PIATRAININGCENTRE(PTC)

Module 7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

Category A/B1 Sub Module 7.2 - Workshop Practices

MODULE 7
Sub Module 7.2

WORKSHOP PRACTICES

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PIATRAININGCENTRE(PTC) Module 7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
Category A/B1 Sub Module 7.2 - Workshop Practices

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7.2 Mar 2014


PIATRAININGCENTRE(PTC) Module 7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
Category A/B1 Sub Module 7.2 - Workshop Practices


Contents

MAINTAINING TOOLS ---------------------------------------------------- 1
TOOL CATEGORIES ------------------------------------------------------ 1

CARE OF TOOLS ---------------------------------------------------------- 2

CONTROL OF TOOLS ---------------------------------------------------- 5
USE OF WORKSHOP MATERIALS ----------------------------------- 8
DIMENSIONS -------------------------------------------------------------- 11

TOLERANCES AND ALLOWANCES-------------------------------- 15
STANDARDS OF WORKMANSHIP --------------------------------- 18
CALIBRATION OF TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT ------------------- 19

CALIBRATION STANDARDS ----------------------------------------- 28

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MAINTAINING TOOLS

All the tools used for aircraft maintenance have to be of the Common Tools Tools that are required for performing specific
highest quality to ensure expert maintenance of aircraft to the tasks on specific aircraft and those tools that are too bulky or
level prescribed by the manufacturer. At the most fundamental considered too expensive to be included in a personal toolkit
level, woodshop tool maintenance simply means keeping your are included in this category.
tools operating as well as they did when you took them out of
the box. That's a minimum requirement for running a safe, Procedures should be in place to ensure that all tools in the
successful shop. But a good tool maintenance regimen can take inventory are available in serviceable condition. This can be
you even further. Taking a few extra steps in caring for work achieved by implementing a tool maintenance program that
surfaces, cutting edges, alignment mechanisms and moving encompasses the following.
parts can work wonders for the performance of your tools. Add
in a few affordable power tool upgrades and you can improve Care of tools procedures for storing, cleaning,
the performance of your woodworking machinery beyond like- lubrication of tools and equipment regularly or as per
new condition. Below, we'll show you how easy it can be to go usage.
beyond the basics in keeping the tools in your shop sharp, true,
clean, and running smooth Control of tools procedures to ensure tools remain
serviceable and available as per the requirements.
TOOL CATEGORIES
Calibration of tools Tools that are used for measuring
A maintenance organization usually has two basic categories of and checking should be checked and adjusted regularly
tools in use. for continued accuracy of the measurements. Calibration
of tools used for the determination of the serviceability of
Personal Tools Tools that are issued to the maintenance equipment or correct execution of a procedure is of
personnel permanently on individual basis depending on the absolute importance as the product quality of the
function they perform in the organization. These tools will form a organization is dependent on it.
personal toolkit comprised of tools that are of general nature
and required by a considerable number of persons frequently.
These tools are selected for their familiarity and personal
quality, their low cost and convenience.
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CARE OF TOOLS
Most high quality tools are manufactured to the highest
standards and are designed to last a long time, provided that
they are not abused and necessary servicing is carried out in
due time.
Most of the tools are manufactured from alloy steels and are
susceptible to corrosion. To reduce this susceptibility to
corrosion most tools are manufactured with a corrosion resistant
exterior finish and mechanisms that are sealed against
moisture. Therefore the corrosion resistance is dependent on
the integrity of such protections provided.
Despite efforts to reduce corrosion and associated degradation,
corrosion and wear still takes its toll unless cleaning and re-
protection such as lubrication is carried out on regular basis.
Workshop fixtures and equipment supplied and installed by the
appropriate department are maintained and repaired by that
organization, and must not be interfered with by personnel,
except for general cleaning, re-painting externally, etc.
Other equipment and machinery must be systematically
cleaned, lubricated and adjusted by competent workshop
personnel; the following points have a general application.
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Personal tools
Personal tools should be cleaned periodically or immediately
after working in areas where the tools have been exposed to
corrosive materials.
General cleaning can be done with a stiff brush and a rag
to remove dust/dirt. A cleaning fluid such as solvents may be
used to remove grease, paints and such hard to remove
material. After necessary cleaning has been carried out a
suitable lubrication and/or re-protection material should be
applied to prevent corrosion and to reduce wear.
It is advisable to store measuring tools such as engineers
scales, feeler gauges, etc., that are part of personal toolkits in a
simple cover or case to offer them further protection from
damage and degradation.
Common tools
Common Tools that are used frequently may also be
cleaned and protected the same way as personal tools, but
lubrication of internal mechanism should be carried out
by authorized personnel only.
Common tools that form a toolkit for a specific function and
those tools that are not regularly used should be cleaned after
every use and in addition, according to a schedule if such tools
have not been used for some time. Lubrication and re-protection
of
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exposed areas should be carried out using recommended
material so as to maintain protection against corrosion.
In the following sections specific actions to be carried out while
working on certain tools and machinery are briefly discussed.
Such activities to be performed may also be stated when
discussing about tools and their application in the following
Modules.
Care of tools general
Benches
Metal-covered and portable benches should have the bench
surfaces cleaned with kerosene rag, while those of plain
wooden benches should be cleaned with a stiff brush and by
scraping if necessary. Some form of protection, such as a piece
of hardwood or a lead block, should be laid on the bench top
when carrying out punching or similar operations and care
should be taken to prevent nails, pieces of metal etc., from
becoming embedded in the bench surface. Portable benches
should be given a thorough examination for security at regular
intervals, during which all nuts should be checked to ensure that
they are tight; the wheel bearings should also be lubricated as
required.
Vices
Vices should be wiped over frequently with an oily rag. The
moving jaw should be withdrawn to the limit of its movement to
permit lubrication of the screw bearings and the thread, the jaw
insert screws and the bolts securing the
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periodically, and the vice handle should be kept rust-free so
that it may slide freely when in use.
Drilling machine
The drilling machine should be cleaned and lubricated regularly;
during this process the clamping screws of the drilling table
should be slackened several turns to enable the threads and
thrust faces to be lubricated.
A piece of planed hardwood should be kept on the drilling table
to protect the machined face when drilling sheet metals, etc.
Grinder
The grinding machine must be kept clean and as free from
abrasive dust as possible. The bearings should be lubricated
regularly, but care must be taken to prevent oil or grease
coming in contact with the grinding wheels. The tool rests
should be kept in adjustment at a position as near as possible to
the grinding wheels. These wheels should be turned up, as
required, by a wheel dresser; the resulting abrasive dust should
be carefully removed after the operation has been completed,
and the tool rests must then be reset.
Motor drives
Electric motors used for driving machine tools and portable
apparatus must be kept clean and free from dust both internally
and externally. Regular attention by authorized personnel is
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essential for the effective maintenance of electrical equipment,
and the work of these personnel is assisted if any defect, such
as overheating or excessive sparking, is reported immediately.

Workshop tool kits

Gauges and special tools
Special tool kits are supplied for servicing certain machines,
assemblies, etc., and these kits must, of necessity, be available These items should be kept in labeled boxes whenever
for general use. The fact that a kit is used by more than one practicable; the label should indicate the special purpose for
person is not an excuse for neglect or maltreatment by the which the gauge or tool may only be used.
individual; such kits must be given the same care and attention
that a good craftsman gives to his personal kit. Drills and reamers

Measuring instruments and appliances Twist drills, when not in use, should be kept in a graded drill
stand. Reamers should be kept in partitioned boxes or laid in
Equipment of this nature are normally kept in the workshop or grooved trays cut to receive each type of reamer.
tool store locker, and is issued on short-term loan as required.
These items must be returned immediately after use; under no
circumstances should they be left lying about on workbenches
or stowed in personal toolboxes. In order to maintain the
accuracy measuring instrument need proper handling Measuring
instruments are usually issued with the storage box and
other than during the time at which measurements are
taken the instrument should be kept in the case.

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CONTROL OF TOOLS
The number and variety of tools in an aircraft maintenance
organization can be in hundreds if not in thousands. Each
tool may have to be maintained in a different way and be
made available to certain group of persons frequently.
In such an environment proper procedures have to be
established to prevent the tool being misplaced or mishandled.
Added to this certain tools require calibration and/or special
servicing compounds the situation.
Following procedures are generally adapted
maintenance organizations to address such needs.
1 A person or persons are tasked with identifying the tool
requirement of the organization and deciding tools that
should form the personal toolkit and tools that should be
categorized as common tools which should be
maintained at a suitable accessible location to the
required personnel.
2 Ensure that personal toolkits are complete and
maintained in an acceptable manner by carrying out
audits periodically. Also non-approved tools,
consumables and aircraft hardware should not be
contained along with personal toolkits.
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3 Tools that require specialized storage conditions should
be identified and handled accordingly. Tools that require
calibration and or servicing should be categorized and a
procedure setup to ensure such activities are carried out
in due time without affecting the tool availability
requirements.
4 Maintaining an efficient issuing and tracking system to
ensure tools are issued to identify individuals by
responsible persons who are well versed with the tools
and procedures involved.
by most
Common tools of a maintenance organization can be located
and controlled in several ways.
Tool Store or Tool crib This is a centrally located
secure location for a large inventory of tools that are
arranged in a precise manner with identified positions for tools.
Such a location can also be equipped to handle tools with
special storage requirements. Access into the location is
strictly controlled and tools are issued to required personnel
or authorized persons after the required information had
been entered in a properly maintained issue register.
Tool containers or toolbox kits Tools that have a
specific application such as all specific tools required for an
engine change on a specific aircraft may be located in a
container that may be purpose-designed for easy
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transportation and handling. These toolkits are also usually In organizations where a separate tool control is available,
controlled by the central tool store and may be located at the the task of acquiring tools on loan basis depending on
main tool store or at another secure location. the requirement, and also ensuring tool availability and
serviceability will be the responsibility of such a section.

Some large organization may have several identical toolkits

used for the same frequent function positioned at several line
stations to reduce delays due to non-availability of such tools. Tool control procedures
Although these toolkits are located elsewhere, controlling of
such toolkits will still be carried out by the centralized tool store Each tool in the inventory should be assigned a
or a dedicated section.
unique identification number and an entry should be
Overseas or Line station tools Large aviation maintenance maintained on each tool in a suitable register
organizations usually maintain satellite-maintenance sections including relevant details about the tools.
in addition to the main base, at other parts of the country or at
overseas locations. These satellite-maintenance sections In addition a complete record should be maintained on
provide limited support for scheduled and unscheduled each tool used for measuring and quality control that
maintenance on aircraft depending on the requirement at these includes service history and calibration details.
locations. For such organizations a separate section under
inventory control department may exist, tasked with monitoring An issue register will be maintained at the issue
and controlling tools within the entire organization including the counter of the tool store where the details pertaining
tools at such line stations. Local control and maintaining of tools to the individual receiving the tools are to be
at such location may be carried out by dedicated staff seconded documented.
from the main tool control section at main base or may
be assigned to a member of the maintenance personnel of A new set of pages or section of the register is used for
such locations if the inventory of tools involved is simple. every shift and issued items are tallied with received
items at the end of the shift and handover to the next
Tools on loan Some maintenance activities may require tools
shift is carried out.
to be acquired on loan basis from other organizations as
the frequency of such activity or cost involved may not warrant
Issue and receipt is usually indicated on adjacent
the purchase and maintenance of such tools.
columns so that outstanding entries can be identified at
a glance. Those entries that have not been tallied are
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transferred to another part of the register or separate
documents for alternate action It is the responsibility of the user to report of any
damaged or malfunctioning tool or equipment to the
relevant person in charge of tools so that it can be
repaired in time.

If work is not spanned across shifts then outstanding

entries are to be considered very serious and an Unserviceable tools due to damage or malfunction
is to be routed to the relevant sections or external
investigation should be carried out to locate the
repair organization for repair at the first available
tools as the possibility exists of such tools becoming instance to prevent disruption due to unavailability. For
the source of FOD (Foreign Object Damage). tools that require frequent repairs an investigation
should be done for possible mishandling or misuse.
When the user should carry out a cursory inspection of Tools that require calibration will be tracked and
the tool at book out and should bring to the notice of the sent for necessary re-calibration prior to calibration
stores personnel of any discrepancy immediately. due date or earlier if continued availability during a
critical period is forecasted.
Upon completion of the work the user should make an
effort to return the tools to the stores as soon as it is
convenient to enable another user to use the same tool
if required and also to minimize the chances of
misplacing the tools.

When returning the tools to the tool stores the staff

at the issue counter should check for the condition of
the tool and properly mark the issue register for
received status and position the tools in the assigned
location. When documenting of a toolkit is done the
number of tools issued and received are also mentioned
in the register.
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USE OF WORKSHOP MATERIALS
Many of the wide variety of materials, used in workshops,
require some form of control in their handling. This control can
involve:
Safety: relating to such topics as the toxicity, corrosiveness
or other health risks associated with the use of certain
materials
Management: referring to the storage, use and correct
handling of all materials whether they are solid, liquid, or, in
some instances, gaseous
Economy: involving such matters as to the using of the
correct dosage or proportions when mixing compounds,
using only as much material as required for a specific task
and to the keeping in stock of only sufficient materials and
thus avoiding lifed items reaching their expiry dates before
being used.
Abrasive papers, solder and brazing materials, wire wool, tyre
powder, oil spill powder and so on, all
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require control of issue and use, though they may not, normally,
require stringent safety precautions.
A huge range of liquids can be used in the workshop situation,
some of which are harmless and some of which are extremely
toxic. It is vital that the work-force make themselves aware of
the risks involved when dealing with ANY materials, and
especially when working within enclosed areas.
Some materials are flammable and must, therefore, be stored
outdoors. These include oils, greases, some adhesives, sealing
and glazing compounds in addition to many paints, enamels
and epoxy surface finishes, which are stored in metal cabinets
and, usually, located (in the Northern hemisphere) on the North
side of a workshop or hangar. This ensures that the cabinet
remains in the shade of the building and does not get exposed
to the suns hot rays during the day. It is also important that only
the minimum amount of these materials is taken indoors for the
work which is being done.
When handling materials that give off fumes, it may be
necessary to have the area well ventilated and/or have the
operator wearing a mask or some form of remote breathing
apparatus. The finished work may also give off fumes for some
time afterwards, so care must be taken to keep it ventilated if
necessary.
Obviously all liquids must only be used for the purpose for
which
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are designed and never mixed together, unless the two
materials are designed to be mixed, such as with two part epoxy
adhesives and sealants.
Many liquids used in workshops and in the hangar have (as
mentioned earlier) a fixed life. This date is printed on the
container and must be checked before use, because many
materials are unsafe if used beyond their expiry date.

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The disposal of liquids is a critical operation, and must only be

carried out in accordance with company (and, often, national or
international) regulations.

Liquids must never be disposed of by pouring them into spare

or unidentified containers and they must not be allowed to enter
the domestic drains systems.

The working with, and the use of, high pressure gas containers
and oxygen systems, was adequately discussed in the Safety
Precautions topic.

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DIMENSIONS

Information is communicated from one person to another
primarily through spoken and written word. Such communication
requires the use of previously defined, basic characters, the
complete set of which is commonly known as an alphabet.
Likewise, the scientific community has, in effect, established an
alphabet of its own. The elements, or most basic parts of this
communication system, are known as dimensions.
Common dimensions
The following are a few common dimensions and their
definitions:
The length of an object is the distance between its ends, its
linear extent as measured from end to end.It is usually
represented by the capital letter L.
Mass (M) is the amount of matter in an object. Every object has
a mass that does not change as the object is moved from one
place to another.
Time (T) can be defined as a period or interval between
two events. It is a component of the measuring system used to
sequence events, to compare the durations of events and the
intervals between them, and to quantify the motions of objects.
Temperature is physical property of a system that measures
degree of hotness or coldness of object, ambience, etc. The
temperature of a substance is a measure of the internal energy
of the molecules (i.e., energy caused by movement of its
molecules).
Temperature is measured with thermometers that may be
calibrated to a variety of temperature scales. The Celsius scale
is used for most temperature measuring purposes..Many
engineering fields also use the Kelvin and degrees Celsius
scales. Other engineering fields also rely upon the Rankine
scale and Fahrenheit scale

A force (F) has the capacity to change the motion of a body or

cause stress in a body. It can also be described as a push or
pull that can cause an object with mass to change its velocity
(which includes to begin moving from a state of rest), i.e., to
accelerate, or which can cause a flexible object to deform.
Force has both magnitude and direction, making it a vector
quantity.
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Fundamental and derived dimensions Derived dimensions

After a few dimensions are defined, it should be obvious that Dimensions obtained by combining one or more fundamental
other dimensions can be obtained by combining one or more of dimensions are called derived dimensions.
them. This observation leads to the need to differentiate
between the original dimensions and the combined Area (L2) and volume (L3) are examples of derived
dimensions, and thus the terms fundamental and derived dimensions obtained by combining the same dimension
dimensions were born. (i.e., L).

Fundamental dimensions Velocity (LT-1), acceleration (LT-2), and pressure (ML-

1T-2), on the other hand, are examples of derived
The most elementary dimensions, like length (L), mass (M), and dimensions obtained by combining different fundamental
time (T), are known as fundamental dimensions. dimensions (i.e., M, L, and T).
Fundamental units

Quantity Standard Unit Symbol

1 Length meter m
2 Mass kilogram kg
3 Time second s
4 Electric Current ampere A
5 Temperature Kelvin K
Luminous
6 Candela Cd
Intensity
7 Matter mole mol
8 Plane Angle Radian rad
9 Solid Angle
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Named units derived from SI base units

Expression in terms of other Expression in terms of SI base

Name Symbol Quantity
units units

hertz Hz frequency 1/s s-1

Newton N force, weight mkg/s2 mkgs2
Pascal Pa pressure, stress N/m2 m1kgs2
joule J energy, work, heat Nm = CV = Ws m2kgs2
watt W power, radiant flux J/s = VA m2kgs3

coulomb C electric charge or electric flux sA sA

voltage, electrical potential

volt V W/A = J/C m2kgs3A1
difference, electromotive force

farad F electric capacitance C/V m2kg1s4A2

electric resistance, impedance,

ohm V/A m2kgs3A2
reactance

m2kg1s3
Siemens S electrical conductance 1/
A2
m2kgs2
Weber Wb magnetic flux J/A
A1
Vs/m2 =
magnetic field strength, magnetic kgs2
tesla T Wb/m2 =
flux density A1
N/(Am)
m2kgs2
Henry H
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A2
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Although dimensions are necessary to describe an object or an

event, they are not sufficient. That is, it could be correctly stated
that both a football field and a matchstick possess the
fundamental dimension of length, but if one were interested in
knowing their relative sizes, additional information would
obviously have to be provided about the dimension of length.
This additional information is provided in the form of the units
associated with each dimension.

A unit is the standard of measurement applicable to a given

dimension. For example, inches, feet, meters, furlongs, and
fathoms all are units associated with the dimension of length.
Similarly, cubic inches, liters, cubic meters, and gallons are
units associated with the dimension of volume.

Throughout history, different units have been adopted for

quantifying the various dimensions, as illustrated for length and
volume. Therefore, we may often need to convert numbers from
one set of units into another (e.g., feet to meters, yards
to centimeters).

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TOLERANCES AND ALLOWANCES
An impossible task to do in engineering manufacture is to make
a part to exact dimensions called for by a design document.
Dimensions may seems to match if measured using a
measuring instrument with less accuracy, but if the
measurements are taken using an instrument with higher
accuracy, a dimensional discrepancy will exist between the
stipulated and manufactured.
When production to exact dimensions is not achievable during
manufacture, the next possible scenario is to achieve the
closest possible dimensions to what is required.
Method of dimensioning and tolerance wherein the tolerance is
taken as plus or minus from an explicitly stated dimension; the
dimension represents the size or location which is nearest the
critical condition (that is maximum material condition), and the
tolerance is applied either in a plus or minus direction, but not in
both directions, in such a way that the permissible variation in
size or location is away from the critical condition.
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The following terms are used generally when indicating
dimensions.
Nominal size The dimension of an object when variations in
size are disregarded; the actual size of a part will be
approximately the same as the nominal size but need not be
exactly the same; for example, a rod may be referred to as
inch, although the actual dimension on the drawing is 0.2495
inch, and in this case inch is the nominal size.
Approximate or rough cut dimension by which a material is
generally called or sold in trade, but which differs from the
actual dimension. In lumber trade, for example, a finished
(dressed) 'two by four' piece is less than 2 inches thick and less
than 4 inches wide. Also called nominal size.
Basic Size The basic size is that size from which the limits of
size are derived by the application of allowances and
tolerances.
Limits - The stated maximum and minimum allowable
dimensions when variation on the basic size is taken into
consideration. Here, the largest allowable dimension is called
the upper limit and the least allowable dimension is called the
lower limit.
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Tolerance The difference between the upper limit and the
lower limit of a dimension. The amount that the size of a
machine part is allowed to vary above or below a basic
dimension; for example, 3.650 0.003 centimeters indicates a
tolerance of 0.003 centimeter.
Bilateral Tolerance When variation is allowable in both
directions from the basic size. Here the actual dimensions of the
object may be larger or smaller than the basic size by an
allowable margin.
Allowance An allowance is a planned deviation between an
actual dimension and a nominal or theoretical dimension, or
between an intermediate-stage dimension and an intended final
dimension. The unifying abstract concept is that a certain
amount of difference allows for some known factor of
compensation or interference. For example, an area of excess
metal may be left because it is needed to complete subsequent
machining.

Unilateral Tolerance When the variation is allowed only in

one direction from the basic size. Here the actual dimensions of
the object must comply with either of the following conditions
but not both.

Actual size can be larger than the basic size but the
minimum allowable size should be that of the basic size and not
less.
OR

Actual size can be smaller than the basic size but maximum
allowable size should be that of the basic size and not more.

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Bilateral Tolerance Unilateral Tolerance

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STANDARDS OF WORKMANSHIP

Whilst the standards of workmanship, during the hand-working
of metals and other materials, is controlled by the craftsperson,
once machinery is used in the manufacturing process, then the
standards of finish and workmanship depend upon the
allowances set by the designer and on the type of machinery
being used.
With hand tools, there are standards of finish, but these depend
upon the skill of the craftsperson and, again, on the tools being
used. For example, when filing metal, different grades of files
are used, to obtain a comparatively smooth surface finish while
other methods, such as abrasive papers, pastes and polishes,
are then used, to provide the final finish.
When sawing, the same procedures apply in that blades with
finer teeth will give a better finish to the sawn edges, which may
then be further smoothed, using an appropriate selection of
files.
There are a variety of machines that can generate a smooth
surface on a piece of metal, the selection between them being
decided by the quality of finish. A lathe can produce an
exceptionally smooth surface on a bar or some other rotated
shape. If a large area is required to have a smooth finish, then
perhaps, after initial casting or forging, the choice may be of
employing either a grinding machine or a milling machine, to
provide the desired result.
In summary, the quality of the finished article is dependent both
on the skill of the craftsperson and the equipment available to
complete the task. It does not matter whether the tools in use
are files and emery cloth or an expensive milling machine; the
standard of workmanship of the craftsperson can make a great
deal of difference to the finished article.

When drilling a hole, the conventional twist drill will only produce
a finish of a certain standard. If a finer finish, to the inside of the
hole, is required, then a reamer would be used, to smooth the
material inside the hole, so that, if a tight fitting pin is to be fitted
through the hole, there will be better surface contact.

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CALIBRATION OF TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT

Instrument calibration is one of the primary processes used to

maintain instrument accuracy. Calibration is the process of In trying to maintain and improve on product quality and level of
configuring an instrument to provide a result for a sample within safety, a fundamental requirement is the use of instruments that
an acceptable range. Eliminating or minimizing factors that will provide measurements that are accurate to a high degree of
cause inaccurate measurements is a fundamental aspect of the actual property being measured. Before dealing with
instrumentation design. their accuracy. calibration it is important to know the characteristics of
measuring instruments and what factors affect their accuracy.
In any industry, measurements related to product quality are an
essential part of quality control systems. In the aviation
maintenance industry such measurements play a more
important role, as decisions that have a direct impact on safety
may be based on them.

Measurements affect the product quality directly or indirectly.

Measurements affect the product directly when they take

the form of dimensional measurements that determines
the quality of the product. E.g. Diameter of a roller when
checking for wear.

Measurements affect product quality indirectly when

they take the form of monitoring and control
measurements of a process. E.g. Temperature
maintained during heat treatment of material.

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Instrument classification, characteristics
Knowledge of the possible error level in measurements is
essential, and a necessary pre-requisite for this is a proper
understanding of the operational characteristics of instruments
and an examination of the way in which instrument performance
is specified. A convenient way to achieve this knowledge is to
classify instruments into different types and then to study the
characteristics of each of these various instrument sub-groups.
Instruments consist of one or more separate components, which
together serve to give an output reading, which is some function
of a measured physical quantity. The primary component in an
instrument is a transducer, which translates the measured
physical quantity into another form. Further possible
components within the instrument are an amplifier, an amplifier-
analyzer and an output display system. The term 'instrument'
is used somewhat loose, throughout this text, as is fairly
common practice, to describe any or all of these components.
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Instrument classification
Instruments can be sub-divided into separate classes according
to several criteria. These sub-classifications are useful in
broadly establishing several attributes of particular instruments
such as accuracy, cost, and general applicability to different
applications.
Active/ passive instruments
Instruments are divided into active or passive ones according to
whether the instrument output is entirely produced by the
quantity being measured or whether the quantity being
measured simply modulates the magnitude of some external
power source. This might be more easily understood if it were
illustrated by an example.
An example of a passive instrument is the pressure-measuring
device. The pressure of the fluid is translated into movement of
a pointer against a scale. The energy expended in moving the
pointer is derived entirely from the change in pressure
measured; there are no other energy inputs to the system.
An example of an active instrument is a petrol-tank-level
indicator, as sketched in Figure 2.2. Here, the change in petrol
level moves a potentiometer arm, and the output signal consists
of a proportion of the external voltage source applied across the
two ends of the potentiometer. The energy in the output signal
comes from the external power source; the primary transducer
float
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system is merely modulating the value of the voltage from this application thus involves balancing the measurement-
external power source. resolution requirements carefully against cost.

In active instruments, the external power source is usually in

electrical form, but in some cases it can be other forms of
energy, such as pneumatic or hydraulic.

One very important difference between active and passive

instruments is the level of measurement resolution, which can
be obtained. With the simple pressure gauge shown, the
amount of movement made by the pointer for a particular
pressure change is closely define by the nature of instrument.

While it is possible to increase measurement resolution by

making the pointer longer, such that the pointer tip moves
through a longer arc, the scope for such improvement is clearly
bounded by the practical limit on how long the pointer can
conveniently be. Fig. 2.1 Passive Pressure Gauge

In an active instrument, however, adjustment of the magnitude

of the external energy input allows much greater control over
measurement resolution. While the scope for improving
measurement resolution is much greater but it is not infinite
because of limitations placed on the magnitude of the external
energy input, in consideration of heating effects and for safety
reasons.

In terms of cost, passive instruments are normally of a simpler

construction than are active ones, and are therefore cheaper to
manufacture. Choice between active and
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Fig. 2.2 Petrol Tank Level Indicator (Active)
Null/ deflection-type instruments
In deflection-type device, the measured quantity produces some
physical effect that engenders a similar but opposing effect in
same part of the instrument. The opposing effect increases until
balance is achieved, at which point deflection is measured and
the value of measured quantity inferred. The last pressure
gauge is a good example of a deflection type of instrument,
where the value of the quantity being measured is displayed in
terms of the amount of movement of a pointer.
A null-type device attempts to maintain deflection at zero by
suitable application an effect opposing that generated by the
measured quantity but not suitable for dynamic measurement
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Sub Module 7.2 - Workshop Practices
pressure gauge is the dead-weight gauge shown in Figure 2.3,
which is a null-type instrument. Here, weights are put on top of
the piston until the downward force balances the fluid pressure.
Weights are added until the piston reaches a datum level,
known as the null point. Pressure measurement is made in
terms of the value of the weights needed to reach this null
position.
The accuracy of these two instruments depends on different
things. For the former, it depends on the linearity and calibration
of the spring, while for the latter; it relies on the calibration of the
weights. As calibration of weights is much easier than the
careful choice and calibration of a linear-characteristic spring, it
follows that the second type of instrument will normally be
the more accurate. This is in agreement with the general rule
that null-type instruments are more accurate than deflection
types.
In terms of usage, the deflection-type instrument is clearly more
convenient. It is far simpler to read off the position of a pointer
against a scale than to add and subtract weights until a null
point is reached. A deflection-type instrument is therefore the
one that would normally be used in the workplace. For
calibration purposes, however, the null-type instrument is
preferable because of its superior accuracy. The extra effort
required to use such an instrument is perfectly acceptable
because of the infrequent nature of calibration operations.
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Fig. 2.3

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An important distinction between different instruments is made
according to whether they are suitable only for monitoring
functions or whether their output is in a form that can be directly
introduced as an input into an automatic control system.
Instruments, which only give an audio or visual indication of the
magnitude of the physical quantity measured, such as a liquid-
in-glass thermometer, are only suitable for monitoring purposes.
This class normally includes all null-type instruments and mostly
passive transducers.

For an instrument to be suitable for inclusion in an automatic

control system, its output must be in a suitable form for direct
input into the controller. This usually means that an instrument
with an electrical output is required, although other forms of
output such as optical or pneumatic signals are used in some
systems.

Fig. 2.4

Monitoring/ control instruments

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Instruments which use a needle or a hand moving around a dial

to provide information are called analogue instruments while
digital Instruments provide a numerical display of information An
analogue instrument gives anoutput, which varies continuously
as the quantity being measured changes. The output can have
an infinite number of values within the range that the instrument
is designed to measure. The deflection type of pressure gauge
described earlier in this chapter is a good example of an
analogue instrument. As the input value changes, the pointer
moves with a smooth continuous motion. Though the pointer
can therefore be in an infinite number of positions within its
range of movement, the number of different positions, which the
eye can discriminate between, is strictly limited, this
discrimination being dependent upon how large the scale is and
how finely it is divided.

A digital instrument has an output, which varies in discrete steps

and so can only have a finite number of values. The rev counter
sketched in Figure 2.6 is an example of a digital instrument. In
this, a cam is attached to the revolving body whose motion is
being measured, and on each revolution the camp opens and
closes a switch. The switching operations are counted by an
electronic counter. This system can only count whole
Fig. 2.5 Dead Weight Pressure Gauge (Null Type) revolutions and therefore cannot register any motion, which
is less than a full revolution.

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computer by imposing a requirement for A/D conversion thus
The distinction between analogue and digital instruments has degrades the accuracy by which the process is controlled.
become particularly important with the rapid growth in the
application of microcomputers to automatic control systems.

Any digital computer system, of which the microcomputer is but

one example, performs its computations in digital form. An
instrument whose output is in digital form is therefore particularly
advantageous in such applications, as it can be interfaced
directly to the control computer. Analogue instruments must be
interfaced to the microcomputer by an analogue-to-digital (A/D)
converter, which converts the analogue output signal from the
instrument into an equivalent digital quantity, which can be read
into the computer. This conversion has several disadvantages.
Firstly, the A/D converter adds a significant cost to the system.
Secondly, a finite time is involved in the process of converting
an analogue signal to a digital quantity, and this time can be
critical in the control of fast processes where the accuracy
of control depends on the speed of the controlling
computer. Degrading the speed of operation of the control

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Fig. 2.6 Revolution Counter (Digital)

Static instrument characteristics

Instrument Performance Characteristics are of two types:

Static having nonlinear or statistical effects

Dynamic described by linear differential equations

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Static calibration 2. Decide which of the inputs will be significant in the
application for which the instrument is to be calibrated.
All inputs (desired, interfering and modifying) except one are
kept at some constant values. Then the input under study is 3. Procure apparatus that will allow you to vary all the
varied over some range of constant values. The input-output significant inputs over the ranges considered necessary.
relationship is valid under the stated constant conditions of all Procure standards to measure each input.
the other inputs.

Measurement method: ideal situation all other inputs are 4. By holding some inputs constant, varying others, and
held constant recording the output(s), develops the desired static
input-output relations.
Measurement process: physical realization of the
measurement method The various static characteristics are defined in the following
paragraphs.

Steps in Static Calibration

1. Examine the construction of the instrument and identify CALIBRATION STANDARDS

and list all the possible inputs.
History

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In United Kingdom, the appropriate procedures for attaining As specified in BS 5750,
quality assurance are defined in document BS 5750 (Parts 0-4). The supplier shall provide, control, calibrate and maintain
This was first published by British Standards Institution in 1979, inspection, measuring and test equipment suitable to
since then it has been adopted in a wide range of industries. demonstrate the performance of the product to the specified
This first version has been modified in collaboration with the requirements. Equipment shall be used in a manner, which
International Standards Organization in the light of user ensures that measurement uncertainty is known.

A revised version was published in 1987 by both the British STANDARD PROCEDURE
standards Institution and the International Standards
Organization as two separate but identically worded documents. BS 5750 lays down procedures to be followed when selecting,
ISO versions are numbered ISO 9000ISO 9004. At the end of using, calibrating, controlling and maintaining measurement
1987, the procedures were also adopted by the European standards and measuring equipment. A summary of the
requirements is given below:
Committee for Standardization and published as identically
worded documents numbered EN 29000-EN 29004.3. Prior to 1 The supplier shall establish and maintain an effective
1987, a separate document, B8 5781, existed that detailed the system for the control and calibration of measurement
necessary measurement and calibration procedures associated standards and measuring equipment.
with quality assurance systems, but this became obsolete when
these procedures were subsumed within BS 5750 in 1987. 2 All personnel performing calibration functions shall have
adequate training.

3 The calibration system shall be periodically and

systematically reviewed to ensure its continued
effectiveness.

4 All measurements, whether for purposes of calibration or

product assessment, shall take into account all the
errors and uncertainties in the measurement process.
Requirement
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5 Calibration procedures shall be documented. the environmental conditions required for
calibration;
6 Objective evidence that the measurement system is
effective shall be readily available to customers.
the source of calibration used to establish
7 Calibration shall be performed by equipment traceable to traceability;
national standards.
details of any repairs or modifications which
8 A separate calibration record shall be kept for each might affect the calibration status;
measuring instrument. These records must demonstrate
that all measuring-instruments used are capable of Any use limitations of the instrument.
performing measurements within the designated limits.
The record for instrument shall contain as minimum:
9 All equipment shall be labeled to show its calibration
a description of the instrument and a unique
status and any usage limitations (if practicable).
identifier;
10 Any instrument, which has failed or is suspected (or
the calibration date; known) to be out of calibration shall be withdrawn from
use and clabelled conspicuously to prevent accidental
the calibration results; use.
The calibration interval (plus date when next calibration due). 11 Adjustable devices shall be sealed to prevent tampering.
Some or all of the following information is also required in the
calibration record, according to the type of instrument
involved:
the calibration procedure;
the permissible error limits;

a statement of the cumulative effects of
uncertainties in calibration data;
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