill occur along the existing fracture.
The cohesion, Co, and angle of internal fric- Hole enlargement frequently occurs in shales of
tion, 9, are true properties of the rock. Since this type.
Co is more of an ap.ent cohesion used for esti-
mating the Mohr circle at higher stress levels, Fractured Shales Containing Montmorillonite/Illite
only changes in Co will be considered. (Changes
in due to adsorption of water will be assumed Penetration of the filtrate between the mi-
negligible in affecting the intrinsic properties crofractures will cause water to be adsorbed by
of the material. ) the surface hydration mechanismwhen the over-
burden stress is relieved by osmotic swelling.
The clay particles on fracture surfaces have Onoti c swlling causes softening ar large volume
a net negatively charged surface. For old frac- increases because oosis takes place between the
tures, these surfaces are in equilibrium with ex- layers as 11 as on the surface of the particle.
changeable cation of tt pore fluid. For freshly In other words, the flow of adsorbed fluid into
farctured clay shale particles, the negatively the shales will create pressure in the rock that
charged sufaces will attract positively charged will aken its cohesive structure. Then equation
cations, e.g. Na+, Ca4-, organic
m+, etc., which (16) becomes:
in turn may attract or repel water around them.
The adsorption of cations and their surroundinq If = C + (o- Pp- Ph - P)tan . . . (18)
fluid can create pressure on the fractured sur-
faces or in shale pore spaces that can change the The above equation shows that the shear re-
eftiss of ontributl trength sistance of the rock is reduced by the adsorbed
the normal stress. It is the effect of this pres- water. Consequently, the Mohr Circle shifts to
sure due to ion concentration that will be inves- the left.
tigated later. Movement along existing fracture
planes can be investigated by determining changes Organic Cations Adsorption on Shale Microfractures
in the magnitude of the shear stress required to
produce failure ar/or by shifting the stress By virtue of the fact that the organic
circle to the left to a more critical position. material carrying cation micelles on the face of
the wellbore bve reached their softening point,
Results
they will attain a viscosity low enoughto spread
and diffuse into the micro fractures (with the help
The suggested relationship gives a close es- of a small contact angle). Becauseof the high
timate of shear stress acting on the fracture sur- charges placed on the organic cations and the
face as:
affinity they have for clay surfaces, large quan-
tities of organic cations will be adsorbedon the
Tf = Co + Eo(Pp+-Ph +-PT)]tan . . . (15) clay surfaces displacing the inorganic cations and
the water surrounding them.
expanding in terms of equations (1) and (2)
After the organic cations have spread over
RT P
the surfaces of the microfracture, adhesion may
If = Co + [o - (Pp +--- ln-- + RT(C-Cb)) ]tan take place. The rate of curing these materials
V Po (or strengthening the microfractures) is propor-
(16) tional to the temperature and inversely propor-
 POSTER PAPERS 577

tional to the film thickness. The adsorption of organic cations shifts the
Mohr circle to the right, creating a less critical
As already mentioned, microfractures are in situation at the el/bore.
a state of equilibrium before they are invaded by
foreign particles, ions or fluid. Consequently, (b) If C < Cb, then equation (16) reduces to
equation (16) is in the form:
if = Co+ (- Pp - Ph)tan ...... (23)
if = Co + (o - Pp) tan% ....... (19)
This is a situation that could occur if the
where: C = Cb for P = 0 and P/Po = 1.0 for Ph=0 organic cations cannot resist the displacing ac-
tion of the water molecules. The shear stress
The adsorption of organic material onto these required to produce failure would decrease and the
microfractures will upset the above state of equi- Mohr's stress circle would shift to the left, re-
librium and could create any of the following sulting in a critical situation at the wellbore.
sets of conditions:
Condition 3: Curing Process of Shale Microfractures
Condition 1: C = Cb, P/Po 1.0
In this case, the concentration of organic
Sinoe water is one of the ingredients in an cations increases with time per cell in the micro-
organic nulsion, it is likely that a thin film of fracture. This concentration will keep increasing
mud filtrate may be present during the exchange until all the exchange positions are taken by the
adsorption reaction in the microfracture. This organic cation. For each increase in concentration
could affect the shear stress of failure in two of the cation, the aqueous vapor pressure of the
possible ways. water in mud (Po) will decrease.

(a) If P/Po > 1.0, equation (16) beccmes: The changes in concentration govern the shear
stress on the fracture plane. This could be deter-
mined using equation (16):
if = CO + (o- P + Ph)tan% .... (20)
Note also that the displacement of water frcm if = CO+ (o - Pp + Ph + P)tan% .... (24)
the microfracture could reduce the pore pressure
where:
acting on the fracture planes It follows that
RT P
a <
_ Pp. This wouldreate an increase in the
le shear strength or, in other words, the shale Ph = -- in --> _ 0
would shrink. v Po

Mohr's circle shifts to the right away frcm

the failure envelope; hence, the rock mass is P = + RT (C - Cb) > 0
strengthened. Often, during a drilling operation
in this condition the rate of penetration de- and C, the concentration of the organic cations is
creases slightly. given by:
N+i At D At V/2 N
(b) If P/Po < 1.0, equation (16) beccmes
ci
if = CO+ (- p- Ph)tan .... (21) =(2 l+Q(i)
n-1AXl+Q(i
)n-1Ci+l
At 2D N
Assuming Pslightly,
-- Ppthe causing
shearstress at failure will
decrease a more critical sit-
uation. In this case the rate of penetration
often increases slightly
+(1 1)ci
At D At V/2 N
Condition 2: C Cb, P/Po = 1.0 + . )

The adsorption of organic cations and the

(AX
2 l+Q(ii
)n-1
+--
AXl+Q(i
)n-1Ci-1
displacement of the reservoir pore water in the The Mohr circle moves away from the failure
microfracture would create changes in concentra- This helps to stabilize the microfrac-
tion on either side of the semi-permea_blemem-
brane.
The behavior of the Coulomb-Navier envelope
(a) If C > Cb, then the osmotic pressure is w11 vary frn grid to grid within the microfrac-
ture (Figure 7) .
P = + RT (C - Cb) ...... (22)
The positive sign is used in the above equation
because organic materials are generally hydro-
phobic in nature and would tend to repel the water Figure (7) Microfracture Divided into Equal Grids
rather than adsorb it. The result is that equa-
tion (16) beccmes:
if = Co + (0 - P + P) tan% , . (23)
578 ROCK MECHANICS: KEY TO ENERGY PRODUCTION

Grid No. 1 Conclusions

The first grid, by virtue of the fact that it The following may be concluded frcm this
has direct contact with the wellbore that contains work:
highly charged organic cations dispersed in the
water-based mud, will attain the greatest and most (1) The study has shown that argillaceous rocks
constant concentration at all times. Under static are seriously altered when exposed to water
conditions, this grid could achieve the greatest and that the best possible way of preventing
rate of cure. The Coulomb-Naviem criterion for their direct contact with water is to seal
failure within this cell is illustrated in Figure off exposed clayey surfaces and the surfaces
8. of microfractures.

(2) Organic colloidal emulsions wre found suit-

able as sealents when a compatibility with
the formation charge and the emulsifying
agent is assured.

(3) Cationic emulsions perform best with material

Figure (8) Mohr Diagram Showing Adsorption Effect having mostly negative surface charges as it
in Grid No. 1 is with most clay surfaces.

Last Grid (4) Reduction of the viscosity with temperature

helps to make the organic sealant spread
Because of the numerous cation exchange freely over the shale surfaces so that adhe-
reactions within the microfracture, it is likely sion of cations can take place.
that the last grid will maintain a zero organic
cation concentration at all times. However, (5) The Freund]/ch adsorption model can satisfac-
because there Duld be no infiltration of foreign torily explain the behavior of the spreading
matter, the original equilibrium in this grid will cations over the shale microfracture surfaces.
be unaltered.
(6) The modified Coulomb-Navier failure criterion
The Mohr's circle for the last grid is illus- and the Mohr's strength theory, along with
trated in Figure 9. The Mohr diagram never moved the Freundlich equilibrium adsorption iso-
because the original equilibrium was not altered. therm, can logically explain the curing or
stability processes of the shale microfrac-
tures in the wellbore.

(7) Exchanging the inorganic cations of the clay

Figure (9) Mohr Diagram for the Last Grid
The rest of the grids within the microfrac-
ture would attain a failure envelope that lies
between those of the first
exact nature of the Mohr diagram for each of the
grids at a certain time would depend on their re-
lative positions to the first grid. As the cation
concentration per time increases for a particular
grid, the Mohr circle moves away to the right from
the Coulomb-Navier failure
mineral for large organic cations, the new
surfaces so produced possess organiphilic
properties and as such have a tendency to
repel water, exhibiting preferential adsorp-
tion of soluble organic compounds.
and last. However, the References
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envelop.-- 956.

Grid No. 6 will be used to illustrate the . Mondshine, T.C. and Kercheville, J.D.:
movement of the Mohr circle to the right with "Successful Gumbo Shale Drilling", The Oil and
time. For illustrative purposes, Figure 10 is Gas Journal, (March 28, 1966).
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"Hydration of Minerals and Soil Colloids in
Relation to Crystal Structure", Soil Science,
(April, 1936), pp. 41, 259.

Figure (10) Movementof Mohr Diagram with Time and . Van Olphen, H.: Introduction to Clay Colloid
Concentration Changeswith Time Chemistry, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York
(1963'), pp. 146-152.
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11. Jones, F.A., Jr.: "New Fast, Accurate Test

Measures Bentonite in Drilling Mud", The Oil
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12. Darley, H.C.H.: "A Laboratory Investigation of

Borehole Stability", Journal of Petroleum
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14. Smith, C.R.: "Base Exchange Rmaction of Ben-

tonites and Salts of Organic Bases", Journal
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in Montmorillonite-Beidellite-Nontronite Type
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