Notes M I 1

.
1
1.
2.
3.
4.

5.

2011
: 1 1
1: ......................................3
1.1. ....................................................................................................................................... 3
1.2. ........................................................................................................ 3
1.2.2. ............................................................................................................. 4
1.2.3. ..................................................................... 6
1.2.4. ........................................................................... 12
1.2.5. .............................................................. 13
1.2.6. ................................................................... 19
2: .......................28
2.1. ..................................................................................................................................... 28
2.2. ....................................................................... 29
2.2.1. ................................................................................................ 29
2.2.2. ................................................................... 33
2.3. ..................................................................................... 35
2.3.1. ................................................................................................ 35
2.3.2. ................................................................... 40
2.4. ........................................................................................................... 41
2.4.2. ................................................................... 41
3: ..............44
3.1. ..................................................................................................................................... 44
3.2. .................................................................. 44
3.3. ................................................................................................ 47
3.4. ................................................................................................. 47
3.5. ................................................................................ 48
3.6. .......................................................................... 50
4: .........54
4.1. ..................................................................................................................................... 54
4.2. ................................................................ 55
4.2.1. .................................................................................. 55
4.2.2. ................................................................... 57
4.3. ........................................................ 58
4.3.1. ......................................................... 58
4.3.2. ................................................................... 58
4.4. ...................................................................................... 59
4.4.1. ............................................................................................................... 59
4.4.2. ................................................................... 60
4.5. .................................................................................................... 61
4.6. ............................................................................................ 62
4.6.1. ............................................................... 62
4.6.2. ................................................................... 63
4.7. ................................................................................................................ 66
4.7.1. ................................................................................................ 66
4.7.2. ................................................................... 67
4.8. ............................................................................................................... 70
4.8.1. ................................................................................................ 70
4.8.2. ................................................................... 70
4.9. ................................................................................................ 71
4.9.1. ................................................................................................ 71
4.9.2. ................................................................... 71
2 .
5: ..........74
5.1. .................................................................................. 74
5.1.1. , ............................................................................ 74
5.1.2. ................................................................... 76
5.2. .............................................................................................................. 78
5.2.1. De L Hospital Bernoulli .............................................................................. 78
5.2.2. ................................................................... 80
1: :.......................................................................... 80
5.3. Taylor ............................................................................................................................... 85
5.3.1. .............................................................................................................. 85
5.3.2. ................................................................... 86
5.4. ........................................................................................ 87
5.4.1. ................................................................................. 87
5.4.2. ................................................................... 88
5.5. ............................................................................... 91
5.5.1. , ............................................................................ 91
5.5.2. ................................................................... 92
5.6. .................................................................................................................... 93
5.6.1. ..................................................................................................... 93
5.6.2. ................................................................... 94
: 1 3
1 :
1.1.

.
.
, -
, -
, ,
.
1.2.
1.2.1.
1: .
f ,
. ,
.
x y ,
f, , y=f(x). x
, y .
:
f:A B x f(x) x y
f(x) Df.
f(A) :
f(A)={y/y=f(x), x Df}
, :
, , ,
x f(x),
f(x).
,
, . , -
, x,
.
2: F(x) .
f(t) , t
f(t),
F(f(t))
.
t f(t). ,
(t)=F(f(t)),
4 .
t, ,
f(t). -
.
1.2.2.
3: f(x)
:
1. :: f(x)=xm, m .
: Df=R, R.
2. : f(x)=ax, 0<a 1. -
: Df=R, R+* .
3. : f(x)=logax, 0<a 1. -
: Df= R+* , R.
4. :
i. f(x)=x. : Df=R,
1 f ( x) 1 ={y R:
-1 y 1}.
ii. f(x)=x. : Df=R,
1 f ( x) 1 ={y R:
-1 y 1}.
iii. f(x)=x. :

Df={x R/x (2+1) , },
2
R.
iv. f(x)=x. :
Df={x R/x , },
R.
4: , -
(, -
, , , ) -
x .
5: , -
x .
6: x ,
:
f ( x) = r a n x n + a n-1 x n 1 +...+a 2 x 2 + a1 x + a 0 , an, an-1,,a2, a1, a0 R, n N, r N-{0, 1}.
:
) r . :
Df={x R/ a n x n + a n-1 x n 1 +...+a 2 x 2 + a1 x + a 0 0 }.
) r .
R.
: 1 5
7: :
i. :
f(x)=anxn+an-1xn-1++a2x2+a1x+a0, an, an-1,,a2, a1, a0 R, nN.
-
R.
ii. :
a n x n + a n-1 x n 1 +...+a 2 x 2 + a1 x + a 0
f ( x) = ,
bm x m + bm-1 x m 1 +...+b 2 x 2 + b1 x + b0
an, an-1,,a2, a1, a0 R, bm, bm-1,,b2, b1, b0 R n,mN.
:
Df={x R/ bm x m + bm-1 x m 1 +...+b 2 x 2 + b1 x + b0 0 }
,
, .
f(x)
, -
, x, . -
.
:
2, 2 x < 0
x 3 , x 1
f ( x) = , g ( x) = 0, x = 0
1, x < 1 2, 0 x < 2

8: , ,
, x
f(x), cR, f(x)=c, x A.
.
9: f(x) xy
. (x, y)
f(x)=y f(x) -
Cf. y=f(x) f(x).
6 .
1.2.3.
i. f(x)=x+, Df=R, , R
a) >0 y
10
x
-4 -2 2 4
-5
y
b) <0
10
x
-4 -2 2 4
c) =0 -5
y
6
x
-4 -2 2 4
ii. f(x)=x2+x+, Df=R, R*, , R

a) >0, >0
y
20
15
10
x
-4 -2 2 4
: 1 7
b) >0, <0 y
25
20
15
10
x
-4 -2 2 4
c) >0, =0
y
x
-1 1 2 3 4 5
d) <0, >0 y
x
-4 -2 2 4
-5
-10
-15
-20
e) <0, <0
y
x
-4 -2 2 4
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
8 .
f) <0, =0
y
x
-1 1 2 3 4 5
-2
-4
-6
-8
iii. f(x)=x3, Df=R,

y
R
a) >0
4
x
-4 -2 2 4
-2
-4
y
b) <0
4
x
-4 -2 2 4
-2
-4
a
iv. f(x)= , Df=R*, 0
x
y
a) >0
15
10
5
x
-4 -2 2 4
-5
-10
y
b) <0 20 -15
15 -20
10
5
x
-4 -2 2 4
-5
-10
-15
: 1 9
v. f(x)= x , Df=R+
y
3
2.5
1.5
0.5
x
2 4 6 8
vi. f(x)= | x | , Df=R

y
3
2.5
1.5
0.5
x
-7.5 -5 -2.5 2.5 5 7.5
vii. f(x)=x Df=R

y
1
0.5
x
2 3 3
2 2 2
-0.5
-1
viii. g(x)=x Dg=R

y
1
0.5
x
2 3 3
2 2 2
-0.5
-1
10 .

ix. h(x)=x x k+ , k Z
2
y
30
20
10
x
2 3 3
2 2 2
-10
-20
-30
x. k(x)=x x k+, k Z
y
30
20
10
x
2 3 3
2 -10 2 2
-20
-30
xi. f(x)=x, Df=R, 0< 1
a) >1 y
4
x
-2 -1 1 2
b) 0<<1
y
4
x
-2 -1 1 2
: 1 11
xii. f(x)=logx, Df= R+* , 0< 1

y
2
a) >1
x
1 2 3 4 5 6
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
y b) 0<<1
10
x
1 2 3 4 5 6
-2
f(x) , -
:
x 2 , x 1
f ( x) =
1, x < 1
( 1):
y
2.5
1.5
0.5
x
-1 -0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2
,
.
( 2)
, x
y, . x0 -
y1 y2 y1=f(x0) y2=f(x0).
y
12 .
y2
x 0 x0 x
y1
y
2
, -
f(x),
( ,
, ).
: ,
yy, ,
.
, : ,
, -
.
10: f(x) g(x) Df Dg
, :
i. .
ii. x A, f(x)=g(x).
1.2.4.
f(x) g(x) Df Dg. -

s(x), d(x), h(x) p(x) :
i. : s(x)=f(x)+g(x), Ds= Df Dg.
ii. : d(x)=f(x)-g(x), Dd= Df Dg.
iii. : h(x)=f(x).g(x), Dh= Df Dg.
f ( x)
iv. : p(x)= , Dp= Df Dg, g(x) 0.
g ( x)
11: f(x), g(x)

,
h(x)=(gof)(x)
f(x) g(x) h(x)=g(f(x)).
: Dh={x Df / f(x) Dg}.
: 1 13
, k(x)=(fog)(x) g(x) -
f(x) k(x)=f(g(x)). -
: Dk={x Dg / g(x) Df}.
1.2.5.
,
-
( 12 18):
12: ,
, b, x
x b.
13: b
.
14: -
, -

supM.
:
, -
. ,
. .
, ,
sup=0.
15: ,
, a, x
a x.
16: a
.
17: -
,
-
infM.
18: ,
: a x b.
19: f(x) ,
, ,
.
.
20: f(x) ,
, ,
.
.
21: f(x)
, :
x ,
14 .
f(x) . f(x)
.
: f(x)=x
R. , : -1 x 1
f(x) : -1 f(x) 1. -1
f(x) 1 -
f(x)=x .
22: f(x)
[, ] x1 , <x2 x1<x2, f(x1) f(x2),
f(x) [, ].
23: f(x)
[, ] x1 , <x2 x1<x2, f(x1)<f(x2),
f(x) [, ].
24: f(x)
[, ] x1 , <x2 x1<x2, f(x1) f(x2),
f(x) [, ].
25: f(x)
[, ] x1 , <x2 x1<x2, f(x1)>f(x2),
f(x) [, ].
26: f(x) ( ) -
( ) [,],
( ) .
27: f(x), [,], -
( ) x0, x [,] ,
f(x) f(x0).
28: f(x), [,], -
( ) x0, x [,] , f(x)
f(x0).

, :
i. f(x) =x2, x [0,+ )
0 x1<x2 , 0 x12<x22 0 f(x1)<f(x2)
f(x)=x2 .
ii. f(x)=x, x [0,+ ), 0
0 x1<x2 >0, , :
a a
x2 x x
> 1 2 > 1a 2 > 1 x1a < x2 a f ( x1 ) < f ( x2 )
x1 x1 x1
.
0 x1<x2 <0, , :
: 1 15
a a
x2 x x
> 1 2 < 1a 2 < 1 x1a > x2 a f ( x1 ) > f ( x2 )
x1 x1 x1
.
iii. f(x)=x, x R, >0, 1
>1, , :
a x2
x1 < x2 x2 x1 > 0 a x2 x1 > a 0 a x2 x1 > 1 x1
> 1 a x2 > a x1 f ( x1 ) < f ( x2 )
a
.
0<<1, , :
a x2
x1 < x2 x2 x1 > 0 a x2 x1 < a 0 a x2 x1 < 1 < 1 a x2 < a x1 f ( x1 ) > f ( x2 )
a x1
.

iv. f(x) =x, x ,
2 2
x +x x2 x1
x1 < x2 < 1 2 < .
0<
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
x1 + x2 x2 x1
x2 x1 = 2 ,
2 2
, : x2 x1 > 0 x2 > x1 f ( x1 ) < f ( x2 ) -

, .
2 2
v. f(x)=x, x [ 0, ]
x1 + x2 x x
0 x1 < x2 < 0 < 2 1 < .
0 <
2 2
x +x x x
x2 x1 = 2 1 2 2 1 < 0 , -,
2 2
: x2 x1 < 0 x2 < x1 f ( x1 ) > f ( x2 )
[ 0, ] .

vi. f(x)=x, x ,
2 2

< x1 < x2 < 0 < x2 x1 < .
2 2
x2 x1 x2 x1 x1 x2 ( x2 x1 )
x2 x1 = = = > 0,
x2 x1 x1 x2 x1 x2
, : x2 x1 > 0 x2 > x1 f ( x1 ) < f ( x2 ) -

, .
2 2
16 .
vii. f(x)=x, x ( 0, )
0 < x1 < x2 < 0 < x2 x1 < .
x2 x1 x1 x2 x2 x1 ( x2 x1 )
x2 x1 = = = < 0 , -
x2 x1 x1 x2 x1 x2
, : x2 x1 < 0 x2 < x1 f ( x1 ) > f ( x2 ) -
( 0, ) .
29: Df f(x)
0, xDf, -xDf xDf
f(-x)=f(x), f(x) , f(-x)=-f(x),
f(x) .
30: f(x) Df
f(x) >0 :
xDf, x+TDf. xDf , : f(x+)=f(x-T)=f(x),
f(x) .
1) f(x)
.
2) f(x) .
3) f(x), 2
....
: f(x)=c, c R,
.
31: f(x) Df 1-1 (
), , x1, x2 Df :
x1 x2, f(x1) f(x2).
: f(x1)=f(x2), x1=x2.
32: f:A B. 1-1,
y, x, f(x)=y.
g(y) -
. g(y)=x
f(x). f -1(y).
:
1) , : f -1(f(x))=x, xA f(f -1(y))=y, yB.
2) ,
, -
.
: f(x)=x2, x [0, +] .
, , [0, +] ,
, (y)= y , y [0, +] .
, f(x) [0, +]
( y)
2
y [0, +] , = y.
: 1 17
, f(x) (y)
, (y)
f(x) .
, , -
. (y)
:
y1=f(x1) y2=f(x2) y1<y2. (y1)=x1 (y2)=x2. -
, x1 x2, f(x1) f(x2), y1 y2,
. x1<x2, (x1)<(x2) (y)
.
,
.
, (y)
f(x), , -
f(x) x Oy.
: 90
.
y.
: f(x)=x2 x 0,
(x)= x ,
( 3 4).
y f(x)=x2 y f(x)= x
80
3
60
2.5
3
2
40 1.5
1
20
0.5
x x
2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8
4
-
:
i. f(x)=x, >0, 1, x R
f(x)=x >1
0<<1. >0, 1 f(x)=x -
. (x)=logx. -
x>0, f(x)=x (0,+ ).
,
a loga x = x, x > 0 log a a x = x, x R .
, ,
(x)=logx , >1 , 0<<1.
18 .

ii. f(x)=x, x ,
2 2

, f(x)=x, x , ,
2 2
. ,
(x)=x x.
, : x , ,

2 , 2 x.
, f(x)=x
[-1,1], [-1,1].
(x)=x -
f(x)=x, :
1) [-1,1].

2) ,
2 2
3) [-1,1]
4) :
) (x)=x, -1 x 1

) (x)=x, x
2 2
iii. f(x)=x, x [0,]
f(x)=x [0,].
(x)=x x.
, : x ,
, [0,] x. -
:
1) [-1,1]
2) [0,]
3) [-1,1]
4) :
) (x)=x, -1 x 1
) (x)=x, 0 x

iv. f(x)=x, x ,
2 2
, (x)=x
f(x)=x :
1) (- , )

2) ,
2 2
: 1 19
3) (- , )
4) :
) (x)=x, x(- , )

) (x)=x, <x<
2 2
v. f(x)=x, x (0,)
, (x)=x
f(x)=x :
1) (- , )
2) (0,)
3) (- , )
4) :
) (x)=x, x (- , )
) (x)=x, 0<x<
1.2.6.
x
1: f(x)= , x= .
1 x 4

2 2
x
f ( x) = f( )= 4 f ( ) = 2
f( )= 2
1 x 4 1 4 2 4 2 2
1
4 2 2
2
f( )=
4 2 2
2: :
2 3 3
i. + ii. 3 +
2 2 2

2 3 2
i. = , = - = - , , : = ,
4 2 3 3 2 2 4
3
= :
2 3
20 .
2 3
+ = = .
2 2 4 3 12
1 2 y 1 2 y
2 y = y = . , :
1 + 2 y 1 + 2 y

1
6 = 2 3 , , :
=
12 2+ 3
1 +
6
2 3 2 3
+ =
2 2 2+ 3
3 , x, : (x)

x=, 0 =x, |x| 1.
(x)= (x)= 1 2 a (x)= 1 x 2 .

4: x+x= .
2

3
x=a, <a< x=b, 0<b<. <a+b< .
2 2 2 2
1 1
a=x a= , b=x b= (x 0).
x x
1
a b-1 x x 1
(a+b)= = =0
a + b 1 + x
x

2
3
, , a+b= . a, b
2 2 2

, x+x= , x 0.
2
x=0 .
5: , :
x 1 x 2 2 x, x 0
i. = x, 1 < x < 1 ii. =
1 x2 1 + x 2 2 x, x 0
: 1 21

i. x=. a =x. x 1 x -1
2 2

<a< . :
2 2
x a a
= = = ( a ) = a = x .
1 x2 1 2 a a

ii. x=. <a< =x. -
2 2
:

) x 0, 0 0 0 2 . :
2
1 x2 1 2 a
= .
1 + x2 1 + 2 a
1 2 y
2 y = ,
1 + 2 y
1 x2
= ( 2a) = 2a = 2 x .
1 + x2

) x 0, 0 0 - 2 0 0 -2<. :
2
1 x2 1 2 a
= = ( 2a ) =
1 + x2 1 + 2 a
= ( (2a)) = 2a = 2 x.
7: :
x+3
i. f ( x) = iv. f ( x ) = (log x )
x 7 x + 12
2
1
ii. f ( x) = (9 x 2 )( x 2 4) + 3 5 x 1 v. f ( x ) = log( x) +
x+5
2x 1 1
iii. f ( x) = vi. f ( x ) = x +
3 x

i. x2-7x+12 0 x 3 x 4. Df=R-{3, 4}.
ii. (9-x2)(x2-4) 0 (3-x)(3+x)(x-2)(x+2) 0
22 .
x - -3 -2 2 3
+
3-x + + + + -
3+x - + + + +
x-2 - - - + +
x+2 - - + + +
- + - + -
Df={xR/ -3 x -2 2 x 3}.
2x 1
iii. 1 1 3 2 x 1 3 2 2 x 4 1 x 2 .
3
: Df={x R/ -1 x 2}.
1
iv. x>0 -1 logx 1 log10-1 logx log10 x 10.
10
1
Df={x R/ x 10}.
10
v. x>0 x<0 x+5 0 x -5. Df={x R/ x (- ,-5) (-5,0)}.
vi. x 0 x 0 2 x (2+1), .
: Df={xR/2 x (2+1), x 0}.
8: ;
x
i. f ( x) = g ( x) = 1 ii. f ( x) = log x g ( x) = 2 log x
x
iii. f ( x) = 2 x + 2 x g ( x) = 1 iv. f ( x) = x x-1 g ( x) = x( x 1)

i. Df=R-{0} Dg=R. , Df Dg f(x)
g(x) .
ii. Df= R+* , Dg= R+* , Df=Dg. g(x)=2logx=logx2 f(x). -
f(x) g(x) .
iii. Df=Dg=R f(x)=2x+2x=1=g(x). f(x)
g(x) .
iv. Df={xR/x 1}, Dg={xR/x(- ,0] [1,+ )}. ,
Df Dg f(x) g(x) .
10: f(x)=lnx g(x)= x . -

:
i. h(x)=(gof)(x) ii. k(x)=(fog)(x)
: 1 23

x>0, Df= R+* . x 0
Dg=R+.
i. Dh={x Df / f(x) Dg}={ x R+* /lnx R+}=
={x>0/lnx 0}=
={x>0/lnx ln1}={x>0/x 1}, -
h(x) [1,+ ) : h(x)=g(f(x))= ln x .
ii. Dk={x Dg /g(x) Df}= {x R+/ x R+* }=
={x 0/ x >0}=
={x 0/x>0},
(0,+ ). : k(x)=f(g(x))= ln x .
11: :
f(x)=x2.

( )
R, Df=R. :
i. x1, x2 [0, + ). x1<x2 , f(x1)<f(x2)
f(x) .
ii. x1, x2 (- ,0]. x<x2 , f(x1)>f(x2)
f(x) .
12: f(x)=-x2+1
xo=0.

, f(xo)=f(0)=-02+1=1 f(x) f(0). xo=0 -
f(0)=1.
13:
:
1
i. f(x)=ax+b ii. f(x)= (ax+a-x), a>1
2

i. x1<x2 x2-x1>0, f(x2)-f(x1)=(ax2+b)-(ax1+b)=a(x2-x1).
a>0 , : 0<f(x2)-f(x1) f(x2)>f(x1) f(x)
xR.
a<0 , : 0>f(x2)-f(x1) f(x2)<f(x1) f(x)
xR.
ii. x1<x2, :
1 1 1 1 1
f ( x2 ) f ( x1 ) = ( a x + a -x ) ( a x + a -x ) = a x -a x + x x =
2 2 1 1 2 1
2 2 2 2
a a
1
.
1 x x 1
= ( a -a ) 1 x x
2 1
2 a a
2 1
24 .
ax>1, x>0 a x1 < a x 2 , x1<x2, a x 2 -a x1 > 0 1 x 1 x > 0 .

a 2a 1
f(x2)-f(x1)>0 x>0 f(x)

x>0.
f(x) x<0.
14:
:
x
i. f(x)= x vi. f(x)=
x
x
ii. f(x)=2 2
x
vii. f(x )=x 4 + x 2 5
1
iii. f(x)=x 3 + 2 x + 1 viii. f(x )=
x
1
iv. f(x)=x ix. f(x)=x x 3
x
v. f(x)=
(1+2 )x 2
x. f(x)= x
2x

i. Df=R, xR, - xR f(-x)=|-x|=|x|=f(x). f(x) -
.
ii. Df=R, xR, - xR f(-x)=2-x -2-(-x)=2-x-2x= -(2x-2-x)= - f(x). -
f(x) .
f ( x)
iii. Df=R, xR, - xR f(-x)=(-x)3+2(-x)+1=-x3-2x+1 .
f ( x)
f(x) .
x. Df=R+. xDf,
-xDf. , .
16: :
1
i. f(x)=2x iv. f(x)=x+ 2x+ 1 3x
5 3
x 1 x x
ii. f(x)= v. f(x)=2 -3
2 2 3

i. f(x+T)=f(x) 2(x+T)=2x 2x+2T=2+2x T=, . =1, =.
2x+2T=2-2x T=-2x, , .
x 1 x + T 1 x 1
ii. f(x+T)=f(x) x + T 1 = =2+
2 2 2 2
x+T-1=4+x-1 T=4, . =1, =4.

x + T 1 =2- x 1 x+T-1=4-x+1 =4-2x+2, .
2 2
17: f(x)=2e3x-2 1-1.

: 1 25

f(x) Df=R. :
f(x1)=f(x2)
2e3 x1 2 = 2e3 x2 2
e3 x1 2 = e3 x2 2
3x1-2=3x2-2
3x1=3x2
x1=x2, f(x) 1-1.
18: , : g(y)= y g(y)= - y

[0, + ), f(x)=x2,
Df=R.

f(x)=x2 1-1. :
f(x1)=f(x2)
x12=x22
x12-x22=0
(x1-x2)(x1+x2) =0
x1-x2=0, x1=x2
x1+x2=0, x1=-x2, x[0, + ).
f(x) 1-1,
: y=x2 x= y x= - y .
: g(y)= y g(y)= - y .
19: f(x)=2e3-x-1.

f(x) Df=R.
f(x) 1-1:
f(x1)=f(x2)
2e3 x1 1 = 2e3 x2 1
2e3 x1 = 2e3 x2
e3 x1 = e3 x2
3-x1=3-x2
-x1=-x2
x1=x2, f(x) 1-1.
f -1(y) :
y +1 y +1 y +1
y=2e3-x-1 2e3-x=y+1 e3-x= lne3-x=ln (3-x)lne=ln
2 2 2
y +1 y +1 y +1
3-x= ln x=3-ln . f -1(y)= 3-ln , y>-1.
2 2 2
iii. x1, x2 Df, x1 x2. :

-x1 -x2
2-x1 2-x2
2 2 x1 2 2 x2 (4)
26 .
x1 + 7 x2 + 7 (5)
x1 -x2 (6)
(4), (5) (6) :
2 2 x1 x1 + 7 x1 2 2 x2 x2 + 7 x2 f(x1) f(x2),
f(x) 1-1.
iv. , -7 x 2 f(x) , :
f(-7) f(x) f(2) -5 f(x) 13. f(2)=-5 , f(-7)
f(x).
v. 2 2 x x + 7 x +5=0 f(x)+5=0 f(x)= -5 f(x)=f(2) x=2, -
f(x) 1-1.
: 1 27
28 .
2 :

2.1.
1
f ( x) = x , x=0 .
x
: x=0;
f(x) f1(x)=x
1
f2(x)= , [-1,1], -
x
, x 0, f(x) x x.
, f(x)
y=x y=-x
, ( 1).
y
y=-x y=x
0.3
0.2
0.1
x
1 1 1 1

2 -0.1 2
-0.2
-0.3
1
x ,

(0,0)
. f(x)
.
=0
1
f ( x) = x (
x
Df=R*), x
. , :
f(x) ,
.
: 1 29
1:
, (-,+) .
. -
(,), , ,

.
2.2.
2.2.1.
2: f(x) x
(x ), Df f(x),
>0, >0 0<|x-|< ,
|f(x)-|<, f(x) . : lim f ( x) = . x -
x
: x .
Cauchy
(1789 1857).
, ,
, f(x) , ,
, xDf,
. ,
.
, ,
>0, . ,
, .
: 1 2
, -
f(x) x ;
2
, . = 1 ,
2
1 2, xDf, x ,
|x-|<1 |f(x)-1|<, |x-|<2 -
|f(x)-2|<. , x f(x),
|x-|<1 |x-|<2, :
|1-2|=|1-f(x)+f(x)-2| |1-f(x)|+|f(x)-2|<2=|1-2|
, : |1-2|<|1-2| ,
.
f(x) x .
f(x) . -
x .
Cauchy,
1
f ( x) = x , Df=R*, x 0.
x
30 .
=0 ( =0), -
, -
. , lim f ( x) = 0 , ,
x 0
>0, >0 , |x|< ,

x 0, x 1 < .
x
=, |x|< -
1 1
: x =| x | | x |< .
x x
: f(x)=x, Df=R. ,
1, x 0.
. :
x x x x
| x 1|=|1 x |= 2 2 = 2 2.1. =| x |
2 2 2 2
( : |x| 1
|x| |x|)
, =, |x|<, |x|<,
|x-1|<. , lim x = 1 .
x 0
=0 -
f(x)=x, R. . -
, 1 x 0.
x , .
, .
x .
: f ( x) = x, x 0 .
1, x = 0
x 0 0, f(0)=1. lim f ( x) f (0) .
x 0
: f(x)=c, cR, lim f ( x) = c lim c = c .

x x
1: f(x) ,
lim f ( x) = . x1, x2,
x
x3,,xn, -
, f(x1), f(x2), f(x3),,
f(xn), .
2: f(x) ,
lim f ( x) = . x1, x2,
x
x3,,xn, -
, f(x1), f(x2),
f(x3),,f(xn), , lim f ( x)
x
.
: 1 31
3: f(x) ,
. , f(x) , x -
, x1, x2, x3,,xn,.,
, f(x1), f(x2), f(x3),,
f(xn), .
Heine
(1821 1882).
: (Cauchy Heine)
.
Heine -
1
. f ( x) = , x
x
0.
, . -
2 , 2 ,..., 2 ,... 0.
3 (2n 1)
1
f ( x) =
x
3 (2n 1) 1, -1, 1, -1, .
, ,..., ,...
2 2 2
-
f ( x) = 1 x 0 ( 2).
x
y
1
0.5
x
1 1 1 1
2 2
-0.5
-1
2
, Heine
, :
3: f(x) g(x) ,
,
f(x)+g(x), f(x)-g(x), f(x)g(x) f ( x) (g(x) 0, ),
g ( x)
:
32 .
i. lim [ f ( x) + g ( x) ] = lim f ( x) + lim g ( x)

x x x
ii. lim [ f ( x) g ( x)] = lim f ( x) lim g ( x)

x x x
iii. lim [ f ( x).g ( x)] = lim f ( x).lim g ( x)

x x x
f ( x) lim
x
f ( x)
iv. lim =
x g ( x )
lim
x
g ( x)
lim f ( x) lim g ( x)
x x
lim g ( x) 0 .
x
4: f(x), g(x) ,
x f(x) g(x),
lim f ( x) lim g ( x) , lim f ( x) lim g ( x) .
x x x x
5: f(x), g(x) h(x)

, x
g(x) f(x) h(x) h(x) f(x) g(x),
lim g ( x) = lim h( x) = , lim f ( x) = .
x x x
( ).
6: f(x) g(x) ,
. , lim f ( x) = 0 , g(x)
x
, lim [ f ( x).g ( x)] = 0 .

x
7: f(x) x ,
(-,+) .

1) ,
f(x).
2)
, x , -
f ( x) = 1 x 0.
x
8: lim f ( x) = :
x
) lim n f ( x) = n , R+ , n N {0,1}, n
x
) lim n f ( x) = n , R n N {0,1}, n
x
) lim [ f ( x)] = n , R, n N
n
x
: 1 33
2.2.2.
, ,
. -
Cauchy Heine.
1: f(x)= x , x 0
x
0<x<90, 1.

0<x<90 x< x <1 -1<- x <-x 0<1- x <1-x

x x x
x2 x2
0<1- x <22 x <2 0<1- x < x . >0.
2
=
x 2 4 2 x 2
Heine: x1, x2,,x, 0,
2
x 0, : x1 , x 2 ,, x , 1. 0<1- x < x ,
x1 x2 x x 2
, > : x 0 < 2
: lim x =1, x 0.
x
Cauchy: >0
2
x
< : = 2 .
2
2: f(x)=2x2-1, x 1,
1.

Cauchy >0,
>0, x 1 x 1 <, : (2x 2 - 1) - 1 <.
:
(2x 2 - 1) - 1 < 2x 2 - 1 - 1 < 2x 2 2 < 2(x 2 1) <
2 x 2 1 < 2 ( x + 1)( x 1) < 2 x + 1. x 1 < x + 1. x 1 < .

2
x 1, x (0, 2).

: (2+1). x 1 < x 1 < .
2 6
=min 1, : x 1
6
x 1 <, : (2x 2 - 1) - 1 < lim(2x2-1)=1, x 1.
3: f(x)=2x+3, x 1,
5.
34 .

Cauchy: >0, >0,
x 1 x 1 <, : (2 x + 3) 5 <. >0.
:
(2 x + 3) 5 < 2 x + 3 5 <

2 x 2 < 2( x 1) < 2 x 1 < x 1 < . =
2 2
>0, x 1, x 1 <, : (2 x + 3) 5 < lim(2x+3)=5, x 1.
Heine: >0
x1, x2,,x, 1, x 1, : 2x1+3, 2x2+3,,2x+3, 5.
, > x 1 < . > : (2 x + 3) 5 <,
2
lim(2x+3)=5, x 1.

Cauchy.
4: =10-2, >0, , 0< x 1 <,

: x 1
<.
x +1 2
5: :
x2 + 2 x 8 x 4 3x + 2 4 x 2 3x
i. lim ii. lim iii. lim
x2 x3 8 x 1 x 5 4 x + 3 x 0 2 x 2 9 x
x3 3x + 2 x3 2 x 1 x2 5x + 6
iv. lim 4 v. lim 5 vi. lim 2
x 1 x 4 x + 3 x 1 x 2 x 1 x 3 x 8 x + 15

i. x 2 ( x 2)
, 0 , , , -
0
, .
:
x2 + 2x 8 ( x 2)( x + 4) x+4 lim( x + 4)
lim = lim = lim 2 = x 2
=
x2 x 8
3 x 2 ( x 2)( x + 2 x + 4)
2 x2 x + 2 x + 4 lim( x 2 + 2 x + 4)
x 2
lim x + lim 4 2+4 6 6 6 1

= x2 x 2
= = = = =
lim x + lim 2 x + lim 4
( lim x ) 2 + 2.2 + 4 4 + 4 + 4 12 2
2 2 2
x2 x2 x2 + 2 lim x + 4
x 2 x2
: ii, iv v
Horner.
6: :
: 1 35
1 + 2x 3 1 1 x x2
i. lim ii. lim
x 4
x 2 x 1 x
1+ x 1 x 3
1+ x 3 1 x
iii. lim iv. lim
x 0 3
1+ x 3 1 x x 0 x

i. x 4
0, .
,
2-2=(-)(+) :
( )( ) = lim ( 1 + 2 x ) 3 ( x + 2) =
)(
2
2
1 + 2x 3 1 + 2x 3 1 + 2x + 3 x +2
lim = lim
x4
x 2 x4
( x 2)( x + 2 )( 1 + 2 x + 3)
( ) (
x 2 1 + 2x + 3
x4 2
2
)
(1 + 2 x 9 ) ( x + 2 ) 2 ( x 4) ( x + 2) 2 ( x + 2) 4
= lim = lim = lim = .
x 4
( x 4 ) ( 1 + 2 x + 3) x4
( x 4 ) ( 1 + 2 x + 3) x4
( 1 + 2 x + 3) 3
: iii, iv
3-3=(-)(2++2).

3+3=(+)(2-+2). : -=(-)(-1+-2++-2+-1)
+=(+)(-1--2++-2+(-1)-1-1), -{0,1,2}.
7: :
x2 + 2 x2 5x + 6 x5 1
i. lim ii. lim iii. lim
x 1 2 x 2 + x + 1 x2 x2 2 x x 1 x3 1
2.3.
2.3.1.
,
-
.
4: f(x) . ,
f(x) + x , >0
>0, x 0<|x-|< f(x)>. :
lim f ( x) = + .
x
,
, , f(x)
, x,
.
5: f(x) . ,
f(x) - x , <0
36 .
>0, x 0<|x-|< f(x)<. :

lim f ( x) = .
x
, , lim 12 = + .
x 0 x
1
>0. = ,
A
|x|<, |x|< 1 , x2< 1 12 >.
A A x
: , lim log a x = , a > 1 .

x 0

, = . -
f(x)=logx >1 (0,+ ). |x|<
, 0<x< logx< log= f(x)<B.
1: f(x) g(x) ,
. :
) f(x) , :
i) lim g ( x) = + lim [ f ( x) + g ( x)] = +
x x
ii) lim g ( x) = lim [ f ( x) + g ( x)] =

x x
) lim f ( x) = a lim g ( x) = + , :
x x
i) >0 lim [ f ( x).g ( x)] = +

x
ii) <0 lim [ f ( x).g ( x)] =

x
) lim f ( x) = + lim g ( x) = + , :
x x
i) lim [ f ( x) + g ( x)] = +
x
ii) lim [ f ( x).g ( x)] = +

x
, , lim 2 x = + . -
x 0 x
lim x = 1 lim 12 = + .
x 0 x 0 x
: , lim( x + ln x) = . -
x 0
, lim x = 1 lim ln x = .
x 0 x 0
6: f(x) -
: , x x>,
(,+ ). ,
f(x) x + , >0, ,
<x |f(x)-|<. : lim f ( x) = .
x +
7: f(x) -
: , x x<,
: 1 37
(- ,). ,
f(x) x - , >0, , -
>x |f(x)-|<. : lim f ( x) = .
x
, , lim 1 = 0 .
x + x
1 1
= . x>A, x> ,

1 <, : 1 0 < .
x x
: , lim a x = 0 , >1. -
x
, >0 =log. x<B, -

x ( >1), , :
0 < a x < a B = a log = . x<B , : |x-0|<.
a
: ,

lim x = . >0 = .
x + 2 2
x>A, x , , :

x > A = = . ,
2 2
x< . 0< -x<, x>A.
2 2
8: f(x) (,+ ).
, f(x) + x + ,
>0, , , x> , f(x)>.
: lim f ( x) = + .
x +
,
:
i. lim f ( x) = ii. lim f ( x) = + iii. lim f ( x) =
x + x x
: , >1, lim a x = + . -
x +
=log.
x ( >1),
x>K, , : a x > a K = a loga A A .
: , >0 lim x a = + .
x +
1
= A a . , x
(0,+ ), >0. x>K
a
1
x > K = Aa = A .
a a

: , >1,
lim log a x = + . ,
x +
=. logx (-
38 .
>1), x>K ,
log a x > log a K = log a a A = A . log a x > A , o lim log a x = + .
x +
1) , 3 2.2.1. -
x + - , x .
2) 4 5 2.2.1., x +
x - . + - .
3) 6 7, 1 -
, x + x - ,
f(x) -
, (, ),
x + (- ,) x - .
4) , lim c = lim c = c, c R .
x + x
,
:
) lim 2 x 2 3x + 1 . 3
2
x + 3x + 5
2.2.1, , :
3 1 3 1 1 11
x2 2 + 2 2 + 2 23 +
2 x 3x + 1
2
x x x x = lim x x x = 2.
lim = lim = lim
x + 3x + 5
2 x + 5 x + 5 x + 11 3
x2 3 + 2 3+ 2 3+5
x x x x
) , lim x = 0 , 6
x + x
2.2.1. x + .
) f(x)>0 lim f ( x) = 0 . , lim 1 = + .

x x f ( x)
1
lim f ( x) = 0 lim = +
x + x + f ( x)
1 1
) , lim = + , lim = 0 . -
f ( x)
x x f ( x)
1
lim f ( x) = + lim = 0.
x + x + f ( x )
f(x), x
, .
x
, x .
:
9: , f(x) , x
, >0, >0,
: 1 39
<x<+ |f(x)-|<. : lim f ( x) = lim f ( x) =

x + x
lim f ( x) = ( ).
x , x >
10: , f(x) , x
, >0, >0,
-<x< |f(x)-|<. : lim f ( x) = lim f ( x) =
x x
lim f ( x) = ( ).
x , x <
: :
lim+ f ( x) = +, lim f ( x) = +, lim+ f ( x) = lim f ( x) = .
x x x x
, , : lim 1 = + .
x 0+ x
1
, = . 0<x<,
A
0<x< 1 , , 1 >, .
A x
1
lim = .
x 0 x

1) , lim f ( x) =
x +
lim f ( x) = lim+ f ( x) = lim f ( x ) = lim f ( x) .

x x x x
2) f(x) x , :
lim f ( x) = lim f ( x) = . , lim f ( x) = .
x + x x
3) lim f ( x) = lim f ( x) =
x + x
. lim f ( x) .
x
|x|
, : f ( x) = x + ,
x
Df=R*. , lim f ( x) = 1 lim f ( x) = 1 .
x 0 x 0+
lim f ( x) , .
x 0
2: f(x) -
(,), , x
(,).
3: f(x)
(,), , x
(,).
4: f(x) -
(,+ ) ,

40 .
5: f(x) -
(- ,) ,
.
2.3.2.
1: :
x+3
i. lim 2 vii. lim x
x 0 x x +
ii. lim
x
x 2 ( x 2) 2
viii. lim x + 1 x
x +
( )
iii. lim+
x2
x 1 x 1
2
ix. lim
x +
( x2 + 1 x2 1 )
x2 3x + 1
iv. lim 2 x. lim
x 1 x 1 x + x + x + 12
x x3
v. lim xi. lim 2
x + x + 3 x + 2
x +
x2 + 1
x x2 + 5
vi. lim xii. lim
x + 2 x 2 x + 2
x
x2 + 1

x+3 0+3
i. lim = 2 = + .
x 0 x2 0
x2 12
iii. lim+ = =+ .
x 1 x 2 1 12 1
x x x x 1
vi. lim = lim = lim = lim = lim = 1.
x x x
x +1
2
1 1 x
1 x
1
x 1 + 2
2
| x | 1+ 2 x 1 + 2 1+ 2
x x x x
2: :
1 x 3 2 x + 33 x + 55 x
i. lim ii. lim iii. lim ( x + a )( x + ) x
x 2+ 3 x x + 3x 2 + 3 2 x 1 x +
: 1 41
2.4.
-
x
x 1
lim = 1 lim 1 + = e . ,
x 0 x x +
x
x
lim 1 + 1 = e .
x x
2.4.2.
1: :
1 + x x x (a + 2 x) 2 (a + x) + a
i. lim v. lim
x 0 x x 0 x2
2
2
x a (a + 2 x) 2 (a + x) + a
ii. lim vi. lim
xa xa x 0 x2
x a (a + 2 x) 2 (a + x) + a
iii. lim vii. lim
xa xa x 0 x2
(a + 2 x) 2 (a + x) + a (a + 2 x). (a + 2 x) 2 a
iv. lim viii. lim
x 0 x2 x 0 x

i.
1 + x x x
=
(
1 + x x x 1 + x x + x
=
)( )
2
x
2
(
1 + x x + x 2
x
2
)
1 + x x x2
x x + x
2
= = =
2
x
2
(
1 + x x + x 2
2
x
)
1 + x x + x ( )
2
x x x x
2 x + 1 2 + 1
= x =
2 2 x
=
2
x
2
( 1 + x x + x ) 2 x
2
(
1 + x x + x )
x x x x x
4 2 2 + 1 4 2 1 +
2 2 x 2 x
= =
2
x
2
(
1 + x x + x ) 1 + x x + x
x x
lim = 1 , lim 1 + = 2 . ,
x 0 x x 0
x
: lim 2
x 0
x
2
= 1 lim
x 0
( )
1 + x x + x = 2 .
4.
2: :
42 .
2x x+4
3x + 1 3
i. lim ii. lim 1 + iii. lim x 1 2 x
x + 3 x 2
x +
x x 0
2
x x
x2 + 1 x+a
iv. lim 2 v. lim
x + x 2 x + x a

2
1
2x 2x 1 3
3x
1 1 +
3 x 1 + 3 x 1 + .
3 x
2x
3x + 1 3x
i. = = =
3x 2
2x 2x 4
2 3

3 x 1 3 x
x 3
1 2
1 +
3 1+ 1

x 3

2 x
2

x
1
, : lim 1 + = e .
x +
x
e2.
3: :
x x 2 x
i. lim v. lim
x 0 3 x x 0 x
2 x 1 1 x
ii. lim vi. lim
x 0 x x 0 x2
x
2
iii. lim 2 vii. lim x x
x 02x2 x 0
2 x 1
iv. lim viii. lim x
x 0 x x 0 x
4: :
x x x
x2 1 x +3 1
i. lim 2 ii. lim iii. lim 1 2
x + x + 1
x +
x x +
x
x x2
k 1
iv. lim 1 + , k Z v. lim 1 + 2
x +
x x
x
: 1 43

44 .
3 :

3.1.

. ,
, .
, -
.
3.2.
, ,
-
f(x), .
. f()
: f() lim f ( x) ,
x
, ; f() lim f ( x) ,
x
, , f(x) -
.
, f(x)=x, f(0)=1
lim f ( x) = 1 . =0.
x 0
1: f(x)
. f(x) ,
x lim f ( x) = f ( ) .
x
,
.
lim f ( x) .
x
, , -
. , f(x)
.
Cauchy Heine
,
:
2: f(x)
. f(x) ,
>0, >0, |f(x)-f()|<, x |x-|<.
( Cauchy)
3: f(x)
. f(x) ,
: 1 45
x1, x2,,xn,, , ,
f(x1), f(x2),,f(xn),
f(). ( Heine)
, , ,
, .
Cauchy -
. , f(x)
. |f(x)-f()|<,
f()-<f(x)<f()+, x
|x-|<, x f(x)
(-,+).
,
f(x), ,
, ,
y=f()- y=f()+ ( 1).
y
f()+
f() Cf
f()-
x - + x
1
, .
, -
, .
4: f(x) ,
.
: f(x)
, :
1)
2) f().
: f(x)=x =0.
, :
x, x 0
f ( x) = , , x
1, x = 0
0, lim f ( x) f (0) . -
x 0
=0.
: f(x)
,
.
46 .
f(x) ,
.
f(x) x .
f ( ) = lim f ( x) .
x
1
: f ( x) = x , Df=R*.
x
f(0)=0 =0. -
x. lim f ( x) = 0 . ,
x 0
lim f ( x) = f (0) = 0 , f(x) xR.

x 0
f ( x) = 1 Df=R*,
x
=0,
lim f ( x) .
x 0
5: f(x), ,
, lim f ( x) = f ( ) ( lim f ( x) = f ( )
x x a
lim f ( x) = f ( ) ).
x , x <
6: f(x), ,
, lim f ( x) = f ( ) ( lim f ( x) = f ( ) lim f ( x) = f ( ) ).
x + x x , x >
:
1) ,
:

.
2) ,
(). , :
| x|
) x + ,x 0
, =0,
f ( x) = x
1, x = 0
lim f ( x) = f (0) = 1
x 0
| x|
) x + ,x 0
, =0,
g ( x) = x
1, x = 0
lim f ( x) = f (0) = 1
x 0+
|x|
) h( x) = x + x , x 0 , ,
0, x = 0
lim f ( x) lim f ( x) f (0) .
x 0 x 0
: 1 47
3.3.
f(x),
:
1: f(x)
f() 0, (-,+) ,
f(x) .
2: f(x) g(x) ,
f(x)+g(x), f(x)-g(x), f(x).g(x), f ( x) ( g ( ) 0 ), -
g ( x)
.
3: F(x) ,
f(t) f()=,
g(t)=F(f(t)), .
4: f(t), ,
( ) ,
g(x) . ( 2).
y
x2
+ x=g(t)
x0
-
x1
x - + x
2
x |x-|<, , x1<x<x2.
g(x) , , g(x1)<g(x)<g(x2).
g(x1)=-=g()- g(x2)=+=g()+ x
|x-|< , g()-<g(x)<g()+, |g(x)-g()|<
3.4.
:
i. f(x)=c, c R, Df=R
ii. f(x)=x, Df=R
iii. f(x)=anxn+an-1xn-1++a1x+a0, Df=R
iv. f(x)=x, >0, 1, Df=R
v. f(x)=logx, >0, 1, Df=R*+
vi. f(x)=x, >0, 1, Df=R+
vii. f(x)=x, Df=R
viii. f(x)=x, Df=R

ix. f(x)=x, x + ,
2
48 .
x. f(x)=x, x ,
3.5.
,
[,] :
1 ( ): f(x)
[,], .
1
f ( x) = , x(0,1].
x
(=0) .
, ,
.
1
: f ( x) = x , x 0 . ,
0, x = 0
f(x) (=0) [0,1].
f(x)=x2, x [0,2],
=2 ,
4. .
2 ( Weierstrass (1815 1897)): f(x)
[,],
.
f(x) [,],
1, . ,
. f(x),
, ,
, , f(x).
: f ( x) = x 1 , x(1,+ ).
x
, 1.
(1,+ ),
().
3 ( Bolzano (1781 1848)): f(x)
[,] f() f(),
f() f(),
(,), f()=.
f()f() , , f()<0 ( f()>0)
f()>0 ( f()<0), f(x) -
x [,].
f(x) ,
[,] f(x) cR
. 3,
x x [,], f(x)= f(x)=.
: 1 49
, x=x, = f(x)=c
, x x.
[x,x] [,].
f(x) [x,x]
, 3, f(x)
x x. f(x) ,
[,].
1: f(x) ,
,
. x, x, ,
|f(x)-f(x)| -.
4: f(x)
[,], , ,
[,] ,
- ,
f(x).
, .
[,] ,
, - -
, .
2
-
[,]. [,]
[,], , - .
2,
f(x) [,],
x1 x2 f(x1)= f(x2)=.
x2-x1< x1 x2
:
)
[,]. |f(x)-f(x)|
,
-, .
)
[,]. [,] [,]
[,], x1 [,] x2 [,]. , :
|f(x1)-f(x2)|=|f(x1)-f()+f()-f(x2)|=|[f(x1)-f()]+[f()-f(x2)]|
|f(x1)-f()|+|f()-f(x2)| + =. |f(x1)-f(x2)|<.
2 2
) ) , -=f(x1)-f(x2)<.
2: f(x) -
[,], , ,
x[,] y[,] |x-y|<, ,
|f(x)-f(y)|<.
50 .
3.6.
1: Cauchy, ,
:
i. f(x)=2x+5, R ii. f(x)=x2, R
x2 2
iii. f ( x) = , =1
x2 2 x 3

i. >0. |f(x)-f()|=|(2x+5)-(2+5)|=|2x+5-2-
5|=|2x-2|=2|x-|. = >0 x |x-|<
2 2
|f(x)-f()|<, f(x) .
ii. x , |x-|<.
|x|-||<|x-|, , |x|-||< |x|<||+.
. |f(x)-f()|=|x2-2|=|x-||x+| |x-|(|x|+||)<|x-|(||++||)=|x-
|(2||+).
,
, x |x-|<, , |x-|< |x-|< .
2 | | +a 2 | | +a
|f(x)-f()| |x-|(2||+)< ( 2 | | + a ) =, , -
2 | | +
f(x) x.
iii. x , |x-|<1 |x-1|<1,
-
x. -
, 0<x<2 ( |x-1|<1) :
x2 2 12 2 x2 2 1 3x 2 + 2 x 5
| f ( x) f (1) |= = = =
x 2 2 x 3 12 2.1 3 x2 2 x 3 4 4( x 2 2 x 3)
3x 2 + 2 x 5 3x2 + 2 x 5 3x2 + 2 x 5 | x 1 || 3 x + 5 |
= = = =
4( x 2 x + 1 4)
2
4 ( x 1) 4
2
4 4 ( x 1) 4 4 ( x 1) 2
2
x<2 3x<6 3x+5<11 : |x-1|<1 (x-1)2<1 -(x-1)2>-1

11
4-(x-1)2>4-1 4-(x-1)2>3 4[4-(x-1)2]>12. | f ( x) f (1) | | x 1|.
12

12 12
1 . |x-1|<1 |x-1|< . ,
11 11
11
: | f ( x) f (1) | | x 1|< , ,
12
=1.
2: , ,
, :
: 1 51
x
i. f ( x) = x 3 ,=0 iii. f ( x) = , = 0
x +1
2
ii. f ( x) =| x |, = 1

x 0 0
iii. lim f ( x) = lim = 2 = 0 , f (0) = 2 = 0 , lim f ( x) = f ( )
x 0 x 0 x +1 0 +1
2
0 +1 x 0
f(x) =0.
3: :
x , 1 x < 1
x 2 , 1 x < 0
i. f ( x) = ii. f ( x) = 1, x = 1
x + 1, 0 x 1 5 x,1 < x

ii. lim f ( x) = lim x = 1 , lim+ f ( x) = lim(5
+
x) = 5 1 = 4 , lim+ f ( x) lim f ( x)
x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1
x 1,
. .
, x 1+ f(1), 1,
lim x f(1).
x 1
4: ,
2
=0: f ( x) = x 2 + x 2 + x2 x2
+ + ...
1+ x (1 + x ) (1 + x )
2 2 2 3

f(x)
1=x2 = 1 2 , , x 0, : ||<1.
1+ x
,
1 2
, : f ( x) = x 2 = 1 + x 2 . f(0)=1+0 =1.
1
1
1 + x2
lim f ( x) = lim(1 + x 2 ) = 1 + 02 = 1 . lim f ( x) = f (0) .
x 0 x 0 x 0
f(x) =0.
5: b R, -
:
3
bx + 2, x 1 x 2 , x 2 x, 0 x 4
i. f ( x) = 2 ii. f ( x) = 2 iii. f ( x) =
x , x > 1 x + bx 1, x > 2 x + b, 3 < x
4

i. f(x) (- ,1) (1,+ )
b.
52 .
lim f ( x) = lim x 2 = 12 = 1 lim f ( x) = lim(

bx + 2) = b.1 + 2 = b + 2 ,
x 1+ x 1+ x 1 x 1
f(1)=b.1+2=b+2.
=1 :
lim f ( x) = lim f ( x) = f (1) b+2=1 b=-1.
.
x 1+ x 1
6: :
x, x 0
1 1
, 0 x <1
i. f ( x) = , x >1 ii. f ( x) = x 1
1 x x 2 + 1, x 1
1 x, 0 < x 1

i. x, 1-x 1 (- ,0], (0,1]
1 x
(1,+ ), . f(x) ,
=0 =1.
, f(0)=0 lim+ f ( x) = lim+ (1 x) = 1 0 = 1 f (0) , -
x 0 x 0
f(x) =0.
f(1)=0 1 1
lim f ( x ) = lim+ = = , ,
x 1+ x 1 1 x 11
f(x),
=1.
7: :
i. x5 3 x + 1 = 0, x [1, 2] iii. x 4 7 x3 + 14 x 2 14 x + 24 = 0, x [2,5]
ii. x3 3x + 1 = 0, x [1, 0] iv. x5 + x 4 9 x3 9 x 2 + 14 x + 14 = 0, x [3, + )

i. , f(1)=15-3.1+1=1-3+1=-1 f(2)=25-3.2+1=32-6+1=27
f(1)f(2)=(-1)(27)=-27<0. Bolzano,
[1,2].
iv. , :
x5 + x 4 9 x3 9 x 2 + 14 x + 14 = x3 ( x 2 9) + x 2 ( x 2 9) + (14 x + 14) . -
, , x 3,
. , -
.
8: x x > 0 .

i. f(x)=x-x , -
, x-x=0
Bolzano. [0,2]
4
: 1 53
5
, [0,2] 0, , , 5
4 4 4 4
5 , 2 . f(x) -
4
. ,
, -
, .

) 0,
4
3 1 3
x= , : f = =
1
= < 0 ,
6 6 6 6 2 2 2
f(x)<0 x 0, , x-x<0.
4
) , 5
4 4

x= , : f = = 1 0 = 1 > 0 , f(x)>0
2 2 2 2
5
x , , x-x>0.
4 4
) 5 , 2
4
3
x= , : f 3 = 3 3 = 1 0 = 1 < 0 ,
2 2 2 2
5
f(x)<0 x , 2 , x-x<0.
4
5
x-x>0 , .
4 4
f(x) -
+ 2 , 5 + 2 , .
4 4
9: R
;
x ln(1 + x 2 ), x 0 x ln | x |3 , x 0
i. f ( x) = ii. f ( x) =
a, x = 0 a, x = 0
54 .
4 :

4.1.

17 .
Fermat (1601 1665)
( 1).
Y Cf

(+x, f(+x))
(, f())

x O A x x
y
1
Fermat Cf y=f(x)
,
, ( ),
xx.
xx, //xx.

, :
1. MA E = MZ = 90
= ( //)
2.
:
AE MA . f ( ).x f ( )
= = = AE =
MZ f ( + x) f ( ) f ( + x ) f ( )
x
() ,
() x () . -
f ( + x) f ( )
: = f ( ) , f() , x
f ( ) x
. , -
: 1 55
Cf
.
Fermat f ( + x) f ( ) , -
x
x , lim f ( + x) f ( ) .
x 0 x
f() 17 -
.
4.2.
4.2.1.
1: , f(x) ,
lim y , y=f(+x)-f().
x 0 x
f(x) f().
, f(x)
df
df ( x) fx(x). ,
dx dx
f(x) x.
y=f(x), -
y dy yx.
dx
f(x)
. -
:
1. y=f(+x)-f(), -
x.
2. y .
x
3. lim y .
x 0 x

f(x)=4x+5, x R .
:
x 0 :
1. y=f(+x)-f()=4(+x)+5-(4+5)= 4+4x+5-4-5=4x.
2. y = 4x = 4 .
x x
y
3. lim =4.
x 0 x
f() y=f()=4. f()
R. f(x)=4x+5
56 .
R y=f(x)=4. f(x)
R f(x)=4 (4x+5)=4.
: f(x)
f()= lim f ( x) f ( ) .
x x
,
,
.
f(x)=x2.
:
f ( x) f (3) x 2 32 ( x 3)( x + 3)
lim = lim = lim = lim( x + 3) = 3 + 3 = 6 . =3 -
x 3 x3 x 3 x3 x 3 x 3 x 3
f(x)=x2 6.
x-=h, x=+h, , f(x)
, f()= lim f ( + h) f ( ) .
h0 h
2: , f(x)
f ( x) f ( )
, lim lim f ( + h) f ( ) .
x x +
h 0 h +
f(x)
f + ( ) f ( ) .
3: , f(x)
, lim f ( x) f ( ) lim f ( + h) f ( ) .
x x
h 0 h
f(x)
f ( ) f a ( ) .
,
, f ( ) = f a ( ) =, f ( ) =, R. , ,
f(x) f ( ) =, R, -
f ( ) f a ( ) ,
.
f(x),
,
f(x) (-,+) .
[,+).
, ,
(-,].
: f(x) ,
.
:
: 1 57
1) ,
f(x) ,
.
, f ( x) =| x | -
=0.
: fa (0) = lim f ( x) f (0) = lim | x | | 0 | = lim x = lim (1) = 1
x 0 x0 x 0 x x 0 x x 0
f ( x ) f (0) | x||0| x
: f (0) = lim+ = lim+ = lim+ = lim+ 1 = 1 .
x 0 x0 x 0 x x 0 x x 0
fa (0) f (0) .
2) , ,
.
3) f(x)
, .
, f(x) ,
, .
4.2.2.
1: f(x)=x2-1, x R.

x 0 :
1. y=f(+x)-f()=(+x)2-1-(2-1)=2+2x+x2-1-2+1=2x+x2.
2. y = 2x + x = (
2
2 + x ) x
= 2 + x .
x x x
y
3. lim = lim ( 2 + x ) = 2 + 0 = 2 .
x 0 x x 0
2: f(x)=x3, x R,
2.

1. y=f(+x)-f()=(+x)3-3= 3+32x+3x2+x3-3 =
=32x+3x2+x3.
y 3 2 x + 3x 2 + x3 (3 2 + 3x + x 2 )x
2. = = =32+3x+x2
x x x
y 2
3. lim = lim (3 2 + 3x + x 2 ) = 3 2 + 3 .0 + 0 =3 .
x 0 x x 0
f()= 32 =2 f(2)=12.
58 .
3: f(x)=x2.
4: f(x)=x4.
1
5: f(x)=
1 x
=2.
4.3.
4.3.1.
= f ( ) , Fermat,
f ( )
f()= f ( ) . ( 1),

f ( )
.

f(x)
Cf
f(x) (, f()) x.
Cf .
Cf (, f()) y-f()=f()(x-).
, f( 3)
2
f(x)=x2

3 , f 3 x.
2 2

f(x):
1. y=f(+x)-f()=(+x)2-2= 2+2x+x2-2=2x+x2.
y 2x + x 2 (2 + x)x
2. = = =2+x.
x x x
y
3. lim = lim ( 2 + x ) = 2 + 0 = 2 .
x x0
x 0

f()=2 f 3 = 2 3 = 3 = 3 .
2 2

= 3 , =60.
4.3.2.
1: x
f(x)= x
: 1 59
= 1
12
.

( )( ) = lim ( x ) ( ) =
2 2
f ( x) f ( ) x x x+
lim = lim = lim
x x x x x
( x )( x+ ) x
( x ) ( x + )
x 1 1 1
= lim = lim = =
x
( x )( x+ ) x
x+ + 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
f = = = = = 3 . , = f = 3 , ,
12 1 2 2 1 12
2
12 12 2 3 3

=60 .
1 1 1 3
f = = = . -
12 12 2 3 6
= 1 :
12
1 1 1 3 1 3
y f = f ( x ) y = 3 x y = 3x + .
12 12 12 6 12 12
2:
f(x)=x2, f(x)
x 30.
3: x
x
f(x)= -
1+ x2
=-1.
4: -
f(x)=x2-5x+6 (1,1).
5: -
f(x)= 4 x 2 -
y=x+2.
4.4.
4.4.1.
f(x) f(x)
x, x=.
, .
:
i. y=f(t)
t, s t=t-t0,
60 .
lim s (t ) t0 (
t 0 t
).
ii. v t=t-t0 ,
v
lim t0.
t 0 t
iii. Q
t=t-t0, lim Q
t 0 t
t0.
iv. Q ,
0 , =-0,
lim Q .
0
v. Q
t=t-t0, lim Q
t 0 t
t0.
4.4.2.
1: s(t)= 1 t2.
2
3.

1 1 1 1
s(t)=s(t0+t)-s(t0)= (t0+t)2- t02= (t02+2t0t+t2)- t02=
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
= t02+t0t+ t2- t02= t0t+ t2.
2 2 2 2
1 1
t 0 t + t 2 (t 0 + t )t
s(t ) 2 2 1
= = =t0+ t.
t t t 2
s (t ) 1 1
lim = lim at0 + at = at0 + a.0 = at0 .
t 0 t t 0
2 2
t0=3, t0=3
3.
2: x y
=10cm .
x, x 2cm.

: =2x+2y 10=2x+2y 2y=10-2x y=5-x.
: E=xy E=x(5-x) E=5x-x2, x>0.
E(x)
(x), x E(2).
y=E(+x)-E()=[5(+x)-(+x)2]-(5-2)=
: 1 61
=5+5x-2-2x-x2-5+2=5x-2x-x2.
y 5x 2x x 2 (5 2 x)x
= = = 5-2-x.
x x x
y
lim = lim ( 5 2 x ) = 5 2 0 = 5 2 .
x 0 x x 0
(x)= 5-2 (2)=5-2.2=5-4=1.
3: s=2t2-12t+5.
.
4: R .
h
.
4.5.
1: f(x) g(x)
G, f(x)+g(x), f(x)-g(x), f(x).g(x)
f ( x)
, g ( x) 0 , xG. G f()
g ( x)
g() , :
i. [f()+g()]=f()+g()
ii. [f()-g()]=f()-g()
iii. [f()g()]=f()g()+f()g()
iv. f ( ) f ( ) g ( ) f ( ) g ( ) , g ( ) 0
g ( ) = g 2 ( )

:
, , ...
. , f(x), g(x) h(x)
, :
i. [f(x)+g(x)+h(x)]=f(x)+g(x)+h(x)
ii. [f(x)g(x)h(x)]=f(x)g(x)h(x)+f(x)g(x)h(x)+ f(x)g(x)h(x)
2: y=F(x)
u, y=f(u) u=g(x), dF ( x) df (u ) dg ( x) , =g()
dx = du . dx
x = u = x =
F()=f()g().
3: f(x) (
) .
f() 0, g(y)
y0=f() g ( y0 ) = 1 .
f ( )
62 .
4.6.
4.6.1.
, -
,
:
i. f(x)=c, c R, Df=R, (c)=0
ii. f(x)=xn, n Z, Df=R, (xn)=nxn-1
iii. f(x)=x, Df=R, (x)=x
iv. f(x)=x, Df=R, (x)=-x
1
v. f(x)=x, x k+ , k Z, ()' =
2 2
vi. f(x)=x, x k, k Z, 1
( )' =
2
1
vii. f(x)=x, -1<x<1, ( x) ' =
1 x2
viii. f(x)=x, -1<x<1, 1

( )' =
1 2
1
ix. f(x)=x, x R, ()' =
1+ 2
1
x. f(x)=x, x R, ( ) ' =
1+ 2
1
xi. f(x)=lnx, x>0, (ln x )' =
x
1
xi. f(x)=logx, >0, 1, x>0, (log a x) ' =
x ln a
xii. f(x)=ex, x R, (ex)=ex
xiii. f(x)=x, >0, 1, x R, (x)=xln
f
x
=
x
,
x

0
xiv. , ( x ) = 2 1 x
y=F(x)
u, y=f(u) u=g(x), y=f(g(x)),
:
: 1 63
f(u) f(u) f(u) f(u)

f(u) -1
f (u).u f(u) -f(u).u
1
f(u) f(u)ln.u f(u) .u
2 f (u )
1
ef(u) ef(u).u . f(u) 2 .u
f (u )
1 1
logf(u) .u f(u) .u
f (u ) ln a 1 f 2 (u )
1 1
lnf(u) .u f(u) .u
f (u ) 1 f 2 (u )
1 1
f (u ) .u f(u) .u
2 f (u ) 1 + f 2 (u )
1
f(u) f(u).u f(u) .u
1 + f 2 (u )
y=[f(x)]g(x), f(x)>0, -
:
y = [ f ( x)]g ( x ) ln y = ln[ f ( x)]g ( x ) ln y = g ( x).ln f ( x)
1
(ln y ) = [ g ( x).ln f ( x)] y = g ( x).ln f ( x) + g ( x).[ln f ( x)]
y
y f ( x) f ( x)
= g ( x).ln f ( x) + g ( x). y = y. g ( x).ln f ( x) + g ( x).
y f ( x) f ( x)
f ( x)
y = [ f ( x)]g ( x ) . g ( x).ln f ( x) + g ( x).
f ( x)
4.6.2.
1: :
1 5 2 3 1 1 1
i. f ( x) = x 2 x 4 + x3 x 2 + 4 x 5 ii. f ( x) =
2
3+ 2
5 3 2 2x 3x 5x
1 1 1
iii. f ( x) = x + x + 3 x iv. f ( x) = + +3
x x x

1 2 3
i. f ( x) = x5 2 x 4 + x3 x 2 + 4 x 5 =
5 3 2
1 2 3
= x 5 ( 2 x 4 ) + x 3 x 2 + ( 4 x ) 5 =
5 3 2
1 2 3
= .5 x 51 2.4 x 41 + .3x 31 .2 x 21 + 4 0 = x 4 8 x 3 + 2 x 2 3x + 4.
5 3 2
2: :
64 .
i. f ( x) = e x ( x + x) iii. f ( x) = e x (1 + x)
ii. f ( x) = x( x + x) iv. f ( x) = x 3 x

ii. f ( x) = [ x( x + x) ] = ( x. x + x. x ) =
= ( x. x ) + ( x. x ) = x . x + x.( x) + x . x + x.( x ) =
1 1 x x
= x + x. + x + x. = x + x + .
1 x
2 1+ x 2
1+ x 2
1 x2
3: :
1 x
i. f ( x) = iv. f ( x) =
(1 x 2 )(1 + x 4 ) 1 + x2
1 x3 x
ii. f ( x) = v. f ( x) =
1 x5 1 x2
8 3 x3 + 2 x ln x
iii. f ( x) = vi. f ( x) =
1 + 6 x x 3x 2
x

1 [2 x(1 + x 4 ) + (1 x 2 )4 x 3 ] (2 x 2 x5 + 4 x3 4 x5 )
i. f ( x) = 4
= = =
(1 x )(1 + x ) (1 x 2 ) 2 (1 + x 4 ) 2
2 2
(1 x 2 )(1 + x 4 )
6 x5 4 x3 + 2 x
= .
(1 x 2 ) 2 (1 + x 4 ) 2
iii. f ( x) =
(8 3 )( ) (
x3 + 2 x 1 + 6 x x 3x 2 8 3 x3 + 2 x 1 + 6 x x 3x 2 )( )
=
(1 + 6 x )
2
x 3x 2
9

2

( ) (

x + 2 1 + 6 x 3 3x 2 8 3 x3 + 2 x 6 x +

3x
x

6x
.
)
=
( )
2
1 + 6 x x 3x 2
4:
:
1 x
i. f ( x) = 4 x iv. f ( x) =
1+ x
ii. f ( x) = (2 x 2 + 3)5 v. f ( x) = ln x 2
iii. f ( x) = x 2 + x 1 vi. f ( x) = a x

i. x=u,
: f(u)=u4. -
, : fx(u)=4u3ux, fx(u) f(u)
x. ux= -x. f(x)=43x(-x)= -43xx.
vi. v= x u=v. : f(u)=u
u fu(u)=uln, f(x) x
x
ln a.a x
: f(x)=fuuvvx= ln a. a .
1
= .
1 ( x )2 2 x 2 x 1 x
: 1 65

f(x) :
(
ln f ( x) = x .ln a [ ln f ( x) ] = x .ln a )
f ( x) 1 1 ln a.a x
= ln a. . f ( x) =
f ( x) 1 ( x )2 2 x 2 x 1 x
5: :
( x)
x
i. f ( x) = x 4 x iv. f ( x ) =
2
ii. f ( x) = ( x) x v. f ( x) = ( x ) 2 x +3 x + 4
iii. f ( x) = ( x ) x vi. f ( x ) = (ln x) x

i. ln f ( x) = ln x 4 x ln f ( x) = 4 x ln x [ ln f ( x)] = ( 4 x ln x )
1 f ( x) 1 f ( x)
f ( x) = 4 x ln x + x ( ln x ) = 4 ln x + 4 x = 4 ln x + 4
f ( x) f ( x) x f ( x)
f ( x) = f ( x) ( 4 ln x + 4 ) f ( x) = x 4 x [ 4(1 + ln x) ] f ( x) = 4 x 4 x (1 + ln x)
ii. ln f ( x) = ln ( x) x ln f ( x) = x ln x [ ln f ( x) ] = ( x ln x )
f ( x) 1
= x ln x + x x f ( x) = ( x) x x(ln x + 1).
f ( x) x
6:
y=x3+2x2-1 y=2x2.

:
y = x3 + 2 x 2 1 2 x 2 = x3 + 2 x 2 1 x3 = 1 x =1
.
y = 2x2 y = 2 x2 y = 2 x2 y=2
(1,2).

y=x +2x2-1 x=1.
3
: y=(x3+2x2-1)=3x2+4x, =3.12+4.1=7.
: y-yo=(x-xo) y-2=7(x-1) y=7x-5.
7:
:
x
i. f ( x) = iii. f ( x) = ln x 2
1 x 2
1 x 2x
ii. f ( x) = ln iv. f ( x) =
1+ x 1 + x2
8:
:
66 .
1 2 + 2x2 x
i. f ( x) = ln + ln( x + 1 + x 2 )
2 2 2 + 2x + x
2
1 1 + x 2 + x2 1 x 2
ii. f ( x) = ln +
4 2 1 x 2 + x 2
2 2 1 x2
(
iii. f ( x) = e x x + 1 x 2 , ) | x |< 1
1+ x
iv. f ( x) = 2 , | x |< 1
1 x
v. f ( x) = 2
1
2
( 1+ x 1 x , ) | x |< 1
9:
1 1
y= y= .
1+ x 2
1+ x
10:
a 1
x , x 0 :
f ( x) = x
0, x = 0
i) 0.
ii) 0
iii) 0.
4.7.
4.7.1.
f(x) G G1
x f(x) f(x).
x G1 G, G1
G (G1 G). xG1 f(x),
f(x) x, G1 x -
.
4: G2 G1
f(x).
f(x) f(x)
d 2 f ( x) d2 y
fx (x)
dx 2 dx 2
f(x)=y f(x)
y yx.
, n- (n+1) f(x),
(n+1) n-
: 1 67
(n) (n)
f(x), f(n+1)(x)=[f(n)(x)]. d f ( x) d y
dx( n ) dx( n )
(n)
y f(n)x(x).
f(x)=y n f(x)
(n)
y y(n)x.

1) f(n)(x) n-
f(x) .
2) f(x) f(0)(x), -
.
3) n- f(x)=u(x)v(x),
f(x)=uv, :
n n n
f ( n ) ( x) = u ( n ) v + u ( n 1) v + u ( n 2) v + ... + u ( n k ) v ( k ) + ... + uv ( n )
1 2 k
n n!
= ,n > k .
k k !( n k ) !
4.7.2.
1: -
:
i. f ( x) = x x 2 ii. f ( x) = x3 x

x3
ii. f ( x) = ( x3 x ) = ( x3 ) x + x3 ( x ) = 3x 2 x +
2 x
x3 x3
f ( x) = 3 x 2 x +
2 x
= ( 3 x 2
x ) + 2
=
x
3x 2 3 x 2 2 x + x 3 2 x
= 6 x x + + .
2 x 4 x
2: n-
, n:
i. f ( x) = x 1 + x 2 , n = 2 iii. f ( x) = x ln x, n = 2
2
ii. f ( x) = e x , n = 3 iv. f ( x) = ln f ( x), n = 2
( )
i. f ( x) = x 1 + x 2 = x 1 + x 2 + x ( )
1 + x2 = 1 + x2 + x
2 1+ x
1
2
(1 + x ) =
2
68 .
x 2x2 x2
= 1 + x2 + 2x = 1 + x2 + = 1 + x2 +
2 1 + x2 2 1 + x2 1 + x2

f ( x) = 1 + x 2 +

x2
1 + x2

=

( 1 + x2 + )
x2
1+ x
2

=

=
1
(1 + x ) +
2
( x 2 ) 1 + x 2 x 2 ( 1 + x2 ) =
( 1+ x )
2
2 1 + x2 2
1
2x
2x 1 + x2 x2 (1 + x ) 2
= + 2 1+ x 2
=
2 1+ x 2 1 + x2
2x x3
2x 1 + x2 x2 2x 1 + x2
x 2 1 + x2 = x 1 + x2
= + + =
1 + x2 1 + x2 1 + x2 1 + x2
( )
2
2x 1 + x2 x3
x 1 + x2 x 2 x(1 + x 2 ) x3
= + = + =
1 + x2 1 + x2 1 + x2 (1 + x 2 ) 1 + x 2
x(1 + x 2 ) + 2 x + 2 x 3 x 3 x + x3 + 2 x + x3 2 x3 + 3x
= = =
(1 + x 2 ) 1 + x 2 (1 + x 2 ) 1 + x 2 (1 + x 2 ) 1 + x 2
3: n- f(x)=x.

,
n-
:

f ( x) = x = x +
2

f ( x ) = x + = x + + = x + 2.
2 2 2 2

f ( x) = x + 2. = x + 2. + = x + 3. ,
2 2 2 2

, : f ( n ) ( x) = x + n. ,
2
.
) n=1: f ( x) = x + = x , .
2
) , n=k: f ( k ) ( x) = x + k . .
2
: 1 69
) , n=k+1: f ( k +1) ( x) = x + (k + 1).

2
( ))

f ( k +1) ( x) = f ( k ) ( x) = x + k . = x + k . =
2 2

= x + k . + = x + (k + 1).
2 2 2

, f ( k +1) ( x) = x + (k + 1).
2
, , :

f ( n ) ( x) = x + n. .
2
4: n-
2x + 3
f ( x) = .
x 5x + 6
2

f(x) :
2x + 3 2x + 3 A B
= = + .
x 5 x + 6 ( x 2)( x 3) x 2 x 3
2
2x + 3 A B
= + 2 x + 3 = A( x 3) + B( x 2)
( x 2)( x 3) x 2 x 3
2 x + 3 = Ax 3 A + Bx 2 B 2 x + 3 Ax + 3 A Bx + 2 B = 0
(2 A B) x + (3 + 3 A + 2 B ) = 0 2 A B = 0 3 + 3 A + 2 B = 0
:
2 A B = 0 B = 2 A B = 2 A B = 2 A

3 + 3 A + 2B = 0 3 + 3 A + 2(2 A) = 0 3 + 3A + 4 2 A = 0 A+7 = 0
B = 2 A B=9

A = 7 A = 7
, =-7 =9.
: f ( x) = 7 + 9 .
x2 x3
(n)
: 2x + 3 7(1) n n ! 9(1) n n ! .
= +
x 5x + 6
2
( x 2) n +1 ( x 3) n +1
x3 , x > 0
5: ,
f ( x) = 0, x = 0
x3 , x < 0

0.
70 .
4.8.
4.8.1.
5: f(x) ,
y
f()= lim , , :
x 0 x
f ( x ) f ( ) , x=x-. x dx -
f ( ) = lim
x x
x.
6: f(x)
dx x f(x) -
dy, dy=f ()dx.
f () -
f(x) , dy = f ( ) .
dx x =
, dy = lim y , ,
x dx x 0
y dy
, x, 0, x
x dx
0. g ( x) = y dy , lim g (x) = 0 .
x dx
x 0
, x=dx, y=dy+x.g(x), -
, x , y dy,
x
0 x .
f(x)
.
1: f(x) g(x) ,
:
i. d[f(x)+g(x)]=df(x)+dg(x)
ii. d[f(x)-g(x)]=df(x)-dg(x)
iii. d[f(x).g(x)]=df(x).g(x)+f(x).dg(x)
f ( x) df ( x).g ( x) f ( x).dg ( x)
iv. d = , g(x) 0.
g ( x) g 2 ( x)
i. , -
. :
d[f(x)+g(x)]=[f(x)+g(x)]dx=[f(x)+g(x)]dx=f(x)dx+g(x)dx=df(x)+dg(x).
2: y=f[g(x)]. u=g(x),
: dy=f(u)du.
4.8.2.
1: ,
y=f(x):
: 1 71
i. y = xe x iii. y = x x x
ln x
ii. y = a 2 + x 2 iv. y =
x

i. f(x): f ( x) = ( xe x ) f ( x) = (1 x)e x .
f(x) : dy=(1-x)e-xdx.
2: :
ln x 1 x
i. f ( x) = x + x x ii. f ( x) = iii. f ( x) = , a 0
x a a
4.9.
4.9.1.
7: f(x)
f(x) -
d2f(x).
:
d2f(x)=d[df(x)]=d[f(x)dx]=[df(x)]dx+f(x)d(dx).
df(x)=f(x)dx d(dx)=0 ( x- x -
). d2f(x)=f(x)(dx)2 d2f(x)=f(x)dx2
2
, : f ( x) = d f (2 x) .
dx
,
n- f(x) : dnf(x)=d[dn-1f(x)], n=2, 3,
d n f ( x)
4, f ( n ) ( x) = n- -
dx n
f(x).
4.9.2.
1: -
:
1
i. y = x5 , d 2 y ii. y = , d3 y iii. y = x 2 x, d 10 y
x

i. d y=y(dx) =(x )dx =((x ))dx =(5x4)dx2=20x3dx2
2 2 5 2 5 2
2:
:
72 .
i. f ( x) = x iii. f ( x) = x 2 x
1
ii. f ( x) = x iv. f ( x) =
1+ x
3: :
d n 1 1x (1)n 1x d n1 x a f ( x) ,
i. x e = n +1 e ii. n 1 = 2
dx n x dx 1 + x2 ( x + 1)n
f(x) n.
: 1 73

74 .
5 :

5.1.
5.1.1. ,
1: ( )
f(x): f(x) [ ]
f(x) (, )
[, ].
2: ( ) -
f(x): f(x) [ ] -
f(x) (, ) -
[, ].
3: , f(x)
G, (-, +) ,
f(x) , 0<|x-|< f(x)<f()
f(x)>f(). f() () f(x),
() f(x).
:
f(x) . ,
, ( ).
, -
.
0, x 0
f ( x) = =0,
1, x = 0
.
,
, .
f(x)=|x|, =0,
, =0.
1 ( Fermat): :
f(x) f() ,
f()=0.
( Fermat):
, f(x)
, y-f()=f()(x-).
Fermat , f(x) -
, xx.
2 ( Rolle (1652 1719)) f(x)
[,], (,) f()=f(),
, , f()=0.
: 1 75
( Rolle): -
Rolle Fermat, -
f(x)
xx.
3 ( Langrage (1736 1813)): f(x)
[,] (,),
f ( ) f (a)
f ( ) = .
a
:
) Langrage Rolle. Rolle
f()=f().
) Langrage: ,
(,f()) (,f()), :
f ( ) f (a)
1 : y f (a ) = ( x a)
a
f(x)
(,f()) :
2 : y f ( ) = f ( )( x a ) .
Langrage f ( ) = f ( ) f (a) , -
a
, 1//2, .
Langrage, ,
f(x),

( ) f(x).
1: f(x) 0 -
, .
: , ,
, .
, f(x)=0
, ,
.
2: f(x)
f(x) 0, x , f(x) .
f(x)>0, x , f(x) -
.
3: f(x)
f(x) 0, x , f(x) .
f(x)<0, x , f(x) .
:
1.
4 ( Cauchy): f(x) g(x)
[,], (,) g(x) 0, x (,).
76 .
, ,
f ( ) f ( ) f (a ) .
=
g ( ) g ( ) g (a)
4: f(x) g(x) n+1 -
g(x) 0, g(x) 0,
g(x) 0,,g(n+1)(x) 0, x . , f()=f()=f()==f(n)()=0
g()=g()=g()==g(n)()=0. x , x ,
: f ( x) = f ( n+1) ( ) .
( n +1)
g ( x) g ( )
5.1.2.
1: Rolle
, , .
i. f ( x) = x 3 x 2 x + 1, x [ 1,1] iii. f ( x) = 3 8 x x 2 , x [ 0,8]
ii. f ( x) = 3 ( x 8) 2 , x [ 0,16] iv. f ( x) = 3 x 2 3 x + 2, x [1, 2]

i. f(x) [-1,1] (-1,1)
f(x)=3x2-2x-1. f(-1)=f(1)=0.
Rolle, :
f()=0 32-2-1=0 =1, , =- 1 , .
3
2:
Langrage :
i. f ( x) = 2 x x 2 , x [1,5] ii. f ( x) = 2 x3 + 5 x + 1, x [ 0, 2] iii. f ( x) = x + 1, x [3,15]

i. f(x) [1,5] (1,5)
f(x)=2-2x. Langrage,
f (5) f (1) 15 1
: f ( ) = 2 2 = = 3.
5 1 4
3: , : |x2-x1| |x2-x1|

f(x)=x. Langrage, x1 x2,
x2 x1 x2 x1
, : f ( ) = = ,
x2 x1 x2 x1
x1 x2. || 1.
x2 x1 1 | x2 x1 || x2 x1 | .
x2 x1
4: , f(x)=x+x
.
: 1 77

f(x) [-1,1]
[-1,1] (-1,1)
f ( x) = 1 1 = 0 .
1 x2 1 x2
Langrage , f(x) -
[-1,1].
:
[-1,1]. x=0.
f(0)=0+0= . x[-1,1] , x+x= .
2 2
5: , f(x)=x, x [0, )
2
f(x)>x.

g(x)=x-x, x [0, ), [0, )
2 2
1 1 x
2
(0, ) g ( x) = 1 = g(x)>0,
2 x 2
2 x

x(0, ). g(x) x
2

(0, ) , g(x)>g(0) x-x>0-0 x-x>0 x>x.
2
6: , ex 1+x, xR.

f(x)=ex-1-x Df=R,
f(x)=ex-1 f(x)=ex. f(x)>0, f(x)
=R. f(0)=0, :
i) f(x)<0 x<0, , f(x)
.
ii) f(x)>0 x>0, , f(x)
.
x=0 ,
f(0)=0. x 0 f(x)>0 ex-1-x>0 ex>1+x.
x=0 , : ex-1-x=0 ex=1+x.
x R , : ex 1+x, .
7:
f(x)=x3+3x, (1, 4) (2, 14), ,
.

f(x) R f(x)=3x2+3. -
Langrage [xA, xB] , :
f ( xB ) f ( x A ) , , 1<<2.
f ( ) =
xB x A
78 .
,
= yB y A = 14 4 = 10 f() -
xB x A 2 1
: f()=10 32+3=10 =- 7 , = 7 ,
3 3
.

7 , f 7 .
3 3

8: , 1 + x = 1 x + , -1 x<1.
1 x 2 4
9: , 1
2
( 1
)
1 + x 1 x = x , -1 x 1.
2
x
10: , = x , -1<x<1.
1 x2
5.2.
5.2.1. De L Hospital Bernoulli
1: f(x), g(x)
,
x x=. g(x) 0 lim f ( x) = lim g ( x) = 0 .
x x
lim f ( x) , lim f ( x) :
x g ( x) x g ( x)
f ( x) f ( x)
lim = lim
x g ( x ) x g ( x)
( De L Hospital Bernoulli)
2: f(x), g(x)
(, ) g(x) 0. f(x),
g(x) x , lim f ( x) = lim g ( x) = .
x x
f ( x)
lim f ( x) , lim :
x g ( x ) x g ( x)
f ( x) f ( x)
lim = lim
x g ( x) x g ( x)
3: f(x), g(x)
(,+ ) g(x) 0, g(x) 0
lim f ( x) = lim g ( x) = 0 . lim f ( x) ,
x + x + x + g ( x)
f ( x) f ( x) f ( x)
lim : lim = lim .
x + g ( x) x + g ( x ) x + g ( x )
: 1 79
4: f(x), g(x)
(,+ ) g(x) 0, g(x) 0
lim f ( x) = lim g ( x) = . lim f ( x) ,
x + x + x + g ( x)
f ( x)
lim : lim f ( x) = lim f ( x) .
x + g ( x) x + g ( x ) x + g ( x )
) , De L Hospital Bernoulli
(- ,) x - .
) De L Hospital Bernoulli
f ( x) x ,
g ( x)
0
lim f ( x) = lim g ( x) = 0 ( ) lim f ( x) = lim g ( x) = +
xa xa 0 xa xa
+
( ) lim f ( x) = lim g ( x) = ( )
+ x a x a
+
lim f ( x) = +, lim g ( x) = ( )
xa x a
lim f ( x) = , lim g ( x) = + ( ).
xa xa +
0.( ), -
F(x)=f(x)g(x) lim f ( x) = 0
x a
lim g ( x) = + lim g ( x) = , F(x)

x a xa
:
0
i. F ( x) = f ( x) , .
1 0
g ( x)
g ( x)
ii. F ( x) = .
1
f ( x)
+ - ,
F(x)=f(x)-g(x) x
lim f ( x) lim g ( x) + - ,
x a xa
g ( x)
1
F(x) : F ( x) =
f ( x) -
1
f ( x)
0 g ( x)
, lim = 1.
0 x a f ( x)
1 , 00 0
0.( )
80 .

=+ = - ( x + x - ).
5.2.2.
1: :
xe x 5 x e x ea
i. lim iii. lim
x0 4 x2 + 7 x x a x a
xe 2 x x a ln x x
ii. lim iv. lim
x 0 5 x 2 + x 3 x 1 ln x

i. f(x)=xe -5x g(x)=4x2+7x
x
De L Hospital Bernoulli :
xe x - 5 x ( xe x - 5 x) e x x + e x x 5 4
lim = lim = lim =
x 0 4x2 + 7 x x 0 (4 x + 7 x )
2 x 0 8x+7 7
ii. , ,
f(x)=xe2x-x g(x)=5x2+x3,
De L Hospital Bernoulli,
0 .
0
lim
xe 2 x - x
= lim
( xe - x ) = lim xe + 2e x -1 =
2x 2x 2x
x 0 5x + x 2 3
( 5 x + x )
x 0 2
10 x + 3 x
3 x 0 2
= lim
( xe + 2e x -1) = lim -e x + 2e x + 4e x + 2e
2x 2x 2x 2x 2x 2x
x 2
= .
x 0
(10 x + 3x ) 2
10 + 6 x
x 0 5
2: :
e x + x ln(1 + e x )
i. lim iii. lim
x + x + x x + a + bx
ln( ax) 5 x
ii. lim iv. lim
x 0 ln( bx ) x
x
2
ii. De L Hospital Bernoulli :

1 a ax
[ ln( ax)]
( ax )
ln( ax) ax ax a bx. ax
lim = lim = lim = lim = lim =
x 0 ln( bx ) x 0 [ ln( bx ) ] x 0 1 x 0 b bx x 0 b ax. bx
( bx )

bx bx
bx
ax
= lim bx = 1,
x 0 ax
bx
ax
u ax bx
, : lim = 1 lim = 1 lim = 1.
u 0 u ax 0 ax bx 0 bx
3: :
: 1 81
x
i. lim [ ( x x) ln x ] iii. lim(1 x)
x 0 x 1 2
x
ii. lim iv. lim x 2 e 0,001x
x 0 x 2 x +

i. 0.(+ )
f(x)=(x-x)lnx :
ln x
( x x) ln x =
1
x x
+

+
De L Hospital Bernoulli:
1
ln x ( )
ln x
lim [ ( x x) ln x ] = lim = lim = lim x =
x 0 x 0
1 x 0 1 x 0 ( x x )
x x
x x ( x x )
2
1 1
x x ( x x) 2
= lim = lim = lim
x 0 (1 x ) x 0 x 1 x 0 x ( x 1)
( x x) ( x x )
2 2
0
-
0
( x x)2 ( x x) 2 2( x x)(1 x)
lim = lim = lim =
x 0 x ( x 1) x 0 [ x ( x 1) ] x 0 x 1 x x
= lim
[ 2( x x)(1 x)] = 2 lim
(1 x)2 + ( x x) x
=
x 0 [ x 1 x x ] x 0 x x x x
1 2 x + 2 x + x x 2 x 1 2 x + x x + 2 x
= 2 lim = 2 lim =
x 0 2 x x x x 0 2 x x x
(1 2 x + x x + 2 x ) 2 x + x + x x 2 2 x
= 2 lim = 2 lim =0
x 0 ( 2 x x x ) x 0 3 x + x x
lim [ ( x x) ln x ] =0 .
x 0
iii. 0.(+ )
x
f ( x) = (1 x) :
2
x 1- x 1- x
(1 x) = f ( x) =
2 x x

2 2
0
0
82 .

x 1- x (1- x ) -1
lim f ( x) = lim (1 x) = lim = lim = lim =
x 1 x 1
2 x 1 x x1 x x1 1

2 2 x 2
2
2
x
2
= lim 2 = lim 2 2 x = 2 2 .1 = 2 2 = 2 .12 = 2 .
x 1 x 1 2 2 2
2
4: :
1
i. lim x ii. lim x ( x a )( x b)
x 0
x x +

i. + -
1
f ( x) = x :
x
1 x x x x x x
x = f ( x) =
x x x x x
0

0
1 x x - x ( x x - x )
lim f ( x) = lim x = lim = lim =
x 0 x 0
x x 0 x x x 0 ( x x )
x x - x x x - x - x x
= lim = lim = lim =
x + x x
x 0 x 0 x + x x x x 0 2 x - x x
- 0 - 0. 0 0 0.1
= = = 0.
2 0 - 0. 0 2.1 0.0
ii. -
f ( x) = x ( x a )( x b) :
(a + b) x ab (a + b) x ab
x ( x a )( x b) = f ( x) =
x + ( x a)( x b) x + ( x a )( x b)
+

+
: 1 83
(a + b) x ab
lim f ( x) = lim x ( x a)( x b) = lim =
x + x + x +
x + ( x a)( x b)
= lim
[ (a + b) x ab] = lim
a+b
=
x + x + ( x a)( x b) x + 1
1+ [ ( x a)( x b)]
2 ( x a)( x b)
a+b a+b a+b
= lim = lim = lim =
x + 2 x ( a + b) x + a+b x + a+b
1+ x2 x2
2 ( x a)( x b) x x
1+ 1+
a b a b
2 x 1 x 1 2x 1 1
x x x x
a+b a+b
= lim = .
x + a+b 2
2
1+ x
a b
2 1 1
x x
5: :
1 x
1
i. lim x x
ii. lim
x +

x0 x
x x x
iii. lim x iv. lim
x 0 x 0
x

i. (+ )0
1
f ( x) = x x :
1
1
ln f ( x) = ln x ln f ( x) =
x
ln x
x
+
+
1 ln x
lim [ ln f ( x)] = lim ln x ln lim f ( x) = lim
x + x + x
x + x + x
(ln x) 1
ln lim f ( x) = lim ln lim f ( x) = lim
x+ x+ x x+ x+ x
ln lim f ( x) = 0.
x+
1
ln lim f ( x) = 0 , lim x x = e0 = 1 .
x +
x +
ii.
84 .
x
x 1 1 ln x (ln x )
1 ln x ln 1 lim ( x ln x ) lim
x
lim
= lim e x ln x = e x 0 =e x 0 ( x )
=
x x 0
lim = lim e = lim e x
=e
x 0 x
x0 x 0 x 0
1
iii.

lim x
x 0 1 2 x x
lim lim lim x
2 x
=e = e x = e x 0 x x 0 = e1.0 = e0 =1.
x 0
00. [f(x)]g(x)=eg(x)lnf(x), f(x)>0 -

:
lim[ ln x .ln( x 1) ]
( x 1)ln x = eln x.ln( x 1) : lim( x 1)ln x = lim eln x.ln( x 1) = e x1
x 1 x 1
0.(+ )
h( x) = ln x ln( x 1)
:
ln( x 1) ln( x 1)
ln x ln( x 1) = h( x ) =
( ln x ) ( ln x )
1 1
1
lim h( x) = lim [ ln x ln( x 1)] = lim
ln( x 1) [ ln( x 1)]
= lim x 1 =
= lim
x 1 x 1 x 1
1
x 1 1 x 1 1
ln x
ln x x(ln x)2
1
x(ln x) 2 (ln x)2 + 2 x ln x
x(ln x)2
= lim = lim lim x = lim (ln x)2 + 2ln x = 0.

x 1 x 1 x 1 ( x 1) x1 1 x 1
lim( x 1)ln x = e0 = 1. .
x 1
iii. 00. -
1
ln x (ln x )
lim lim lim x
x0 1 x0 1 x0 1 x2
lim x ln x 2 lim lim x
lim x = lim ex x ln x
=e x0
=e x
=e x
=e x
=e x0 x
=e x0
= e0 = 1 .
x 0
iv. 1+ . -
1 x
ln
1 x
x x ln lim x
lim = lim e = e x0 . -
x x x
x 0
x x 0
x
ln
lim x , 0 -
x 0 x 0
: 1 85
1 x
x x x x x x x
x
ln ln
x = lim x x x2
lim = lim x = lim =
x 0 x x 0 x x 0 1 x 0 1
x x x x x x x x x
= lim = lim = lim =
x 0 x x x 0 x + x x x 0 x + x x
( x x ) x + x x 0 + 0. 0
= lim = lim = lim = 0.
x 0 ( x + x x ) x 0 2 x x x x 0 2 0 0. 0
1
x x
lim = e =1.
0
x 0
x
6: :
x e x
i. lim ii. lim+ x ln x iii. lim
x 0 x x 0 x +
x
2
7: :
x3 1 xe 2 x + xe x 2e 2 x + 2e x
i.lim iv.lim
(e 1)
3
x 1 ln x x 0 x
x x
ii.lim v. lim+ ln x ln ( x 1)
x 0 x3 x 1
x x
iii.lim
x 0 x x
5.3. Taylor
5.3.1.
f(x) n
(1) f ( x) = an x n + an 1 x n 1 + ... + a1 x + a0
n :
f ( x ) = nan x n 1 + (n 1)an 1 x n 2 + ... + 2a2 x + 1.a1
n2 n 3
f ( x) = n(n 1)an x + (n 1)(n 2)an 1 x + ... + 2.1.a2

(2) ..........................................................................................
f ( n 1) ( x) = n(n 1)...3.2.1.a x + ( n 1)( n 2)...2.1.a
n n 1
f ( n ) ( x) = n(n 1)....3.2.1.an

x (1) (2), , :
f(0)=0, f(0)=1!1, f(0)=2!2,,f(n-1)(0)=(n-1)!n-1, f(n)(0)=n!n. (1)
:
f (0) f (0) 2 f ( n ) (0) n
(3) f ( x) = f (0) + x+ x + ... + x
1! 2! n!
(3) x.
x=+h f(+h)=(h).
86 .
(h)=n(+h)n+n-1(+h)n-1++1(+h)+0
n h (3) , :
(0) (0) 2 ( n ) (0) n
(4) (h) = (0) + h+ h + ... + h
1! 2! n!
(h)=f(+h), (h)=f(+h), (h)=f(+h),, (n)(h)=f(n)(+h) -
(0)=f(), (0)=f(), (0)=f(),, (n)(0)=f(n)()
(4) :
f (a ) f (a) 2 f ( n ) (a) n
(5) f (a + h) = f (a ) + h+ h + ... + h
1! 2! n!
:
f (a ) f (a ) f ( n ) (a )
(6) f ( x) = f ( a) + ( x a) + ( x a ) 2 + ... + ( x a)n
1! 2! n!
(5) (6) Taylor (1685 1731).
( Taylor): f(x)
, ,(n+1) (-,+) .
x , , :
f (a ) f ( n ) (a) f ( n +1) ( )
(7) f ( x) = f (a ) + ( x a) + ... + ( x a)n + ( x a) n +1 ,
1! n! (n + 1)!
x
: (-,+)
.
a
(7) x=+h = , 0<<1, =+h,
xa
, :
f (a ) f ( n ) (a ) n f ( n +1) (a + h) n +1
(8) f (a + h) = f (a ) + h + ... + h + h
1! n! (n + 1)!
(8) 0, -
Maclaurin (1698 1746) :
f (0) f ( n ) (0) n f ( n +1) ( h) n +1
f ( x) = f (0) + x + ... + x + x
1! n! (n + 1)!
5.3.2.
1: Maclaurin
f(x)=ex.

f(x)=ex, f(x)=ex, f(x)=ex,,f(n)(x)=ex x=0 : f(n)(0)=1.
x x 2 x3 xn e
: e x = 1 + + + + ... + + x n +1
1! 2! 3! n ! (n + 1)!
2: Maclaurin
f(x)=x.
3: Maclaurin
f(x)=x.
: 1 87
4: Maclaurin
f(x)=ln(x+1).
5: Maclaurin
f(x)=(1+x)m, mN.
6: Maclaurin
f(x)= 1 .
1 x
5.4.
5.4.1.

:
1: f(x) -
:
1. (x0-, x0+) x0.
2. f(x) 0<|x- x0|<.
3. f( x0) f( x0)=0.
4. f(x) (x0-, x0) (x0, + x0).
:
f(x)

x<x0 x>x0
+ +
+ -
- +
- -
2: f(x) x0
. , f(x)
x0 f(x)
. f(x0)=0, f(x0) 0, :
1) f(x0)<0 f(x) x0
f(x0).
2) f(x0)>0 f(x) x0
f(x0).
:
f(x0)=f(x0)=0.
:
3: f(x)
, x0,
f(x0) x0. f(x0)=f(x0)=0,
f(x0) 0, f(x) x0.
88 .
4 (): f(n)(x)
(x0-, x0+) f(k)(x0)=0 (k=1, 2, 3,,n-1), f(n) (x0) 0, :
1) n f(x0) f(n)(x0)<0
f(n)(x0)>0.
2) n f(x0) ,
f(x) .
4: f(x) G.
G f(x) f(), x G, f()
f(x) G.
5: f(x) G.
G f(x) f(), x G, f()
f(x) G.
6:
f(x) .
1: f(x) g(x)
:
i. [, ].
ii. f(x) g(x).
iii. f()=g().
x[, ) , f(x)>g(x)
2: f(x) g(x)
:
i. [, ].
ii. f(x) g(x).
iii. f()=g().
x(, ] , f(x)<g(x)
5.4.2.
1: :
1 4 2 3 1 2
f ( x) = x x x + 2x + 1
4 3 2

1) f(x) Df=R.
2) f(x) f(x)=x3-2x2-x+2.
3) f(x)=0, x=1, x=-1 x=2 .
4) f(x)>0 x3-2x2-x+2>0 (x-1)(x+1)(x-2)>0
: 1 89
- -1 1 2
+
x-1 - - + +
x+1 - + + +
x-2 - - - +
f(x) - + - +
f(x) - - - -

x(-1,1) (2,+ )
f(x)<0 x(- ,-1) (1,2)
5) -1 f(-1)= 7 ,
12
1 f(1)= 25 2 f(2)= 8
12 3
2: :
1 5
f ( x) = x 3 x 2 + 6 x .
3 2

: f ( x) = 1 x 3 5 x 2 + 6 x = x 2 5 x + 6 .
3 2
2
f(x)=0 x -5x+6=0 x=2 x=3 .
f(x)=2x-5, f(2)= -1<0
1 5 8 20 14
x=2 f (2) = 2 3 22 + 6.2 = + 12 = f(3)=1>0
3 2 3 2 3
x=3
1 5 27 45 9
f (3) = 3 3 32 + 6.3 = + 18 = .
3 2 3 2 2
2
3: : f ( x) = x 3 .

2 2
2 1 2
1
f ( x) = x 3 = x 3 = x 3 . f(x) 0 -
3 3
. x=0.
f(x)<0 x<0 f(x)>0 x>0 , x=0
f(0)=0.
2
4: : f ( x) = ( x 2) x 3

2
1
1
f ( x) = ( x 2) x 3 = (5 x 4) 3 . x= 4 f(x)=0, x 0.
3 5
x= 4 x=0.
5

1
: f ( x) = 1 (5 x 4) 3 = 2(5 x + 2) .
3 9x 3 x
90 .
4
4 2(5 + 2)
x= : f ( 4 ) = 5 =
5
> 0 , .
5 5 43 4 4
9 3 3
5 5 5
x=0: f(x)>0 x>0 f(x)<0 x<0 -
x=0 f(x)=0.
5: :
i. f(x)=x4-2x2+5, x[-2, 2]
ln 2 x 1
ii. f(x)= , x , e3
x e

i. : f(x)=4x3-4x
: f(x)=0 4x3-4x=0 4x(x2-1)=0 4x(x-1)(x+1)=0
x=0 x=1 x= -1 f(x).
x=0 f(0)=5, x=1
x= -1 f(1)=f(-1)=4.
f(x) [-2, 2]
f(-2)=f(2)=13. f(x)
13,
4.
6: b (>0, b>0),
ax
f ( x) = 2 1 x=2.
x +b

f ( x) = 2ax = ax2 + ab
2
f(x)
x +b ( x + b) 2

2
, -x +b=0 x=2. 4-b=0.
, f(2)=1 , : 2a = 1 2a b = 4 .
4+b
: 4a ab = 0 a = 4 a = 0 .
2a b = 4 b=4 b = 4
b>0.
=4 b=4.
7: , x x, x>0.

f(x)=x g(x)=x. f(0)=g(0)=0 f(x)=1, g(x)=x.
f(x) g(x) , f(x) g(x), x x, x>0.
8: :
i. f(x)=3x ii. f(x)=2x3-x2+1 iii. f(x)=3x-2x iv. f(x)=x3e-x
: 1 91
9: :
1
i. f ( x) = x 2 ( x 4) vii. f ( x) = x + 2 x
2
2x
ii. f ( x) = viii. f ( x) = x x
1 + x2
iii. f ( x) = 2 x x 2 ix. f ( x ) = x 2 e x
ln 2 x
iv. f ( x) = 5 x 4 x. f ( x) =
x
v. f ( x) = 2 x 3 3 x 2 xi. f ( x) = e x x
vi. f ( x) = x + x (
xii. f ( x) = ln x + 1 + x 2 )
10: -
:
x -1
i. f ( x) = x 2 , x [0,1] vi. f ( x ) = , x [0, 4]
x +1

ii. f ( x) = x3 - 6 x, x [-3, 4] vii. f ( x) = 2 x - x, x [- , ]
2 2

iii. f ( x) =| x |, x [-1,1] viii. f ( x) = 2 x - 2 x, x [0, ]
4
1- x
iv. f ( x) = 2 x , x [-1,5] ix. f ( x) = , x [0,1]
1+ x
1 1 2x
v. f ( x) = x + , x [ ,100] x. f ( x ) =
x 100 1 + x2
11: m
mx
f ( x) = ;
xm
12: x(t ) = 1 t 4 4t 3 + 16t 2
4
Ox. :
)
Ox.
) 11m/sec2
( x m, m/sec sec)
13: t sec
s(t ) = 1 t 4 + 24 t .
4 6
3sec 4sec .
5.5.
5.5.1. ,
f(x)
x0 , ,
(x0, f(x0)).
92 .
7: f(x) ( )
x0, (x0-, x0+) x0,
f(x), ,
.
8: f(x) ( )
x0, (x0-, x0+) x0,
f(x), ,
(x0, f(x0)).
9: f(x) ,
x0.
10: f(x), [,] -
(,), (,x0) (x0,),
.
, f(x), [,]
(,), (,x0) (x0,), -
.
1: f(x), -
, x0
f(x0) . f(x0)>0, f(x)
, f(x0)<0 f(x) ,
x0.
2: f(x),
,
x0 f(x0) . f(x0)=0 f(x0) 0,
f(x) x0.
3: (x0, f(x0)) f(x),
, f(x0)=0.
5.5.2.
1: ,
, , :
1 5 1 3
i. f ( x) = 3 x 2 x3 ii. f ( x) = x - x +x+1 iii. f ( x) = x x 2 + 1
20 6

1 1
ii. Df=R, f ( x) = x 4 - x 2 +1 , f ( x) = x 3 x .
4 2
f ( x ) = 0 x x = 0 x ( x 2 1) = 0 x( x 1)( x + 1) = 0 x = 0 x = 1 x = 1 ,
3
.
f(x)>0, x (-1, 0) (1, + ), .
f(x)<0, x (- , -1) (0,1), .
x=0 f(0)=1, x=1
f(1)= 113 x=-1 f(-1)= 7 .
60 60
: 1 93
2: -
:
e x , x 0
1
i. f ( x) = x 4 ii. f ( x) = 2 ,a R iii. f ( x) = 1 x 3
a + x2 e + , x < 0
2 2
5.6.

:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
-
, .
,
f(x) x + x -
-
.

.
5.6.1.
11: y=x+ ( )
f(x) x ,
lim [ f ( x) ( x + )] = 0 .
x
:
f ( x)
= lim = lim [ f ( x) x ] .
x x x
12: y= -
f(x) lim f ( x) lim f ( x) .
x + x
13: y=
f(x) lim f ( x) = .
x
:
f(x).
94 .
5.6.2.
1:
:
1 x
i. f ( x) = 2 ii. f ( x) = 2
x 1 x +1

i. Df=R-{-1, 1}.
x
1 1 1
: lim = lim = + . lim = ,
x 11 x 12
x 1+1 x 1
2
x 11 x 1
2
1
lim+1 = + .
x 1 x 1
2
: x=1
x=-1.
ii. , x2+1 0, xDf=R.
2: -
:
3x 2 2 x + 1 x3
i. f ( x) = ii. f ( x) =
x+2 x2
x2 + 1 3x 1
iii. f ( x) = iv. f ( x) =
x 2 4x

i. f(x) Df=R-{-2}.
f(x) x -2.
3x 2 2 x + 1
lim = + ,
x 2 x+2
x=-2.
:
3x 2 2 x + 1
f ( x) x+2 3x 2 2 x + 1 3x 2 2 x + 1 3x 2
= lim = lim = lim = lim = lim =3
x x x x x x( x + 2) x x2 + 2x x x 2
3x 2 2 x + 1 8 x + 1 8 x
= lim [ f ( x) x ] = lim 3 x = lim = lim = 8
x x
x+2 x x+2 x x

y=3x-8.
ii. Df=(- ,0] (2,+ ) f(x) :
x
x , x (2, +)
x 3
x.x 2
x x x2
f ( x) = = = x2 =| x | =
x2 x2 x2 x2 x
x x 2 , x (, 0]
: 1 95
x
x
f ( x) x2 x x 1
= lim = lim = lim = lim = lim =1
x + x x + x x + x 2 x+ 2 x + 2
x 1 1
x x
x x x
= lim [ f ( x) x ] = lim x x = lim x 1 = lim x 1 =
x2 x2 x2
x + x + x + x +

x x2
== lim x = lim x

( x x2 )( x + x2 )
= lim x xx+2

=

x +
x 2 x +

x2 ( x + x2
) x +

x2 x + x2 ( )

2 2 2
= lim x = lim x = lim =1
x +
x( x 2) + x 2 x +
x 1 2 +1 2
x +
2 2
1 +1
x x x x
f(x) x +
y=x+1.
,
x - , y=-x+1.
x3
lim f ( x) = lim = + . f(x)
x 2 x 2 x2
x=2.
x2 + 1
iii. lim f ( x) = lim = + .
x 0 x 0 x
x=0.
1 1 1
x 2 1 + 2 | x | 1+ 2 x 1+ 2
x +12
x x = x =
lim f ( x) = lim = lim = lim lim
x + x + x x + x x + x x + x
1
= lim 1 + =1
x + x2

y=1 x + .
,
lim f ( x) = 1 , , f(x) -
x
, y=-1.
3: f(x)=(x-2)2.

i. Df=R
ii. f(x)=2(x-2), x>2 f(x) ,
x<2 .
iii. x=2 f(2)=0.
iv. f(x)=2>0, f(x)
Df .
96 .
v. lim f ( x) = lim f ( x) = + , ,
x + x
.

, : f(-x)=(-x-2)2=(x+2)2.
3. y
x
-1 1 2 3 4 5
3
4: f(x)=x3.

i. Df=R
ii. f(x)=3x2>0 f(x) , xDf
iii. f(x)>0 xDf .
iv. f(-x)=(-x)3=-x3, f(x) .
v. f(x)=6x, f(x) x>0
x<0.
vi. x=0 f(0)=0.
f(0)=f(0)=f(0)=0,
(0,0), x.
lim f ( x) = + lim f ( x) = ,
x + x
.
-
4.
y
3
2.5
1.5
0.5
x
2 4 6 8
4
5: f(x)= x .
: 1 97

i. Df=R+.
ii. 1 >0, f(x) -
f ( x) =
2 x
.
iii. 1 <0, f(x)
f ( x) =
4 x3
.
f(0)=0, lim f ( x) = + , ,
x 0
(0,0), Ox 90.
, : lim f ( x) = + ,
x +
.

( 5).
y
x
-4 -2 2 4
-2
-4
6: f(x)=x.

i. Df=R.
ii. f(x+T)=f(x) x+T=2k+0 x+T=(2k+1)-0, -
T=2. [0,2].
iii. f(-x)=(-x)=-x, .
iv. f(x)=x :
f(x)>0, x 0, ,
2
f(x)<0, x , 3 ,

2 2
f(x)>0, x 3 , 2 ,
2

v. x= 1,
2
x= 3 -1.
2
vi. f(x)=-x :
f(x)<0, x(0, )
f(x)>0, x(, 2)
98 .
vii. f(x) x=0, x=

x=2, f ,
f(x) ( 2).
f(0)=1, f()=-1, (0,0)
y=x, (,0)
y=-x+.
, .
6.
y
1
0.5
x
2 3 3
2 2 2
-0.5
-1
7: f(x)=x.

f(x)=x= x + -
2
. ( 7)

y .
2 y
1
0.5
x
2 3 3
2 2 2
-0.5
-1
8: f(x)=x.

i. Df= + ,

+ ( + 1) , .
2 2
: 1 99
ii. f(x+T)=f(x) (x+T)=x T=.

.
,
2 2
1
iii. f ( x) = , ,
x2
2 2
.

iv. f ( x) =
2 x
, , 0 -
x3
2

0, , x=0 .
2
v. f(-x)=(-x)=-x, f(x)

(0,0).
, (0,0)
y=x.
: lim + f ( x) =

x
2
lim f ( x) = + . f(x)

x
2
x=- x= .
2 2
f(x)=x 8.
y
30
20
10
x
2 3 3
2 2 2
-10
-20
-30
8
9: f(x)=x

f(x)=x= x +
2
. 9.
100 .
30
20
10
x
2 3 3
2 -10 2 2
-20
-30
10: f(x)=x

i. Df=[-1,1]
1
ii. f ( x) = > 0 ,
1 x2
.
x
iii. f ( x) = < 0 , x (-1,0)
(1 x ) 2 3
.
x
f ( x) = > 0 , x(0,1)
(1 x ) 2 3
. x=0
f(0)=0=0.
iv. f(-x)=(-x)=-x, f(x) ,
.
(0,0) y=x
( 10).
y

2
x
-1 1
10
11: : f(x)=x
: 1 101

i. Df=[-1,1]
ii. 1
f ( x) = < 0 , -
1 x 2
.
iii. x , x(-1,0)
f ( x) = >0
(1 x )
2 3
.
x
f ( x) = < 0, x(0,1)
(1 x ) 2 3
.
iv. f(-x)=(-x)=x, f(x) .
( 11).
y

x
-1 -0.5 0.5 1
11
12: : f(x)=x

i. Df=R.
ii. 1
f ( x) = > 0 , -
1 + x2
.
2x
iii. f ( x ) = > 0 , x (- ,0)
(1 + x )
2 2
.
2x
f ( x ) = < 0 , x(0,+ )
(1 + x2 )
2
.
iv. f(-x)=(-x)=-x, f(x) ,
.
(0,0) y=x.
: lim f ( x) =
x + 2
102 .

lim f ( x) = . f(x) y=
x 2 2

y=- . 12
2
y

2
x
-10 -5 5 10
12
13: f(x)=ex

i. Df=R.
ii. f(x)=ex>0,
.
iii. f(x)=ex>0
.
, : lim f ( x) = + lim f ( x) = 0 ,
x + x
f(x) y=0,
Ox.
,
13.
y
4
x
-2 -1 1 2
13
14: f(x)=lnx
: 1 103

*
i. Df=R +.
1
ii. f(x)= >0,
x
.
1
iii. f(x)= 2 <0
x
.
: lim f ( x) =
x 0+
lim f ( x) = + , f(x)
x +
x=0, Oy.
14.
x
1 2 3 4 5 6
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
14
x +1
15: f(x)=
2x 3
16: f(x)= x3
x 2 3x + 2
ex
17: f(x)=
x2
104 .

2
1.
2.
3.
4.
2011
: 2 1

..............................................................................................1
1: ...................................................3
1.1. ....................................................................................................... 3
1.1.1. , ........................................ 3
1.1.2. .......................................................................................... 3
1.1.3. .................................................................................... 4
1.1.4. .......................................................................................... 5
1.1.5. ......................................................................... 5
1.2. ............................................................................................. 8
1.3. .............................................................................................. 19
1.3.1. ............................................................................... 19
1.3.2. ....................................................................... 20
1.4. .......................................................................................... 24
1.4.1. ............................................................................... 24
1.4.2. ....................................................................... 25
1.5. ........................................................................... 29
1.5.1. .................................................................................................... 29
1.5.2. ....................................................................... 30
1.6. .............................................................................................. 32
1.6.1. ............................................................ 32
1.6.2. ........................................................................................................ 33
2: ..............................................37
2.1. ........................................................................................................................................ 37
2.2. ....................................................................................................... 37
2.3. ............................................................................................ 40
2.4. Riemann.................................................................................................................... 42
2.5. .................................................... 42
2.5.1. .............................. 42
2.5.2. ....................................................................... 45
2.6. ........................................................................ 47
2. 6.1. ............................................................................................... 47
2.6.2. ....................................................................... 47
3: ............53
3.1. .......................................................................................................... 53
3.2. ........................................................................... 54
4: ....................................59
2 .
4.1. .......................................................................................................... 59
4.2. ........................................................................... 60
: 2 3
1 :
1.1.
1.1.1. ,
1: f(x) G
F(x)
dF
(1) = f ( x)
dx
x G f(x). H F(x)
f(x). (1) :
(2) dF = f ( x )dx
1: F(x) f(x),
F(x)+c, c R, f(x).
2:
f(x) f(x)
f ( x)dx
, :
(3) f ( x)dx = F ( x) + c
F(x) f(x), c -
.
3: f(x) (3)
.
4: f(x)dx (3) -
.
5: x (3)
.
1.1.2.
F(x) f(x)

4
.
F(x) : -
f(x), , F(x);.
.
c .
4 .
x n +1
1) f ( x) = x n , F ( x) = + c ( n 1)
n +1
1
2) f ( x) = , F ( x) = ln | x | + c
x
ax
3) f ( x) = a x , F ( x) = +c
ln a
4) f ( x) = e x , F ( x) = e x + c
5) f ( x) = x, F ( x) = x + c
6) f ( x) = x, F ( x) = x + c
1
7) f ( x) = , F ( x) = x + c
2 x
1
8) f ( x) = , F ( x) = x + c
2 x
1
9) f ( x) = , F ( x) = x + c F ( x) = x + c
1 x2
1
10) f ( x) = , F ( x) = x + c F ( x) = x + c
1 + x2
1
11) f ( x) = , F ( x) = ln | x + x 2 + 1 | + c
x +1
2
1
12) f ( x) = , F ( x) = ln | x + x 2 1 | + c
x 1
2
1.1.3.

,
. , c -
.
x n +1
1) x n dx = + c, ( n 1)
n +1
1
2) x dx = ln | x | +c
ax
3) a x dx = + c, (a > 0, a 1)
ln a
4) e x dx = e x + c
5) xdx = x + c
6) xdx = x + c
1
7) 2
x
dx = x + c
: 2 5
1
8) 2
x
dx = x + c
1 x + c
9) 1 x2
dx =
x + c
1 x + c
10) dx =
1+ x x + c
2
1
11) dx = ln | x + x 2 + 1 | + c
x +1
2
1
12) dx = ln | x + x 2 1 | + c
x 1
2
1.1.4.
,
.
.
1) d f ( x)dx = f ( x)dx
2) dF ( x) = F ( x) + c
3) af ( x)dx = a f ( x)dx, (a R* )
4) [ f ( x) + g ( x)] dx = f ( x)dx + g ( x)dx
5) [ f ( x) g ( x) ] dx = f ( x) dx g ( x) dx
: : I = x ln xdx .
: I = 1 ln dx 2
2
, ,
.
2: f(x)
f ( x ) dx = F ( x ) . (t) 1,
, 1 , :
(7) f ( x)dx = F[ (t )] = f [(t )] (t )dt
3: u(x) v(x)
, :
(8) u ( x)dv( x) = u ( x)v( x) v( x)du ( x)
6: (8)
.
1.1.5.
1: :
6 .
i. xdx v. ( x + 1)( x x + 1) dx
(1 x) 2
ii. a x e x dx vi. x x dx
2
1 x 1 + 2 x
iii. dx vii. 1 + 2 x dx
x
x +1 2 x
iv. dx viii. dx
x 2 x 2 x

1
1 +1 3
x 2
2 2 3
i. xdx = x dx = 2
+ c = x2 + c = x + c.
1 3 3
+1
2
(a.e) x a x ex axex
ii. a x e x dx = (a.e) x dx = +c = +c = + c.
ln(a.e) ln a + ln e ln a + 1
2
1 x (1 x) 2 1 2 x + x2 1 2x x2
iii. dx = dx = x2 dx = x2 x2 + x2 dx =
x x2
1 2 1 2 1 1
= 2 + 1dx = 2 dx dx + dx = x 2 dx 2 dx + dx = 2 ln | x | + x + c.
x x x x x x
1 + 2 x 1 + 2 x 1 2 x
vii. 1 + 2 x dx = 2 2 x dx = 2 2 x 2 2 x dx =
+
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= + dx = dx + dx = dx + dx =
2 x 2 2 x 2 x
2 2 2
2 2
1 1 1
= x + x + c = ( x + x) + c.
2 2 2
2: :
x2 + 1 x2 1
i. 2 xdx iv. dx
x4 1
1 2 x + 5x
ii. 1 2 x x dx v. dx
x 10 x
1 + x2 1 x2
iii. 1 x4
dx

2 x 1- 2 x 1 2 x
i. 2 xdx = dx = dx = 2
dx =
x
2
x
2
x x
2
1 1
= 2
1dx = dx dx = x - x + c.
x 2 x
: 2 7
x2 + 1 x2 1 x2 + 1 x2 1 x2 + 1 x2 1
iv. x4 1
dx =
( x 2 ) 2 12
dx =
( x 2 1)( x 2 + 1)
dx =
x2 + 1 x2 1 x2 + 1 x2 1
= dx = dx dx =
x2 1 x2 + 1 x2 1 x2 + 1 x2 1 x2 + 1
1 1 x + x2 1
= dx dx = ln | x + x 2 1 | ln | x + x 2 + 1 | + c = ln + c.
x2 1 x2 + 1 x + x2 + 1
2 x + 5x 2 x + 5x 2 x + 5x 2x 5x
v. 10 x dx = (2.5) x dx = 2 x.5x dx = 2 x.5x 2 x.5x dx =
dx +
x x
1 1
x x
1 1
1
1 5 2
= x dx + x dx = dx + dx = + + c =
5 2
5
2 1 1
ln ln
5 2
x x
1 1
5 x
2x 1 1 1 1
= + +c = x + x + c = x + x + c.
ln1 ln 5 ln1 ln 2 5 ln 5 2 ln 2 5 ln 5 2 ln 2
3: :
i. ln xdx iv. e x xdx
ii. x ln xdx v. a 2 + x 2 dx
iii. x xdx vi. a 2 x 2 dx

1
i. ln xdx = x ln x - xd ln x = x ln x - x dx = x ln x - 1dx = x ln x - x + c.
x
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
ii. x ln xdx = ln xdx2 = x2 ln x - x2 d ln x = x2 ln x - xdx = x2 ln x - x2 + c.
2 2 2 2 2 2 4
iii. x xdx = xd x = x x - xdx = x x + x + c.
iv. e x xdx = xde x = e x x - e x d x = e x x - e x xdx =

= e x x - xde x = e x x - e x x + e x d x = e x x - e x x - e x xdx,
1
2 e x xdx = e x x - e x x e x xdx = e x ( x - x ) + c.
2
x2
v. a 2 + x2 dx = x a 2 + x2 dx = x x2 + a 2 - xd a 2 + x2 = x x2 + a 2 - dx =
a2 + x2
x2 + a2 - a2 1
= x x2 + a2 - dx = x x2 + a 2 - a 2 + x2 dx + a 2 dx =
a +x
2 2
a + x2
2
= x x2 + a 2 + a 2 ln x + a 2 + x2 - a 2 + x2 dx,
2 a 2 + x2 dx = x x2 + a 2 + a 2 ln x + a 2 + x2
a 2 + x2 dx =
1
2(x x2 + a 2 + a2 ln x + a 2 + x2 + c. )
4: :
8 .
1
i. e x dx
2
ix. dx
a2 x2
ii. x xdx x. 3 xdx
x
iii. x ln x dx xi. 2 xdx
1
iv. x ln x dx xii. 2 xdx
1
v. 2 xdx xiii. x x dx
1
vi. (2 x + 3)3 dx xvi. x dx
1
vii. 2 x + 1dx xv. x dx
1
viii. a 2
+ x2
dx xvi. xdx
1.2.
: f(x) -
(t) 1
(t)>0 ( (t)<0) . ,
(t) .
1 , :
(1) f [ (t )] d (t ) = F (t )
, :
(2) f ( x)dx = F [ ( x)]
(x) (t).
,
, ,
. ,
. -
.
. : dx=d(x+c), c R
1: :
: 2 9
dx dx
i. x+a vi. 2
( x + a)
dx
ii. ( x 3)102 dx vii. 2 x x2
dx dx
iii. 2+ x
viii. 2
x + 6 x + 10
dx
x 3dx ix.
3
iv.
x + 4x + 8
2
5
x2 2 x + 1
v. ( x + 2)dx x. dx
x 1

i. dx=d(x+) , : I = dx = d ( x + a) . u=x+,
x+a x+a
du
du=d(x+) , : I = = ln | u | +c = ln | x + a | + c .
u
ii. dx=d(x-3) , : I = ( x 3)102 dx = ( x 3)102 d ( x 3) .
u=x-3, du=d(x-3) , : I = u102 du = u

103
( x 3)103
+c = +c.
103 103
vii. I = dx dx dx dx .
2 x x2
=
2x x2 + 1 1
=
1 ( x 2 2 x + 1)
=
1 ( x 1) 2
dx=d(x-1) , : d ( x 1) . u=x-1, du=d(x-1)
I =
1 ( x 1) 2
, : I = du
= u + c = ( x 1) + c .
1 u2
2
5
x2 2x + 1 5
( x 1) 2 ( x 1) 5 2
3
dx = ( x 1) 5 dx = ( x 1) 5 dx
1
x. I = dx = dx =
x 1 x 1 x 1
3

dx=d(x-1) , : I = ( x 1) 5 d ( x 1) . u=x-1, du=d(x-
3
3 +1
1) , : I = u 5 du = u
5
5 2 5 2
+ c = u 5 + c = ( x 1) 5 + c .
3 2 2
+1
5
. : dx = 1 d (cx) , c R
c
2: :
10 .
1
i. 5 xdx vii. 1 + 5x 2
dx
1 1
ii. 2
2x
dx viii. 5
dx
(5 x 2) 2
1 1
iii. 3 x dx ix.
3x 2
dx
1 1
iv. 1 4 x2
dx x.
1 x
dx
1 1
v. dx xi. 1 + xdx
1 3x 2
1
vi. dx xii. (e x + e 2 x ) dx
1 + 9 x2

1
i. dx = d (5 x) I = 5 xdx = 5 x. 1 d (5 x) = 1 5 xd (5 x) .
5 5 5
1 1 1
u=5x, du=d(5x) I =
5 udu = u + c = 5 x + c .
5 5
1 (1) d (3 x)
iii. I = dx = d ( x) = . u=3-x, du=d(3-x)
3 x 3 x 3 x
du
, : I = = ln | u | + c = ln | 3 x | + c .
u
1
1 1 3
v. I = dx = dx = d ( 3x) =
1 3x 2
1 ( 3 x) 2
1 ( 3x) 2
1 1
=
3 1 ( 3 x) 2
d ( 3x)
u= 3 x, du=d( 3 x) , :
1 du 1 1
I= = u + c = ( 3 x) + c .
3 1 u 2
3 3
x
x. x = 1 2 2
2
x
, : 1 x = 2 2
2
:
1
d x
1 1 1 2 1 2 . u= 1 x,
I = dx = dx = d x =
1 x 2 2 x 2 2 x 2 2 x 2
2 2 2
du=d( 1 x) , : I = 2 = u + c = x + c .
du
2 u 2
. : u(x)dx=du(x)
3: :
: 2 11
x x
i. x 2
+1
dx viii. 1 x2
dx
ex ln x
ii. e x + 2 dx ix. x
dx
x
iii. xdx x. dx
3 x
x3 2 x
iv.
x2 + 1
3
dx xi.
1 + 2 x
dx
x x + ( 3 x) 2
v. 4 dx xii. dx
a + x4 1 9 x2
1 1
vi. e x
+ e x
dx xiii. x dx
1 1
vii. a4 x4
dx xiv. x dx

i. xdx = 1 dx 2 = 1 d ( x 2 + 1) x2+1=u>0 , :
2 2
x 1 d ( x + 1) 1 du 1
2
1
x 2 + 1dx = 2 x 2 + 1 = 2 u = 2 ln u + c = 2 ln( x + 1) + c .
2
iii. xdx = x dx = d x = ln | x | + c .
x x
x2
2 2 d
v. x 1 dx 1 dx 1 a2 1 x2 .
a 4 + x 4 dx = 2 a 4 + x 4 = 2 4 x 4 = 2a 2 x 2 2 = 2a 2 a 2 + c
a 1 + 4 1+ 2
a a
x d x
x. I = dx = = 3 xd x . u=x, du=dx -
x
3
x
3
, :
u 3+1 1 1 1
I = u 3 du = + c = u 2 + c = 2 + c = +c.
3 + 1 2 2u 2 2 x
2 x 2 x x 2 xd x
xi. I = dx = dx = .
1 + x2
1 + x
2
1 + 2 x
2xdx=d2x , :
d 2 x d (1 + 2 x)
I = = = ln(1 + 2 x) + c .
1 + x
2
1 + 2 x
x + ( 3x)2 x ( 3x)2
xii. dx = dx + dx =
1 9 x2 1 9 x2 1 9 x2
1 d (9 x2 ) 1 ( 3x)2 1 d (1 9 x2 ) 1 xiii.
18
= + d (3x) = ( 3x)2 d ( 3x) =
1 9x 2 3 1 ( 3x )
2 18 1 9x 2 3
1
= 1 9 x2 + ( 3x)3 + c.
9
-
12 .
x = 2 x x
2 2
x
2 , :
2
1 1 1
x x x
1 1
2 2 2
I = dx = dx = 2 dx = 2 dx = 2 dx .
x x
2
x x
2
x
2
x
2
x
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 x x

2 2
x x
d d
2 = d x , : I = 2 = ln | x | +c .
x 2 x 2
2
2 2
xiv. x = x
2
3xiii. , :

d x
1 2 1 x
x dx = dx = = ln 4 2 + c .
x x
2 2
V.
4: :
1 1
i. x 2
1+ x 2
dx viii. 3
dx
(x + a )
2 2 2
1 x2
ii. x 2 (ln x)dx ix. a2 x2
dx
1 1
iii. x x a2
2
dx x.
x 1 + x2
dx
1
5 x 2dx xi.
3
iv. 3
dx
(x a )
2 2 2
1 1 ln( x 3)
v. x 2
dx
x
xii.
x ln x
dx
ln x
vi. a 2 x 2 dx xiii.
x x
dx
1 a+x
vii. 3
dx xiv. ax
dx
(1 x ) 2 2
i. x = 1 , dx = 12 dt :
t t
: 2 13
1 t 1 1
I= dx = - dt = - d (t 2 + 1) = t 2 + 1 + c .
x2 1 + x2 t2 +1 2 t +1
2
x = 1 t = 1 , I = 1 + x + c .
2
t x x
dx dx
ii. = d ln x , lnx=t, = dt
x x
1 1
: dx = 2 dt = t + c = (ln x) + c .
x (ln x)
2
t
a
iii. x = , dx = a2 dt :
t t
a

1 1 1 1 1
I = dx = t2 dt = dt = = t + c .
x x a2 2
a a 2
1 t 2 a 1 t 2 a
a2 at
t t2 t
a a 1 a
x= t = , I = + c .
t x a x
vi. x=t, dx=tdt :
1 + 2t
I = a 2 x 2 dx = a 2 a 2 2 t .a tdt = a 2 2 tdt = a 2 dt =
2
a2 a2 a2 a2 a2 a2
2 4
= dt + 2td 2t = t + 2t + c = t + 2 t t + c =
2 4 2 4
a2
= (t + t t ) + c
2
x
x=t, t= , :
a
2t + 2t = 1 2t = 1 2t t = 1 2t
2
x a2 x2
t = 1 t =
a a
a2 x x a2 x2 a2 x x a2 x2
I = ( + ) + c = ( + )+c.
2 a a a 2 a a2
xi. x = a , dx = a2t dt :
t t
a t
1 2 t a t
I = 3
dx = 3
dt = 3
dt =
(x a )
2
a
2 2
2
a (1 t )
2 2 2 2
a2 2 t
t
2
3 t
1 t t 1 t 1
= 2 dt = 2 dt = 2 + c.
a t3
a t 2
a t
x = a t = x a , I =
2 2
x
+c.
t x a x2 a2
2
14 .
xiii.
2x x=t,
, :
ln x ln x ln x
I = dx = dx = d x . x=t,
x x x x x
x
2
2 x
dx=dt : I = ln t dt = 1 (ln t ) 2 + c = 1 (ln x) 2 + c .
t 2 2
xiv. x=2t, dx=-22tdt :
a+x a(1 + 2t ) 2 t
I = dx = (2a 2t )dt = 2a 2tdt =
ax a(1 2t ) 2 t
t 2t + 1 t 2t
= 2a 2 t tdt = 4a 2 tdt = 4a dt = 4a + + c.
t 2 2 4
x=2t , t = 1 x
2 a
2
x
2t = 1 . :
a2
1 x a2 x2 x
I = 4a + + c = a. a x + c.
2 2
4 a 4 a a
V.
-
2
x +bx+c, 0 x = t b , dx=dt.
2a
5: :
1 1
i. x 2
+ 2x + 3
dx v. x + 2x + 6
2
dx
1 1
ii. 4x 2
+ 4x + 5
dx vi. 5 + x x2
dx
1 x +1
iii. 2 6 x 9 x2
dx vii. x2 + x + 1
dx
1 1
iv. 2
x - 4x - 3
dx viii. 2 + x + x2
dx

i. =1 b=2. x = t 2 x = t 1
2.1
dx=dt :
1 1 1 1
I = dx = dt = 2 dt = dt =
x + 2x + 3 2
(t 1) + 2(t 1) + 3
2
t +2 t 2

2 + 1
2
t t
2d d
1 1 1 2 2 2 2 t
= 2
dt = 2
= 2
= + c.
2 t 2 t 2 t 2 2
+1 +1 +1
2 2 2
: 2 15
x=t-1 t=x+1 :
2 x +1
I= +c.
2 2
1
iii. x = t dx=dt :
3
1 1 1
I = dx = dt = dt =
2 6x 9x2 1 1
2
3 9t 2
2 6t 9t
3 3
1 d ( 3t ) 1
= = 3t + c.
1 ( 3t ) 2 3
2
( 3)
x = t 1 t = x + 1 :
3 3
1 1 1 3
I = 3 x + + c = 3x + + c .
3 3 3 3
iv. x=t+2 dx=dt :
1 1 1
x 4x 3
2
dx =
(t + 2) 4(t + 2) 3
2
dt =
t 7
2
dt =
= ln | t + t 2 7 | + c = ln | x 2 + x 2 4 x 3 + c.
vii. x = t 1 t = x + 1 , dx=dt
2 2
:
1 1
x +1 t +1 t+
2 2 dt =
x2 + x + 1
dx =
2
dt =
3
1 1 t2 +
t + t +1 4
2 2
t 1 1 3 1 3
=
2
dt + dt = t 2 + + ln t + t 2 + + c =
3
3 4 2 4
t2 + t2 +
4
4
1 1
= x 2 + x + 1 + ln x + + x 2 + x + 1 + c.
2 2
VI.
6: :
x x3 x 1
i. x + 4 dx iii. x + 3 dx v. 2 x + 1 dx vii. x(8 + x 6 2
)
dx
x2 1 3+ x
ii. x + 1 dx iv. x 2
+x
dx vi. 3 x dx

x x+44 x+4 4 1
i. x + 4 dx = x+4
dx =
x+4
dx
x+4
dx = dx 4
x+4
dx =
= x 4 ln | x + 4 | + c.
16 .
x2 x2 + 1 1 x2 1 1 ( x 1)( x + 1) 1
ii. x +1 x +1
dx = dx = x + 1 dx + x + 1 dx = x + 1 dx + x + 1 dx =
1 x2
( x 1) dx + x +1 dx =
2
x + ln | x + 1 | + c.
1 1+ x x 1+ x x 1 1
iv. 2 dx = dx = dx dx = dx dx =
x +x x( x + 1) x( x + 1) x( x + 1) x x +1
x
= ln | x | ln | x + 1 | + c = ln + c.
x +1
1 1 8 + x6 x6 1 1 1 x5
vii. I =
8 x(8 + x 6 ) 2 8 x(8 + x 6 ) 8 ( 8 + x 6 )2
dx = dx = dx dx =
x(8 + x 6 )2
8
d 6 + 1
1 d (8 + x ) = 1 ln 8 + x +
6 6
1 x 1
=
8.48 8
8.6 (8 + x )
6 2
384 x 6
48(8 + x 6 )
+ c.
+1
x6
VII. : u ( x)v ( x)vdx = u ( x)dv( x)
7: :
i. ln xdx v. xdx
ii. xdx vi. a x dx

2 2
iii. xdx vii. ln( x + x + 1)dx

2
x 2 + a 2 dx viii. ln( x + 1)dx

2
iv.

i. u=lnx, v=x :
dx
ln xdx = x ln x xd ln x = x ln x x = x ln x dx = x ln x x + c = x(ln x 1) + c .
x
ii. u=x, v=x :
x
xdx = x x xd x = x x 1 + x 2
dx =
iii.
1 1 1 1 1
= x x dx 2 = x x d (1 + x 2 ) =x x ln(1 + x 2 ) + c.
2 1+ x 2
2 1+ x 2
2
u=x, v=x :
x
xdx = x x xd x = x x 1 x2
dx =
1 1 1 1
2 1 x2
= x x dx 2 =x x + d (1 x 2 ) =
2 1 x2
1
1 +1
1 1 (1 x 2 ) 2
= x x + (1 x 2 ) 2 d (1 x 2 ) = x x + +c =
2 2 1
+1
2
1
1
1 (1 x 2 ) 2
= x x + + c = x x + (1 x 2 ) 2 + c = x x + 1 x 2 + c.
2 1
2
: 2 17
iv. u= x 2 + a 2 , v=x :
x.2 x
x 2 + a 2 dx = x x 2 + a 2 xd x 2 + a 2 = x x 2 + a 2
2 x2 + a2
dx =
x2 x2 + a2 a2
= x x2 + a2 dx = x x 2 + a 2 dx =
x2 + a2 x2 + a2
=
1
2
(x x 2 + a 2 + a 2 ln | x + x 2 + a 2 | + c. )
v. u= x , v=x :
x 1
I = xdx = x x xd x = x x dx =
1+ ( x) 2 x 2
1 x 1 1 x x 1 x
= x x
2 1+ x x
dx = x x
2 1+ x ( x) 2
dx = x x
2 1+ x
dx =
1
= x x I1 .
2
I1, x=t2 t = x dx=2tdt
:
2t 2 t2 +11
I1 = 2 dt = 2 2 dt = 2(t t ) + c1 = 2( x x ) + c1 .
t +1 t +1
1
I = x x 2( x x ) + c = x x x + x + c =
: 2
= ( x + 1) x x + c.
vi. u= a 2 x 2 , v=x :
2 x
a 2 x 2 dx = x a 2 x 2 xd a 2 x 2 = x a 2 x 2 x
2 a2 x2
dx =
x2 x2 + a2 a2
= x a2 x2 + dx = x a 2 x 2 dx =
a2 x2 a2 x2
1 x
= x a x + a + c.
2 2 2
2 a
vii. u= ln( x + x 2 + 1) , v=x :

ln( x + x 2 + 1)dx = x ln( x + x 2 + 1) xd ln( x + x 2 + 1) =
2x
1+
2 x2 + 1
= x ln( x + x 2 + 1) x dx = x ln( x + x 2 + 1) x 2 + 1 + c.
x + x2 + 1
viii. u=ln(x2+1) , v=x :
2x
ln( x + 1)dx = x ln( x 2 + 1) xd ln( x 2 + 1) = x ln( x 2 + 1) x dx =
2
x +1
2
x2 x2 + 1 1
= x ln( x 2 + 1) 2 dx = x ln( x 2
+ 1) 2 x2 + 1 dx =
x2 + 1
x2 + 1 1 1
= x ln( x 2 + 1) 2 2 dx + 2 dx = x ln( x 2 + 1) 2 dx 2 dx =
x +1 x +1 x +1
= x ln( x 2 + 1) 2( x x) + c = x ln( x 2 + 1) 2 x + 2 x + c.
18 .
8: :
x
i. x xdx v. dx
x2
ii. x xdx vii. x( x) 2 dx
iii. x 2 xdx vi. ( x)2 dx
iv. x 2 xdx

1
i. I = x xdx = xdx 2 . u=x, v=x :
2
2
1 2 1 2 1 1 1 1
I = x x x d x = x 2 x x 2 dx = x 2 x + I1
2 2 2 2 1 x 2 2
1 x=t t=x, dx=tdt

:
1 2 t 1 2 t 1 2 t t
2 1 2 t 2 2 t 2 t
I 1= tdt = tdt = dt =
1 1 1 2t 1 1 1 1
=
2 2 tdt =
2 2
dt = t + 2t + c1 = t + 2 t t + c1 =
4 8 4 8
1 1 1 1
= t + 2 t 1 2 t + c1 = x + 2 x 1 x 2 + c1 =
4 8 4 8
1
4
1
4
1
(
= x + x 1 x 2 + c1 = x x 1 x 2 + c1 .
4
)
2
x 1
: I = x ( x x 1 x 2 ) + c .
2 4
1 1 1
ii. x xdx = xdx 2 = x 2 x x 2 d x =
2 2 2
1 1 1 1 2 1 x2 + 1 1
= x 2 x x 2
2 1 + x2
dx = x x dx =
2 2 1 + x2 2
1 1 x2 + 1 1 1 1 1
= x 2 x dx dx = x 2 x x + x + c =
2 2 1+ x 2
1+ x 2
2 2 2
1
( x 2 + 1) x x + c.
2
1 1 1
iii. x 2 xdx =
xdx3 = x 3 x x 3 d x =
3 3 3
1 1 1 1 1 x.x 2
= x3 x x 3 dx = x3 x dx =
3 3 1 x2 3 3 1 x2
=
1 3
3
1 1 1
( )
x x + x 2 d ( 1 x 2 ) = x 3 x + x 2 1 x 2 1 x 2 dx 2 =
3 3 3
1 3 1 2 2
= x x + x 1 x 2 x 1 x 2 dx =
3 3 3
2 3
x 2
= x 3 x + 1 x 2 + (1 x 2 ) 2 + c.
3 9
: 2 19
1 1 3 1 x3
iv. x 2 xdx =
3 3 1 + x2
xdx 3
= x x dx =
3
x3 x2 1
= x + ln( x 2 + 1) + c.
3 6 6
x x dx
v. x 2
dx = xdx 1 =
x
+
x 1 x2
=
x x
= + ln + c.
x 2
1 x2 x2
vi. x( x) 2 dx =
2
( x ) 2
dx 2
= ( x ) 2
x dx =
2 x2 + 1
x2 + 1 1
= ( x) 2 x x + ln( x 2 + 1) + c.
2 2
x x
vii. ( x) 2 dx = x( x) 2 2 dx =
1 x2
1
= x( x) 2 + 2 xd (1 x 2 ) 2 = x( x) 2 + 2 1 x 2 x 2 x + c.
9: :
1 x+2
i. 1
dx v. x 2
+ 2x + 2
dx
x 2 (1 x 2 2
)
1 2 5x
ii. dx vi. dx
(1 x 2 ) 1 x 2 4x2 + 9x + 1
1 3x 1
iii. dx vii. dx
(1 + x 2
) 1+ x 2
x + 2x + 2
2
1 x
iv. 9 x + 12 x 2
2
dx viii. 3 x 11x + 2
2
dx
10: :
x ln ( x 2 1)
i.
x2
x6 + 3
dx ii. x2 + 1
dx iii. ln ( )
1 x + 1 + x dx
1.3.
1.3.1.
,

:
A
1) dx = A ln | x a | +c .
xa
A A 1
2) ( x a) k
dx =
k 1 ( x a ) k 1
, (k 1) .
20 .
Mx + N t p
3) x + px + q
2
dx = ln | t 2 + s | +
s
+ c , x = t ,
2
M 1 pM q p .2
= ,= N , s =
2 s 2 4
Mx + N M 1 pM p
4) 2 dx = k 1
+N I k , ( k 1) , x = t 2 ,
( x + px + q ) k
2( k 1) (t + s )
2
2
s = q p , t = x + p , I k = 2 1 k dx, (ab > 0) .

2
4 2 ( ax + b)
,
I k = 2 1 k dx, (ab > 0) ,
(ax + b)
: x = b t , dx = b dt :
a a
1 1 b dt 1 b
Ik = dx = k = k I k .
( ax + b)
2 k
b a (t + 1)2 k
b a
dt 1 t2 + t2 t2 +1 t2
I k = 2
(t + 1) k (t 2 + 1) k (t 2 + 1)k (t 2 + 1)k dt =
= dt = dt
1 t2 1 td (t 2 + 1) 1 td (t 2 + 1) k +1
= (t 2 + 1)k 2 (t 2 + 1) k 2
dt dt = I k 1 = I k 1 =
(t 2 + 1) k 1 k + 1
1 t 1 dt
= I k 1
2(1 k ) (t + 1)
2 k 1
+
2(1 n) (t + 1) k 1
2
=
t 1
= I k 1 + k 1
I k 1
2(k 1)(t + 1)
2
2( k 1)
t 2k 3
I k = k 1
+ I k 1 .
2(k 1)(t + 1)
2
2k 2
a
t x , , :
b
x 2k 3
Ik = + I , k > 1.
( 2k 2 ) b ( ax 2 + b )
k 1
( 2k 2 ) b k 1
dx
k=1 : I1 =
ax 2 + b
I1 = 1 a x + c .
ab b
: -
a
x x ,
b
b 1 b 1
k
: J = k 2tdt = J .
ab a bk
J
9ii, 1.2 .
1.3.2.
: 2 21
1: :
x 4 + 3x3 x 2 + 1 x2
i. x 2 3x + 2 dx iii. ( x + 2)( x 1)2 dx
9 5x 4x
ii. 3 dx iv. dx
x 6 x 2 + 11x 6 ( x 1)( x 2 x + 2) 2

i. 4 , 2,
( )
:
x4+3x3-x2+0x+1 x2-3x+2
-x4+3x3-2x2 x2+6x+15
6x3-3x2+0x+1
-6x3+18x2-12x
15x2-12x+1
-15x2+45x-30
33x-29
x4+3x3-x2+0x+1=(x2-3x+2)(x2+6x+15)+(33x-29)
, : x +23x x + 1 = x 2 + 6 x + 15 + 33 x 29 . -
4 3 2
x 3x + 2 2
x 3x + 2
:
x 4 + 3x3 x 2 + 1 33 x 29
I = dx = x 2 + 6 x + 15 + 2 dx =
x 3x + 2
2
x 3x + 2
33 x 29
= ( x 2 + 6 x + 15) dx + 2 dx = I1 + I 2 .
x 3x + 2
1 2 :
x3
I1 = ( x 2 + 6 x + 15)dx = x 2 dx + 6 xdx + 15dx = + 3 x 2 + 15 x + c1 .
3
2 : -
x2-3x+2 (x-1)(x-2), :
33 x 29 A B
= + 33 x 29 = A( x 2) + B ( x 1)
x 3x + 2 x 1 x 2
2
33 x 29 = Ax 2 A + Bx B 33 x 29 = ( A + B ) x + (2 A B).
, -
, ,
, : A + B = 33 , =-4 -
2 A B = 2 9
33 x 29 4 37
=37 = + 2
x 3x + 2 x 1 x 2
2
:
33x 29 4 37 4 37
I2 = 2 dx = + dx = dx + dx =
x 3x + 2 x 1 x 2 x 1 x2
= 4 ln | x 1| +37 ln | x 2 | + c2 .
22 .
x3
I = + 3 x 2 + 15 x 4 ln | x 1 | +37 ln | x 2 | +c .
3
ii.
Horner
:
1 -6 11 -6 =1
1 -5 6
1 -5 6 0
: x3-6x2+11x-6=(x-1)(x2-5x+6). x2-5x+6
Horner , : x2-5x+6=(x-2)(x-3).
: x3-6x2+11x-6=(x-1)(x-2)(x-3) :
9 5x 9 5x 9 5x A B C
= = + + -
x 6 x + 11x 6 ( x 1)( x 2)( x 3)
3 2
( x 1)( x 2)( x 3) x 1 x 2 x 3
9 5 x = A( x 2)( x 3) + B( x 1)( x 3) + C ( x 1)( x 2)
x=1, x=2 x=3 -
: =2, =1 C=-3.
:
, -
.

:
9 5x 2 1 3
x 6 x + 11x 6
3 2
dx = + +
x 1 x 2 x 3
dx =
1 1 1
= 2 dx + dx 3 dx = 2ln | x 1| + ln | x 2 | 3ln | x 3 | +c =
x 1 x2 x 3
x 1 x2
= 2ln | x 1| + ln | x 2 | 2ln | x 3 | ln | x 3 | +c = 2ln + ln +c =
x 3 x 3
x 1 x 1 x2 x 1 ( x 1)( x 2) ( x 1)2 ( x 2)
= ln + ln + ln + c = ln + ln + c = ln + c.
x 3 x 3 x 3 x3 ( x 3)2 ( x 3)3
iii. x=-2
x=1 :
x2 A B C
= + + x 2 = A( x 1) 2 + B( x + 2)( x 1) + C ( x + 2)
( x + 2)( x 1) 2
x + 2 x 1 ( x 1) 2
x=1 C= 1 . x=-2 A= 4
3 9
,
C :
: 2 23
4 1
x2 = ( x 1) 2 + ( x + 2)( x 1) + ( x + 2)
9 3
4 1
x 2 = ( x 2 2 x + 1) + B ( x 2 + x 2) + ( x + 2)
9 3
4 8 1 4 2
x2 = + B x2 + + B + x + + 2B
9 9 3 9 3
4 8 1 4 2
+ B = 1 + B + = 0 + 2 B = 0.
9 9 3 9 3
, = 5 .
9
:
4 5 1
x2 9
I = dx = + 9 + 3 2 dx =
( x + 2)( x 1) 2
x + 2 x 1 ( x 1)

4 1 5 1 1 1 4 5 1
= dx + dx + dx = I1 + I 2 + I 3 .
9 x+2 9 x 1 3 ( x 1) 2
9 9 3
1
I1 = dx = ln | x + 2 | + c1.
x+2
1
I2 = dx = ln | x 1| + c2 .
x 1
3 2) k=2, =1 =1.
1 1 1 1
: I 3 = dx = 2 1
+ c3 = + c3 .
( x 1) 2
2 1 ( x 1) x 1
1, 2 3 ,
1 1
: I = ln | ( x + 2) 4 ( x 1)5 | + +c.
9 3( x 1)
2: :
x 1 1
i. x 2
( x 2)( x + 1) 2
dx iv. x(8 + x )
6 2
dx
3x 2 + 5 x + 12 2x4 x2 + 1
ii. ( x 2 + 3)( x 2 + 1) dx v. x3 x dx
3x + 1
iii. dx
x(1 + x 2 ) 2

iv. x(8+x6)2
: x6+8=(x2+2)(x4-2x2+4).
x 4 2 x 2 + 4 = ( x 2 + 6 x + 2)( x 2 6 x + 2) , :
24 .
1 A ( M x + N1 ) (M x + N2 )
I = dx = dx + 2 1 dx + 2 2 dx +
x(8 + x )
6 2
x ( x + 6 x + 2) 2
x + 6x + 2
( P1 x + Q1 ) ( P2 x + Q2 )
+ dx + dx
( x 6 x + 2)
2 2
x2 6 x + 2
, , .
:
1 1 8 + x6 x6 1 1 1 x5
I =
8 x(8 + x 6 ) 2 8 x(8 + x 6 ) 8 ( 8 + x 6 )2
dx = dx = dx dx =
x(8 + x 6 ) 2
8
d 6 + 1
1 d (8 + x ) = 1 ln 8 + x +
6 6
1 x 1
=
8.48 8
8.6 (8 + x )
6 2
384 x 6
48(8 + x 6 )
+ c.
+1
x6
3: :
1 x2 x + 1
i. 2 dx v. dx
x +x+6 ( )
2
x 2
+ x + 1
1 x2 + 1
ii. 2 dx vi. 4 dx
x + 5x + 4 x + x2 + 1
x2 + 1 1
iii. dx vii. 6 dx
( x + 1) ( x 1) x +1
2
1 x2 + 2 x + 3
iv. x 3
+ x2 + x + 1
dx vii. x3 x 2 + x 1dx
1.4.
1.4.1.
-
:
p1 p2 pn
R( x, x 1 , x 2 ,..., x n )dx , R
q q q
1)
p1 p2 pn
q1 q2 qn
x, x , x ,..., x n N*,
1
t, x m = t , m q1, q2,,qn.
p1 p2 pn

2) R x, ax + b q1 ax + b q2 ax + b qn

,
cx + d cx + d
,..., dx , R -
cx + d

p1 p2 pn
x ax + b 1 , ax + b 2 ,..., ax + b n , d-
q q q
cx + d cx + d cx + d
: 2 25
bc 0, t,
1
ax + b m
= t , m q1, q2,,qn.
cx + d
3) R ( x, ax 2 + bx + c )dx, a 0 , R x
ax 2 + bx + c , -
t, ,
:
i. ax 2 + bx + c = t x a , < 0 a > 0 .
ax 2 + bx + c = t + x a , x
t2 c
x= dx,
b 2 at
.
ii. ax 2 + bx + c = xt c , a < 0 c > 0 .
ax 2 + bx + c = xt + c , x
b 2 ct
x= 2 dx,
t a
.
iii. ax 2 + bx + c = ( x 1 )t , = b 2 - 4ac > 0 . a ( x 1 )( x 2 ) = ( x 1 )t , -

2
1 2 x +bx+c=0 x
t 2 2 a
x= 1 2 dx,
t a
.
1.4.2.
1:
1+ x x 3 x + 3 x2
i. x3 x
dx vi. 1 x dx
1+ x x 2 3 x2 + 1
ii. dx vii. dx
1 x 4
x
( )
2
x 2 x 3 3x
iii. 3
x2 x
dx viii. x
dx
3
x 1
iv. x( x + x) 3
dx ix. x(1 + 2 x + 3 x)
dx
6
x 1+ 4 x
v. x( 3
x + 4 x)
dx x. x+ x
dx

i. ( 1)):
26 .
1
1
1+ x 1+ x 2
= 1 1
x = t 6 t = 6 x t = x 6 m=(2, 3)=6
x x
3
x2 x3
: dx=6t5dt :
1+ x (1 + t 3 )t 5 t6 + t3 t6 t3
I = dx = 6 dt = 6 t 1 dt = 6 t 1 dt + 6 t 1 dt =
x3x t3 t2
t6 1+ 1 t3 1 + 1 t6 1 1 t3 1 1
= 6 dt + 6 dt = 6 dt + dt + dt + dt =
t 1 t 1 t 1 t 1 t 1 t 1
(t 1)(t 5 + t 4 + t 3 + t 2 + t + 1) 1 (t 1)(t 2 + t + 1) 1
= 6 dt + dt + dt + dt =
t 1 t 1 t 1 t 1
1 1
= 6 (t 5 + t 4 + t 3 + t 2 + t + 1)dt + dt + (t 2 + t + 1)dt + dt =
t 1 t 1
t6 t5 t4 t3 t2 t3 t2
= 6 + + + + + t + ln | t 1 | + + + t + ln | t 1 | + c =
6 5 4 3 2 3 2
t 6 t 5 t 4 2t 3 2
= 6 + + + + t + 2t + 2 ln | t 1 | + c =
6 5 4 3
5 2 1
1 1 1
x x x 2 x
+ x + 2 x + 2 ln | x 1 | + c =
6 3 2
= 6 + + + 3 6 6
6 5 4 3

x 1 1 2
= 6 + 6 x5 + 3 x 2 + x + 3 x + 2 6 x + 2 ln | 6 x 1 | + c.
6 5 4 3
2:
x 1
i. 1+ x +1
dx vi. 2 1
dx
(2 x + 1) (2 x + 1)
3 2
1 x +1 1
ii. 1+ 3
x +1
dx vii. 1 2x 4 1 2x
dx
1

1 + 7 5 x 1 3

5 x
7
x +1 x 1
iii. x +1 + x 1
dx viii. 1 1 1
dx
5x 1 6 5x 1 3 5x 1 2
+ +
7 7 7
1 1
iv. x +1 + x +1 3
dx ix. 4
( x 1)3 ( x + 2)5
dx
1 x 1
v. 1+ x x
dx

i. t = x + 1, dx = 2tdt t = x + 1 x = t 2 1
( 2)):
: 2 27
3
x 2 3 2 2
1 + x + 1 dx =2 (t t )dt = 3 t t + c = 3 ( x + 1) 2 ( x + 1) =
2
2
( x + 1) x 1 + c.
3
=
3
viii. t = 6 5 x 1 , dx = 42 t 5 dt , :
7 5
5x 1 7t 6 + 1
t= 6 x= ( 2)):
7 5
1

1 + 7 5 x 1 3

5 x
7
294 t 2 t 6 5
I =
5 t3 + t2 + t
1 1 1
dx = t dt =
5 x 1
6 5 x 1
3 5 x 1 2
+ +
7 7 7
294 t10 t 6 294 8 7 5 t 1
=
5 t + t +1
2
dt =
5 ( t t + t 2t 4 + t 3 + t 2 2t + 1) dt + 2 dt =
t + t +1
294 t 9 t 8 t 6 2t 5 t 4 t 3 2
= + + + t + t + I1 .
5 9 8 6 5 4 3
1 t = u 1 , dt = du :
2
1 3 3
u 1 u
t 1 u
I1 = 2 dt = 2 du = 2 du = du 2 du =
t + t +1 1 1 3 3 3
u2 u + + u + 1 u2 + u2 + u2 +
4 2 4 4 4
3 2 u
d u2 + d
1 4 1 3 2u
3 2 = ln u 2 + 3
3
= + c1 =
2 3 2 u 2 4 3
u +
2
4 +1
3
1 2t + 1
= ln(t 2 + t + 1) 3 + c1 .
2 3
:
294 t 9 t 8 t 6 2t 5 t 4 t 3 2 1 2t + 1
I = + + + t + t + ln(t 2 + t + 1) 3 + c.
5 9 8 6 5 4 3 2 3
t
, t = 6 5 x 1 .
7
3: :
28 .
1 1
i. x 4 x2 + 4 x + 3
dx vi. (2 x 3) 4x x2
dx
1 1
ii. ( x + 1) 1 x x 2
dx vii. (x 2
+ 1) 1 x 2
dx
x 1 x2
iii. (x 2
+ 2 x) x 2 + 2 x
dx viii. x2 + x + 1
dx
1 x2 + 2 x + 2
iv. x 3
x4 + 1
dx ix. x
dx
x2 + 4x
v. x2 + 2 x + 2
dx

i. =4>0 <0, 4 x 2 + 4 x + 3 = t 2 x
( 3i)):
t2 3
4 x 2 + 4 x + 3 = t 2 x 4 x 2 + 4 x + 3 = t 2 4 xt + 4 x 2 x =
4(t + 1)
t 2 + 2t + 3 t 2 + 2t + 3
dx = dt . 4 x2 + 4 x + 3 = .
4(t + 1) 2 2(t + 1)
, :
dx dt 1 t 3 1 2 x + 4 x2 + 4 x + 3 3
x 4x2 + 4 x + 3
= 2
t2 3
= ln
3 t+ 3
+ c = ln
3 2 x + 4 x2 + 4 x + 3 + 3
+c.
ii. . =-1<0 c=1>0 1 x x 2 = 1 xt (-

3ii)):
2t 1
, t = 1 1 x x
2
1 x x 2 = 1 xt 1 x x 2 = 1 2 xt + x 2t 2 x =
t +1
2
x
t + t + 1
2
x + 1 = t 2+ 2t .
2
dx = 2(t 2+ 1 t2 ) dt . 1 x x 2 = 2
2
(t + 1) t + 1 t +1
, :
t 2 + t + 1
2
dx (t 2 + 1) 2 2
( x + 1) 1 x x2 t (t + 2) t 2 + t + 1 dt = t (t + 2) dt =
=
t2 +1 t2 +1
2+t t 2+t t 1 1
= dt = dt + dt = dt dt = ln | t | ln | t + 2 | + c
t (t + 2) t (t + 2) t (t + 2) t t+2
t 1 1 x x2
= ln + c = ln + c.
t+2 2x + 1 1 x x2
iii. =4>0 x2+2x x1=0 x2=-

2 x 2 + 2 x = ( x 0)t x 2 + 2 x = xt :
2 x 2 + 2 x ( 3iii)):
x 2 + 2 x = xt x 2 + 2 x = x 2t 2 x = t =
t 2 1 x
: 2 29
4t 3 t2 2t
dx = dt , x 1 = x2 + 2x = .
(t 2 1)2 t 2 1 t 12
, :
x 1 1 3 t2 1 3 1 t2 3 1
(x 2
+ 2 x) x 2 + 2 x
dx =
2 t 2
dt =
2 t 2
dt +
2 t 2
dt = + t + c =
2t 2
3 1 x2 + 2 x 1 + 2x
= + +c= + c.
x2 + 2 x 2 x x2 + 2x
2
x
4: :
1 1
i. dx vii. dx
x ( 3
x +1 ) (
x 1 + 4 x3 )
1 x +1 x
ii. dx viii. dx
x x +1
3
1+ x +1
x +1 x 1 1 x +1
iii. dx ix. dx
x +1 + x 1 1+ 3 x +1
1 1 x
iv. dx x. dx
1+ x 1+ x
x +1 3 x
v. dx xi. dx
x 3+ x
1 + x 3 x2
vi. dx
1 + 3 x2
1.5.
1.5.1.

:
1) R( x, x)dx , R
x x.
x
=t
2
2t 1 t2 2
x = , x = , x = 2 t , dx = dt .
1+ t 2
1+ t 2
1+ t2
2) : R ( x, x)dx = R ( x, x )dx ,
R x x, -
x x .
30 .
x=t
t2 1 1
2 x = , 2 x = , x = t , dx = dt .
1+ t 2
1+ t 2
1+ t2
3) R ( x, x) dx = R ( x, x) dx , R
x, x -
.

1
x = t , x = t , dx = dt .
1 t2
4) R ( x, x) dx = R ( x, x) dx , R
x, x
.

1
x = t , x = t , dx = dt .
1 t2
: -
. -
.
1.5.2.
1: :
1 7 x
i. 2 + x + 2 xdx iii. 4 dx
2 x + 3 1
ii. 2 dx iv. 2 dx
x + 2 2 x 2
x x

x
= t x = 2t 2 , x = 1 t 2 , dx = 2 2 dt
2
i.
2 1+ t 1+ t 1+ t
( 1)):
1 1 2 1
2 + x + 2 xdx = 2t 1 t 1+ t22
dt =
1+ t + t +1 t2
2
dt =
2+ +2
1+ t2 1+ t2
1 x
= dt = ln | t + 2 | + c = ln + 2 + c.
t+2 2
ii. x x,
t2 1 1
x=t 2 x = , 2 x = , dx = dt
1+ t 2
1+ t 2
1+ t2
( 2)):
2 x + 3 2t + 3 1 2t + 3
x + 2 x
2 2
dx = 2
t 1 1+ t 2
dt = 2
t +2
dt =
+2
1+ t2 1+ t2
3 t 3 x
= ln(t 2 + 2) + + c = ln( 2 x + 2) + + c.
2 2 2 2
: 2 31
iii. x, x=t
( 3)):
7 x 6 xd x ( 2 x)3 d x (1 2 x)3 d x
x4
dx =
x 4
dx =
x 4
=
4 x
=
(1 t 2 )3 1 3t 2 + 3t 4 t 6 1 3t 2 3t 4 t6
= dt = dt = t4 t4
dt + dt t4 dt + t 4 dt =
t4 t4
1 1 1 3 t3
= 4 dt + 3 2 dt 3 dt + t 2 dt = 3 3t + + c =
t t 3t t 3
1 3 x 3
= 3 x + + c.
3 3 x x 3
iv. x, x=t
( 4)):
1 x d x dt
I= dx = dx = = 2 .
2 x x
2
2 x x
2 2
2 x (1 x)
2 2
2t (1 t 2 )
, : 1 1
=
t 2 (1 t 2 ) t 2 (1 t )(1 + t )
:
1 A B C D
= + + + 2
t (1 t )(1 + t ) 1 t 1 + t t t
2
1 = At 2 (1 + t ) + Bt 2 (1 t ) + Ct (1 + t )(1 t ) + D(1 + t )(1 t )

1 = At 2 + At 3 + Bt 2 Bt 3 + Ct Ct 3 + D Dt 2
1 = ( A B C )t 3 + ( A + B D)t 2 + Ct + D
1
B=
A BC = 0 A B = 0 A= B 2
A+ B D = 0 A + B 1 = 0 A + A 1 = 0 1
A=
C=0 C=0 C=0 2
D =1 D =1 D =1 C=0
D =1
1 1 1 1
= + + 2
t (1 t )(1 + t ) 2(1 t ) 2(1 + t ) t
2
:
1 1 1 1 1 1
I=
2 t (1 t )(1 + t )
2
dt = + + 2 dt =
2 2(1 t ) 2(1 + t ) t
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= dt + dt + 2 dt = ln | 1 t | + ln | 1 + t | + c =
4 1 t 4 1+ t 2 t 4 4 2t
1 1 1
= ln | 1 x | + ln | 1 + x | +c =
4 4 2 x
1 1 + x 1
= ln +c
4 1 x 2 x
2: :
32 .
x
i. 1 + xdx iv. 1 +
x
dx 2
2 x 3 1
i. 4
x 4 2 x
dx v.
2 + x + x
dx
1 1
iii. 1 + x
dx vi. 2 + 2
x
dx
1.6.
1.6.1.
1:
2 x 4 x
i. 6 x 5 xdx iii. 4 x dx v. x dx
1
ii. 4 x 2 xdx iv. x 2
dx
x

i. 6 x 5 xdx = 6 x 4 xd x = 6 x (1 2 x ) d x =
2
1 2 1
= 6 xd x 2 8 xd x + 10 xd x = 7 x 9 x + 11 x + c.
7 9 11
1 1 1
ii. I= 4 x 2 xdx = 3 xd 3 x = 3 x 3 x + 3 xd 3 x =
3 3 3
1 3 1
= x 3 x + 2 x 4 xdx = 3 x 3 x + 2 x 2 x (1 2 x ) dx =
3 3
1
= 3 x 3 x + 2 x 2 xdx 4 x 2 xdx.
3
I = 1 3 x 3 x + 1 2 x 2 xdx = 1 3 x 3 x + 1 I1 .
6 2 6 2
1 1 1
I1 = x 2 xd x = xd 3 x = x 3 x + 3 xd x =
3 3 3
1 1 1 1
= x 3 x + 4 xdx = x 3 x + 2 x (1 2 x ) dx =
3 3 3 3
1 1 1
= x x + xdx x xdx.
3 2 2 2
3 3 3
1 1 1 1
I1 = x 3 x +
4 4 2 xdx = x 3 x + I 2 .
4 4
1 1 1
I2 = (1 + 2 x ) dx = x + 2 x + c2 .
2 2 4
1 1 1
I1 = x 3 x + x + 2 x + c1 .
4 8 16
1 1 1 1
I = 3 x 3 x x 3 x + x + 2 x + c .
6 8 16 32
: 2 33
2 x x 1 x 1 1
4 x dx = 4 x d x = 3 xd x = 3 3 x 3 3 x d x =
3
iii.
x 1 1 x 1
3 3 x 3 2 x
= dx = x + c.
3 3 x 3
1 2 x + 2 x 2 x 2 x
iv. x 2
x
dx =
x 2 x
dx = x 2 x x 2 x dx =
dx +
x 1 1 1
= dx + dx = d x + dx =
x
2
x x
2
x
2
x
2 2
1
x
2
1 2 1 1
= + dx = + dx =
x x
2
x x 2 2
x x
2 2 2 2
x
2
2
1 1 x 1 1 x 1 x
= + d = + d = + ln + c.
x 2
x x 2 x

x 2 x 2
2 2 2
4 x 2 x (1 2 x ) 2 x
v. dx = dx = dx 2 x xdx =
x x x
1 2 x 1 1
= dx 2 xd x = dx xdx 3 x =
x x 3

dx+
2 1 x 1
= x 3 x = ln + x 3 x + c.
3 2 4 3
x +
2
(
1 x
x dx = ln 2 + c .)
2:
4 x
i. 3 xdx v. 2 x dx
5 x 1
ii. 3 x dx vi. 3
x
dx
1
iii. 4 xdx vii. dx 4
x
1
iv. 6 xdx viii. 2 dx
x 3 x
1.6.2.
1:
34 .
1 + x4
i. x
dx ii. x 3 1 + x 2 dx

1
i. m=-1, n=4, p= m + 1 = 0 Z ( )).
2 n
1
x 4 + 1 = t , x = ( t 1) 4 dx = 1 ( t 1) 4 dt .
3
4
1 t
dt .
4 t 1
I=

: t=u2, u= t dt=2udu.
:
1 u2 1 u2 1 + 1 1 1 1
I=
2 u 1
2
du =
2 u 1
2
du = 1du + 2
2 2 u 1
du =I1 + I 2 .
1 1 t x4 + 1
2
I1 = 1du = u + c1 = + c1 = + c1 .
2 2 2
1 1

1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1
I2 = 2 du = du + 2 du = du du =
2 u 1 2 u 1 u +1 4 u 1 4 u +1

1 1 u 1 1 t 1 1 x4 + 1 1
= ( ln | u 1 | ln | n + 1 |) + c2 = ln + c2 = ln + c2 = ln + c2 .
4 4 u +1 4 t +1 4 x4 + 1 + 1
1 + x4 x4 + 1 1 x4 + 1 1
I = dx = + ln +c.
x 2 4 x4 + 1 + 1
1
ii. m=1, n=3, p= m + 1 + p = 1 Z ( )). -
3 n
1
dx = 1 ( t 1) 3 dt . -
4
x 3 + 1 = t , x = ( t 1)

3
3
3
I = 1 t
dt .
3 ( t 1)
2

: t=u3, u= 3 t dt=3u2du.

u3 u3 + 1 1 u3 1 1
I = du = du = du du =
(u 1) (u 1) (u 1) (u 1)
3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2
1 1
= du du = ( I1 + I 2 ) .
u 1 ( )
3 2
u 3
1
1 2

( 3) :
: 2 35
1 A Pu + Q
= + 2
u 1 u 1 u + u +1
3
1 A B Pu + Q Mu + N
= + + 2 + .
( u 3 1) u 1 ( u 1) u + u + 1 ( u 2 + u + 1)
2 2 2
2:
x2 4+ 3 x
i. 3
dx iii. dx
(1 x )
3
2 2 x2
1
ii. x 1 + x 4 dx iv. dx
x 23
(1 + x )
3 2
36 .

: 2 37
2 :
2.1.
17 .., Newton (1642 1727)
Leibniz (1646 1716), ,

. -
.
2.2.
f(x)
[, ]. f(x)
x. , -
[, ]. :
f(x),
x x= x=.
,
. -
:
[,], =x0 =xn, n
[x0,x1],[x1,x2],,[xn-1,xn] =x0<x1<<xn=. m(x-x-1)
m x-x-1 ( 1).
y
Cf
m
x O =x0 xn= x
y
1
(x-x-1)
x-x-1 ( 2).
y
Cf

x O =x0 xn= x
y
1: f(x) [,]
.
=x0<x1<x2<<xn-1<xn=
[,] n
38 .
[x0,x1],[x1,x2],,[xn-1,xn]
f(x) m
[x-1,x],
n
S = M ( x x 1 )
=1
Darboux (1842 1917) f(x).

n
s = m ( x x 1 )
=1
Darboux .
.
s. m(x-x-1) , , -
m x-x-1.
f(x) m 1
Cf
f(x), x=, x= xx. -
. s Darboux

( 3).
Cf
m
A1
x O =x0 x1 x2 xn-1 xn= x
3
, S Darboux
(x-x-1) x-x-1 ,
2 -
Cf f(x),
x=, x= xx. -
( 4).
: 2 39
Cf

x O =x0 x1 x2 xn-1 xn= x
y
4

Cf f(x), x=, x= xx
, s I S.
s o
f(x) x=, x=,
S
-
. s S.
[,] n , -
. ,
s I S.
,
[,] n s I S.
, s S
[,],
Darboux.
[,]
S. s S,
s
[,]. ,
, -
[,] , S .
1 . ,
1 S. S Darboux.
1 S ,
1 .
2 .
, 2.
s I S ,

40 .
Darboux. , 1 I 2.
:
1<2, , : 1 I 2,
,
.
1=2,
,
1==2.

.
2.3.
f(x) [,]
. ,
[,]. [,], =x0 =xn, n
[x0,x1],[x1,x2],,[xn-1,xn], =x0<x1<<xn=. m(x-x-1)
m x-x-1, M(x-x-1)
x-x-1.
f(x) m
[x-1,x],
n
Darboux: s = m ( x x 1 ) -
=1
n
S = M ( x x 1 ) .
=1
f(x) .
(x)=f(x)- . m
(x)
[x-1,x], : m=m-
=- , m=m+ =+.
,
Darboux :
n n n n
s = (m + )( x x 1 ) = m ( x x 1 ) + ( x x 1 ) = s + ( x x 1 )
=1 =1 =1 =1
n n n n
S = ( M + )( x x 1 ) = M ( x x 1 ) + ( x x 1 ) = S + ( x x 1 )
=1 =1 =1 =1
n

( x x
=1
1 ) = ( x1 x0 ) + ( x2 x1 ) + ... + ( xn xn 1 ) = xn x0 = a .
s=s+(-) S=S+(-) s S s S.
(x) , s
. 1 2
S. 1 2.
s=s+(-) ,
s , 1
. S=S+(-) ,
: 2 41
S
2.
, 1=1+(-) 2=2+(-).
1 2 1 2.
f(x) [,],
1 2
s Darboux,
S Darboux.
2: f(x) [,]
1 s
Darboux, 2 -
S Darboux. I1 f(x)
[,], I2 f(x)
[,].
3: I1=I2=I,
,
f ( x)dx . , -
a
, f(x) .
: ,
.
: f ( x) = 1, x .
0, x
[x0,x1],[x1,x2],,
[xn-1,xn] [,], 0=x0<x1<<xn=1, 0
1. Darboux
n n
: s = 0.( x x 1 ) = 0 S = 1.( x x 1 ) = xn x0 = 1 0 = 1 . =0,
=1 =1
2=1 1<.
f(x)=c,
n
x [,]. Darboux : s = c.( x x 1 ) = c( a)
=1
n
S = c.( x x 1 ) = c( a ) . , s=S=c(-), -
=1

, : f ( x)dx = c(b a) .
a
: c R+* ,

f ( x)dx
a
,
- c.
1: f(x) [,]

x [,] , m f ( x) M , m( a) f ( x)dx M ( a) .
a
42 .
2: f(x) [,]

x [,] , f(x) 0,
f ( x)dx 0 .
a
3: f(x) [,],
.
2.4. Riemann
4: f(x)
[,].
[x0,x1],[x1,x2],,[xn-1,xn]
1, 2,,n, , x-1 x, =1, 2,,n.
n
= f ( )( x x 1 ) Riemann (1826 1866).
=1

[,] 1, 2,,n.
n n
s = m ( x x 1 ) S = M ( x x 1 )
=1 =1
Darboux ,
[,], m f() , =1, 2,,n ,
s S, , Riemann
Darboux.
[,] 1
.
[,] 2 .
n n
.
: [,] ,
... n . n= a .
n +1
1, 2,,n, -
, lim n = 0 .
n +
: f(x) [,] 1,
2,,n, .
Riemann, 1,
2,,n,. -

f ( x)dx .

a
2.5.
2.5.1.
Riemann
,
.
: 2 43
1: f(x) [,],

c R, cf ( x)dx = c f ( x)dx .
a a
2: f(x), g(x) [,],

[ f ( x) + g ( x)] dx = f ( x)dx + g ( x)dx .
a a a
3: f(x), g(x) [,]

x [,] f(x) g(x), f ( x) dx g ( x)dx .

a a
4: f(x) [,],

a
f ( x)dx | f ( x) | dx .
a
5: f(x) [,]

[,], f ( x)dx = f ( x)dx + f ( x)dx .
a a
: f(x) [,]
1 2
1, 2,, n [,], n N, f ( x)dx = f ( x)dx + f ( x)dx + ... + f ( x)dx .
a a 1 n
6: f(x) [,],
a
f ( x)dx = f ( x)dx .
a
7: f(x) [,],
a
f ( x)dx = 0 .
a
8 ( ): f(x)
[,], [,] , :
f ( x)dx = f ( )( a) .
a
( ): f(x) ,

f ( x)dx = f ( )( a)
a
,
f(x).
-
f().
9 ( Leibniz Newton): f(x) -
x
, F ( x) = f (t )dt
a
x , : F(x)=f(x).
44 .
:
x
[,], F ( x) = f (t )dt

a
F+()=f() F-()=f().
Leibniz Newton: f(x)

[,]. 9 ,

: f ( x)dx = F ( ) . F(),
a
F(x) f(x). , -
f(x) , F(x)
c.
(x) f(x)
[,]. F(x)=(x)+c, c R. c. ,
a
x=. F()=()+c. F (a) = f ( x)dx = 0 ()=-
a
c c=-(). F(x)=(x)-().
x=, , :

F()=()-() f ( x)dx =()-().
a

f ( x)dx ,
a
, ,
f ( x)dx , (x)
f(x) ()-().

f ( x)dx = [( x)] f ( x)dx = ( x)

: a
a
,
a a

[ ( x)]a

= ( ) ( a ) ( x) a == ( ) (a) . ,
, ,
.
: >, f ( x)dx = f ( x)dx =-[()-()]=()-

a

(). f ( x)dx =()-().
a
=.
: f(x) ,
x
, x , : f ( x) = f (a) + f (t )dt .
a
: 2 45
10 ( ): u(x)
v(x) [,], -

u ( x)v ( x)dx = [u ( x)v( x)]a u ( x)v( x)dx .
a a
-

f ( x)dx , f(x)=u(x)v(x).
a
2.5.2.
1: :
3 3
1
e e
(ln x) e
dx
i. dx v. dx ix. x
1 1+ x
2
1
x 1 1 (ln x) 2

2 2
1 ex 2
ii. dx vi. x dx x.
3
x 3 xdx
1 e 1
1
x

2
1
x 1
x3
iii. xdx vii. dx xi. 8 dx
0 0 1 + x2 0 x +1
1 2
( )
1
2 1
x3 2
dx
iv. 1 x2 dx viii. dx xii.
0 1+ x
2
0 0 x2 + 2

1 1 1
x3 1 x2 1 x2 + 1 1 2
0 1 + x2 =
2 0 1 + x 2
=
2 0 1 + x 2
dx =
2
viii. dx dx
1 1 1 1
1 x2 + 1 2 1 1 1 1 1
= dx dx 2 = dx 2 dx 2 =
2 0 1+ x 2
2 0 1+ x 2
20 2 0 1 + x2
1 2 1 1 1 1 1
= x ln(1 + x 2 ) = (12 02 ) ln(1 + 12 ) ln(1 + 02 ) =
2 0 2 0 2 2
1 1 1
= ln 2 = (1 ln 2).
2 2 2
2
2
)
2
2
(
2
dx 2 ln 0 + 02 + 2 =
xii. = ln( x + x + 2) = ln 2 2
+ + 2
x +2
2 2 2
0
0

2 1 2 5 2 + 10 1+ 5
= ln + + 2 ln 2 = ln + ln 2 = ln ln 2 = ln .
2 2 2 2 2 2
2:
:
46 .

2
i. x xdx v. x3 xdx
0 0

1 3
x
ii. xdx vi. dx

2
0
x
4
1 2
ln x
iii. x ln(1 + x 2 )dx vii. dx
0 1
x5
1
2
x
iv. e x 2 xdx viii. dx
0 0 1+ x

1 1 1
1 1
iii. x ln(1 + x 2 )dx = ln(1 + x 2 )dx 2 = ln(1 + x 2 )d (1 + x 2 ) =
0
20 20
1
1
1
= + + (1 + x 2 )d ln(1 + x 2 ) =
2 2
(1 x ) ln(1 x )
2 0
0
1
1 1 2 x(1 + x 2 )
= (1 + 12 ) ln(1 + 12 ) (1 + 00 ) ln(1 + 00 ) dx =
2 2 0 1 + x2
1
1
1
x2 12 02 1
= 2 ln 2 xdx = ln 2 = ln 2 = ln 2 .
2 0 2 0 2 2 2
1 1
1
1

x
2 2
2

viii. dx = 2 xd 1 + x = 2 1 + x x 1 + xd x =
2
0 1+ x 0
0
0

1
1 1 2 1+ x
= 2 1 + 1 + 0 0 2 dx =
2 2 0 1 x 2
1 1
3 1 1+ x 2 3 2
1 2
= 2 0 2 dx = 0 2 dx =
2 2 0 1 x 1+ x 3 2 0 1 x
1
2 3 2
2 3
1
2 3 1
= + 4 d 1 x = + 4 1 x 2 = + 4 1 1 0 =
3 2 0 3 2 0 3 2 2
2 3 1 2 3
= + 4 1 = + 2 2 4.
3 2 2 3 2
3: :

1 + 2 x
2
i. |1 x | dx ii. dx
0 0
2
: 2 47

x, x 0, 2
i. , : 1 + 2 x . -
= 2 x =| x |=
2 x, x ,
2
:

1 + 2 x 2 2
0
2
dx == | x | dx = xdx + ( x)dx =
0 0
2

= [ x ]02 + [ x ] = 0 + + = (1 0 ) + ( 0 + 1) = 1 + 1 = 2.

2 2 2
2.6.
2. 6.1.
,
, x.
.
: f(x)
[,], (t)
[,] [,].
, ()= ()=. , :

f ( x )dx = f [ (t ) ] d (t ) .
a
2.6.2.
1:
:

a 2
1
a x dx 2 + x dx
2 2
i. iii.
0 0
a 3 1
1
(a x ) x
2 2 2
ii. dx iv. dx
0 0
3
+1

i. x=t, dx=tdt. x=0 t=0 x= t=
2

(, t 0, t 0):
2
48 .
1 + 2t
a 2 2 2
I = a 2 x 2 dx = a 2 a 2 2 t .a tdt = a 2 2 tdt = a 2 dt =
0 0 0 0
2

1 2t a2 2 a2 2 a 2 2 a 2
2
= a2 + dt = 1dt + 2td 2t = [t ]0 + [ 2t ]02 =
0
2 2 2 0 4 0 2 4
a2 a
2
a a
2 2
a 2 a 2 a 2
= 0 + 2 2.0 = + ( 0 ) = + .0 = .
2 2 4 2 2 2 4 4 4 4
2: :
a 1
x
a + x dx
2 2
i. iv. dx
0 0 (1 + x )2 2

3 2
1
ii. dx v. x xdx
1 1+ x
2
0
3

2 2 2 2
iii. 2 xdx vi. n xdx, n xdx, x
n
xdx, n N *
0 0 0 0
3: -
:
2
2 e
2
1+ x
i.
0
1 x
dx iv. x 2 dx, x 2 = t
-1
vii. | ln x | dx
1
e
ln 5 2
ex ex 1 dx
ii.
0 ex + 3
dx v. x
1 1 + x2
3
3
2
1 1 + x2
iii.
1 x 1 x2
dx vi.
1 x2
dx
2

i. x=t, t=x dx=-xdt.

x=0 t : t=0 t= .
2
x= 2 t : t= 2 t= .
2 2 4
t
t , (, 0):
4 2 2
: 2 49
2
2
1+ x 4
1 + t 2
t 2
t t t
0
1 x
dx =
1 t
( t )dt = 2 tdt = 2 dt =
2 2 2 2
2 4 4
t

2 t t dt = 2 2 t dt = 2 t + 1 dt = 2 t dt + 2 1 dt =
2 2 2 2 2
= 2 2 2

t 2 2 2 2
4 2 4 4 4 4

2
2 2
= tdt + dt = [ t ]2 + [t ]2 = + = 1 + .
4 4 2 4 2 4 2 4
4 4
ii. e x 1 = t t 2 = e x 1 e x = t 2 + 1 x = ln(1 + t 2 ) .
2t
dx = dt .
1+ t2
x=0 t : e0 1 = t t = 0 .
x=ln5 t : eln 5 1 = t t = 5 1 t = 2 .
t [ 0, 2] :
ln 5 2 2 2
ex ex 1 (t 2 + 1)t 2t t2 t2 + 4 4
0 ex + 3
dx = 0 t 2 + 1 + 3 1 + t 2 dt = 2 0 t 2 + 4 dt = 2 0 t 2 + 4 dt =
2 2 2 2 2
t2 + 4 4 1 1
= 2 dt + 2 2 dt = 2 dt 8 2 dt = 2 [t ]0 8
2
dt =
0 t +4 0 t +4 0 t +4 t
2 2
0 0
4 + 1
4
2 2
8 2 t t 2 0
= 2(2 0) 2
d = 4 4 = 4 4 =
40t 2 2 0 2 2
+1
2

= 4 4 (1 0 ) = 4 4 0 = 4 4 = 4 .
4 4
iii. x=t, t=x dx=xdt.
1 1 5
x= t : t= t= t= .
2 2 6 6
3 3 2
x= t : t= t= t= .
2 2 3 3
5 2
t , t , .
6 3 6 3
t . . :
,
6 3

t , . -
3
2
1 3
t 3
t 3
t .
=
1 x 1 x2
dx =
t 1 2 t
dt =
t 2 t
dt =
t | x |
dt
6 3
2 6 6 6
x>0, |x|=x :
50 .

3
t 1 3
1 3
13 1
I= dt = dt = dt = dt =
t t t t
2
t 2
t
6 6 6 2 2 6 2 2 t
t 2

2

13 1 1 t 3 1
= dt = ln = ln ln 6 =
3
2 t 2 t 2 2 2 2 2
6
6 2 2
1 1 3
= ln ln = ln ln .
2 6 12 2 3 12
4:
:

x x
1 1
x
i. dx ii. dx iii. x 2 1 x 2 dx
0 1 + 2
x 0
1 + x 0

x x 2
x x x x
i. I = dx = dx + dx = I1 + I 2 .
0 1 + x 0 1 + x 1 + x
2 2 2
2
2:

x=-t, dx=-dt. x= t= x= t=0. t , 0 .
2 2 2
2 :

x x ( t ) ( t ) ( t ) t ( t ) t
0 0 2
I2 = dx = ( 1) dt = dt = dt =
1 + x 1 + ( t ) 1 + t 0 1 + t
2 2 2 2
2 2 2

2
t 2
t t 2
t 2
t t
= dt dt = dt dt.
0 1 + t 0 1 + t 0 1 + t 0 1 + t
2 2 2 2
:

2
x x t2 2
t t
I= dx + dt dt .
0 1 + x 0 1 + t 0 1 + t
2 2 2

f ( x)dx = f (t )dt . , :
a a

2
t

I = dt = [ t ]02 = 0 =
0 1 + t
2
2
2
= ( 0 1) = 0 = .
4 4
5: , f(x) [0,1], -
:
: 2 51

2 2
i. f ( x)dx = f ( x)dx
0 0

ii. xf ( x)dx =
0
2 0
f ( x) dx

i. x= -t, dx=-dt. x=0, t= x= , t=0. :
2 2 2

2 0

2
f ( x)dx = f ( t ) (1)dt = f ( t ) dt .
0 2 0
2
52 .

: 2 53
3 :

3.1.
1: f(x) g(x)
[,] R , f(x) g(x) x [,]. ,
(x,y) :
a x
T :
f ( x) y g ( x)
f(x) g(x).
2:
:

S = S (T ) = [ g ( x) f ( x) ] dx
a

i. f(x)>g(x), : S = S (T ) = [ g ( x) f ( x)] dx .
a
ii. f(x)-g(x) ,

: S = S (T ) = g ( x) f ( x) dx .
a
3: f(t) g(t)
[,], l
x = f (t )
:
y = g (t )
t [,], :

l= [ f (t )] + [ g (t )] dt .
2 2
: y=f(x), x [,],

l : l = 1 + [ f ( x)]2 dx .
a
4: C,
:
a
C :
0 f ( )
f() , [,]
0 < 2, :

1
= f 2 ( )d
2a
54 .
5: =f(),
,
:
x = f ( )

y = f ( )
[,].
6: l -
:

l= f 2 ( ) + [ f ( ) ] dt
2
7: y=f(x)
[,]. R,
x ,
f(x), x=, x=

x , : V = f 2 ( x)dx .
a
3.2.
1: x=0,
x=2 y=2x y=2x-x2.

2x-x2 2x, x [0,2], :
2 2
2
2 x 2 x3 3 4
S = 2 (2 x x ) dx =
x 2
x = .
0 ln 2 0 3 0 ln 2 3
2:
x=-2, x=1 f(x)=x3 g(x)=x.

y=x3 y=x, :
x3 = x x3 x = 0 x( x 2 1) = 0 x( x 1)( x + 1) = 0 x = 0 x = 1 x = 1
- -2 -1 0 1 +
x - - - + +
x-1 - - - - +
x+1 - - + + +
x3-x - - + - +
: f(x)-g(x)<0 x [-2,-1], f(x)-g(x)>0 x [-1,0] f(x)-g(x)<0

x [0,1]. :
: 2 55
1 1 0 1
S = | f ( x) g ( x) | dx = [ g ( x) f ( x)] dx + [ f ( x) g ( x) ] dx + [ g ( x) f ( x)] dx =
2 2 1 0
1 1 0 1
0 1
x x x x2
2 4
x2 x4
4
11
= ( x x3 )dx + ( x3 x)dx + ( x x3 )dx = + + =
2 1 0 2 4 2 4 2 1 2 4 0 4
3: x=0, x=2
f(x)=x g(x)=x ( 1).

, x [0,2] -
:
x
x = x = 1 x = 1 x = x = k + , k Z
x 4 4
y
1
0.5
x
5 2
4 2 4
-0.5
-1
1
5
k=0, x= , k=1, x= , ,
4 4
x [0,2].
5
x 0 2
4 4
f(x)-g(x) - + -
:
5
2 4 4 2
S= | f ( x) g ( x) |dx = [ g ( x) f ( x)]dx +
0 0
[ f ( x) g ( x)]dx +

[ g ( x) f ( x)]dx =
5
4 4
5
4 4 2
= ( x x)dx + ( x x)dx + ( x x)dx =
0 5
4 4
5
= [ x + x ]04 + [ x x ]4 + [ x + x ]5 = 2 1 + 2 2 + 1 + 2 = 4 2
2
4 4
4:
y2=2px x2=2py, p>0.
5: -
f(x)=lnx, xx
f(x) (e,1) ( 2).
56 .
6:
=., [0,2].

2 2
1 2 a 4 2
S= a 2 d = 3 = 3 a 2 .
2 0 6 0 3
7: -
x2 y 2
2 + 2 = 1 , >0, >0.
a

S 4s, s
(,
x y ).
x2 y 2 2 (a 2 x 2 )
+ = 1 x
2 2
+ y 2 2
a = a
2 2
y 2 2
a = a
2 2
x
2 2
y 2
=
a2 2 a2
2 (a 2 x 2 )
y= 2
y= a2 x2 .
a a
, : a 2 x 2 0 (a x)(a + x) 0 0 x a .
a
2 2
: s = a x dx .
0
a
( ), x=t
dx=tdt.
x=0 t=0 t=0 t=0.

x= t= t = 1 t = .
2

t t 0, t 0. s -
2
:

2
2 2
s= a 2 a 2 2 ta tdt = a 2 1 2 t tdt = a 2 t tdt =
0
a a 0 0

2
2
1 + 2t2
1 2
2t
= a tdt = a
2
dt = a dt + dt =
0 0
2 0 2 0
2

1 2 2t 2 a
= a [t ]0 + = .
2 4 0 4

a
: S = 2 s = 4 = a .
4
x2
8: y = , p 0
2p
x [0,x0].
: 2 57
9:
=., [0,0].

, :
0
l = a 1 + 2 d =
0
a
2
(
0 1 + 0 2 + ln 0 + 1 + 0 2 .
)
10:
2 2
x 2 + y 2 = 1 , >0, >0 x.
a

2 x2
2 2
x y
+ = 1 x
2 2
+ y 2 2
a = a
2 2
y 2 2
a = a
2 2
x
2 2
y 2
= 1 2
.
a2 2 a
: V = 2 2 1 x 2 dx = 4 a 2 .
a 2
0 a 3
11: ,
y
y=x2 y2=8x.

:
y = x2 y = x2 y = x2 y = x2 y = x2 y=0y=4

y 2 = 8x x4 = 8x x4 8x = 0 x ( x 3 23 ) = 0 x=0x=2 x=0x=2
: V = y y dy = 24 .
4 4
64 5 0
12:
f(x)= 1 (x3-2x2+5x), x=-4 x=4
10
xx.
58 .

: 2 59
4 :
4.1.
-
, ,
, .
-
,
.
1: f(x)
[,]. [,t] -
t
[,] <t<, F (t ) = f ( x)dx , t
a
-

[,]. f ( x)dx . , :
a
t
f ( x)dx = lim f ( x)dx .

a
t
a
2: f(x) x -

t
[,t], t>, F (t ) = f ( x)dx -
a
t. lim F (t ) ,
t +
+
[,+ )
a
f ( x)dx .

f ( x)dx
+

f ( x)dx .

3: f(x)
a
f ( x)dx

+
f ( x)dx , <<, >0, Cauchy,

=
a
f ( x)dx = lim f ( x)dx + f ( x)dx , .
0
a +
+ t
=

f ( x)dx = lim
t + f ( x)dx .
t
60 .
f(x) g(x) -
[,], :
t t t
lim [ f ( x) + g ( x) ] dx = lim f ( x)dx + lim g ( x )dx
t t t
a a a
t t t
lim [ f ( x) g ( x) ] dx = lim f ( x) dx lim g ( x )dx .
t t t
a a a
t t
lim [ f ( x) + g ( x) ] dx lim [ f ( x) g ( x) ] dx -
t t
a a
, .

, : [ f ( x) + g ( x)] dx = f ( x)dx + g ( x)dx
a a a
, :

[ f ( x) g ( x)] dx = f ( x)dx g ( x)dx .

a a a

(,], [,).
4.2.
1: :
1 1
1 3x 2 + 2
i.
0 1 x
dx vi.
1
3
x2
1 1
1 1
ii. 0 x dx v.
0 x (1 x )
dx
2
x2
iii. 1 x 1
dx

1 t
1 1
( )
t
i. dx = lim dx = 2 lim 1 x = 2 lim 1 t 1 0 =
0 1 x t 1
0 1 x t 1 0 t 1
= 2 lim
t 1
( )
1-t 1 = 2 ( )
1 1 1 = 2 ( 0 1) = 2(1) = 2.
1 1
1 1
ii. dx = lim+ dx = lim+ [ ln x]t = lim+ ( ln1 ln t ) = lim(0
1
ln t ) = lim+ ln t = +.
0
x t 0
t
x t 0 t 0 t 0 + t 0
2 2 2 2
x2 x 11 x 1 1
iii. 1 x 1
dx =
1 x 1
dx =
1 x 1
dx
1 x 1
dx =
2 2
1
= x 1dx dx = I1 I 2 .
1 1 x 1
1:
: 2 61
2
1
( x 1) 2
2 2 2 +1
1
I1 = x 1dx = x 1d ( x 1) = ( x 1) 2 d ( x 1) = =
1 1 1 1 +1
2 1
2
2 3
2 3 3
2 2
= ( x 1) 2 = ( 2 1) 2 (1 1) 2 = (1 0 ) = .
3 1 3 3 3
2:
2 2
1 1 2
I2 = dx = lim dx = lim 2 x 1 =
1 x 1 0
1+ x 1 0 1+
= 2 lim
0
( )
2 1 1 + 1 = 2 lim 1 = 2 lim1 lim =
0
( ) ( 0 0
)
(
= 2 1 0 = 2.1 = 2 ( >0). )
2 2 6 4
I = 2= = .
3 3 3 3
1 1 1 1 4 1 2
3x 2 + 2 3x 2 2
vi.
1
3
x2
dx =
1
3
x2
dx +
1
3
x2
dx = 3 x 3 dx + 2 x 3 dx = 3I1 + 2 I 2 .
1 1
1:
1
4 +1
7 1
1 4
x3 3 3 3
7 7
3 6
I1 = x dx =
3
= x = 13 (1) 3 = (1 + 1) = .
1 4 + 1 7 1 7 7 7
3 1
2:
1 2 0 2 1 2 0 2 1 2

I 2 = x 3 dx = x 3 dx + x 3 dx = lim x 3 dx + lim x 3 dx =
0 0
1 1 0 1 0 +
1
2 +1 2 +1 1
x 3 x 3 13 13
= lim + lim = 3lim x + 3lim x =
0 2 0 2 0
1 0

+ 1 + 1
3 1 3
= 3 + 3 = 6 ( >0 >0).
6 18 18 84 102
I = 3. + 2.6 = + 12 = + = .
7 7 7 7 7
1
1 2 1
1 1 1
v.
0 x (1 x )
dx =
0 x (1 x )
dx +
1 x (1 x )
dx = I1 + I 2 .
2
1:
62 .
1 1
2 2 1
1 1
I1 = dx = lim dx = lim ( 2 x 1) 2 =
0 x (1 x ) 0
0 + x (1 x ) 0
1
= lim 2 1 ( 2 1) = lim 0 ( 2 1) =
0
2 0
= lim 0 ( 2 1) = lim ( 2 1) = (1) =
0 0

= = ( >0).
2 2
2:
1 1
1 1 1
I2 = dx = lim dx = lim ( 2 x 1) 1 =
1 x (1 x ) 0
1 x (1 x ) 0
2
2 2
1
= lim (1 2 ) 2 1 = lim (1 2 ) 0 =
0
2 0

= lim (1 2 ) 0 = lim (1 2 ) = (+1) = ( >0).
0 0 2
2
: I = + = = .
2 2 2
2: :
+ +
1 1
i.
0 x +1
2
dx iii.
2 x + x2
2
dx
+ +
1 1
ii. x dx
1
vi. x

2
+ 4x + 9
dx

+ t
1 1
dx = lim 2 dx = lim [ x ]0 = lim ( t 0 ) =
t
i.
0 x +1
2 t +
0 x +1
t + t +

= lim ( t 0 ) = lim t = .
t + t + 2
+ t
1 1
dx = lim dx = lim [ ln x ]1 = lim ( ln t ln1) = lim ( ln t 0 ) =
t
ii.
1
x t +
1
x t + t + t +
= lim ln t = +.
t +
: 2 63
+ t t
1 1 1 1 1
iii.
2 x + x2
2
dx = lim 2
t + x + x 2
2
dx = lim dx =
3 t + 2 x 1 x + 2
t t
1 1 1 1 1 1
dx = lim ln ( x 1) 2 lim ln ( x + 2 ) 2 =
t t
= lim dx lim
3 t + 2 x 1 3 t + 2 x + 2 3 t + 3 t +
t
1 x 1 1 t 1 2 1 t 1 2
= lim ln = lim ln + ln 2 = lim ln + lim ln 2 =
t + 3
x + 2 2 t + 3 t + 2 3 3 t + t + 2 t + 3
1 2 2 2
= ln1 + ln 2 = 0 + ln 2 = ln 2.
3 3 3 3
x+2
+ m m d
1 1 5 5
vi. x

2
+ 4x + 9
dx = lim 2
t x + 4x + 9
dx = lim
t
5 t x + 2 2
=
m + t m +
+1
5
m
5 x + 2 5 m+2 t +2 5
= lim = lim = .
5 m+
t
5 t 5 m+
t
5 5 5
3: ,

( 3):

b 2
1 1
i. x c dx, a < c < b
a
iii. n x dx, 0 < n < 1, n-
0
b
1
ii. ( x c)
a
n
dx, a < c < b, n 2

c
1 1
b
bc bc
i. a x c dx + c+ x c dx = ln c a + ln . ln c a + ln
,
b
1
, dx .
a
xc
, ==, :
c
1
b
1 bc bc bc

a
xc
dx +
c +
xc
dx = ln
ca
+ ln = ln
ca
+ 0 = ln
ca
, -
b
1 bc
>0. A = dx = ln .
a
xc ca
4: :
64 .
1 2
1 1
i.
1 x2 + 2 x + 3
dx iv. x
0 ln x
dx
2 3
x +1 x
ii.
0
x + 2
dx v.
2
4
x 4
2
1
2 e
1 1
iii. dx vi. x ln 2
dx
( x 1) x
2
0 3 0
: 2 65

3
1.

2.

3.

4.
2011
: 3 1
1:
...............................................................................................3
1.1. .......................................................................................................................................... 3
1.2. ............................................................................................................ 3
1.2.1. .................................................................................................. 3
1.2.2. ................................................................................ 6
1.2.3. ......................................................................... 8
2:
.............................................................................................12
2.1. ....................................................................................... 12
2.1.1. ................................................. 12
2.1.2. ....................................................................... 16
2.2. ................................................................................. 18
2.2.1. ........................................... 18
2.2.2. ....................................................................... 20
3:
.............................................................................22
3.1. ............................................ 22
3.1.1. ............................................................ 22
3.1.2. .......................................................................... 24
3.1.3. ...................................... 24
3.2. ................................................................................... 29
3.2.1. , ................................................................................ 29
3.2.2. ....................................................................... 32
3.3. .................................................................. 33
3.3.1. , ................................................................................ 33
3.3.2. ....................................................................... 34
4: .............................................36
4.1. ............................................................. 36
4.1.1. , ................................................................................ 36
4.1.2. ....................................................................... 38
4.2. ...................................................... 40
4.2.1. , ................................................................................ 40
4.2.2. ....................................................................... 42
4.3. ........................................................................... 44
4.3.1. , ................................................................................ 44
4.3.2. ....................................................................... 46
2 .
: 3 3
1 :

1.1.
,
, -
. x
f(x) (x,f(x)). x -
, .

(, ...),

.
1.2.
1.2.1.

. : ,
. x y,
d=d(x,y)=|y-x|=|x-y| 0.
1:
( ) -
d
1 1.
1
R.
2: (x,y) , -
, x y, .
, .
(x1,x2,x3)
(x1,x2,x3,,xn) n .
-
Oxy. x -
(x1,x2) x1 x2 . -
: (x1,x2) x
x1 x2 . -
d 1(x1,x2) A2(y1,y2)
: d = d ( A1 , A2 ) = ( y1 x1 )2 + ( y2 x2 )2 .
3:
d
2 2.
Oxyz
x (x1,x2,x3). :
(x1,x2,x3) x .
4 .
1(x1,x2,x3) 2(y1,y2,y3)
( y1 x1 ) + ( y2 x2 ) + ( y3 x3 ) .
2 2 2
: d = d ( A1 , A2 ) =
4:
d
3 3.
5 (): n
(x1,x2,x3,,xn), n N*.
1(x1,x2,x3,,xn) 2(y1,y2,y3,,yn)
d = d ( A1 , A2 ) = ( y1 x1 ) + ( y2 x2 ) + ( y3 x3 ) + ... + ( yn xn )
2 2 2 2
n n.
d :
n
( y xi ) .
2
d= i
i =1
6: n N*
.
1 1, 2 2, 3 3,
..., n n.
x(x1,x2,x3,,xn), y(y1,y2,y3,..,yn)
z(z1,z2,z3,..,zn) n, :
i) d(x,y) 0
ii) d(x,y)=0, , x y.
iii) d(x,y)=d(y,x)
iv) d(x,z) d(x,y)+d(y,z)

1, 2 3.
7: x(x1,x2,x3)
x1 = a1 + 1t
: x2 = a2 + 2 t , t ( , +) .
x3 = a3 + 3 t
8: x(x1,x2,x3)
d(a,x)<r2 ( x1 a1 ) + ( x2 a 2 ) + ( x3 a 3 ) < r 2 , r -
2 2 2
a(a1,a2,a3) .
9: d(a,x) r2
( x1 a1 ) + ( x2 a 2 ) + ( x3 a 3 ) r 2 .
2 2 2
10:
a1 < x1 < 1
x(x1,x2,x3) , : a < x < .
2 2 2
a3 < x3 < 3
1, 2, 3, 1, 2 3 1 (1,2,3), (1,2,3).
: 3 5
x3
3
3
O x2
1 1
x1 1
11: -
a1 x1 1
, : a2 x2 2 .
a3 x3 3
1, 2, 3, 1, 2 3 1 (1,2,3), (1,2,3).
:
, x n,
x(x1,x2,x3,,xn), n N*.
12: x(x1,x2,x3)
a(a1,a2,a3) >0 ( d(a,x)<) a
U(a,).
1, U(a,) -
(a-,a+).
2, U(a,)
(x1- a1)2+(x2-a2)2<2.
3, U(a,)
(x1- a1)2+(x2-a2)2+(x3-a3)2 <2.
13: x(x1,x2,x3,,xn),
ai-i<xi< ai+i |xi-ai|<i, i=1,
2, 3,,n, n N*, a
P(a,1,2,,n).
2,
a(a1,a2) 21 22,
( 2).
6 .
x2
a2-2
a
a2+2
a1-1 a1+1 x1
1.2.2.
14: n 1.
x y Y, , -
, y=f(x).
,
. x1, x2, x3,,xn
.
: y=f(x1,x2,x3,,xn) xi X
y Y, i=1, 2, 3,,n, n N*.
2 1, y=f(x1,x2)
z=f(x,y) z Y (x,y) X.
3 1, y=f(x1,x2,x3)
w=f(x,y,z) w Y (x,y,z) X.
15: y=f(x)
x(x1,x2,x3,,xn) X y Y.
n+1,
(x,y)= (x1,x2,x3,,xn,f(x)), En+1
n+1, n N*.
z=f(x,y), (x,y) X,
(x,y,z=f(x,y)),
G 3.
, A(x,y) X,
P , 3.
: 3 7
z
P(x,y,z) G
O y
A(x,y)
X
x
3
16: z=f(x)
m- f(tx)=tmf(x), m R+* x(x1,x2,x3,,xn).

Oxy, (x,y),
Oxy x y
.
z = 4 x 2 y 2 ,

.
4 x 2 y 2 0 x 2 + y 2 4 . X x 2 + y 2 4
(x,y) r=2 -
(0,0), 4.
y
x -2 O 2 x
y
4
( )
P x, y, z = 4 x 2 y 2 , (x,y) X,
2 2 2
x +y +z =24, z 0, ( 5).
8 .
x
y
5
,
z=f(x,y), (x,y) X, , . , -
z=m2+n2, m, n Z+.
xOy -
. (-
6). z=m2+n2 -
(m,n,m2+n2), -
3.
x
6
1.2.3.
1: :
2x
i. f ( x, y ) = , x = 5, y = 3
x y2
2
2x + y
ii. f ( x, y ) = log , x = 1, y = 8
x2 + y

2.5 10 10 10 5
i. f (5,3) = = = = = .
52 32 25 9 16 4 2
2: -
:
: 3 9
1 1
i. f ( x, y ) = vi. f ( x, y ) = ln( xy )
9 x y
2 2 x2
ii. f ( x, y ) = x y vii. f ( x, y ) = ln( x 2 + y 2 1)
ln( x 2 y )
iii. f ( x, y ) = viii. f ( x, y ) = x y
yx
x x2 y 2
iv. f ( x, y ) = + (1 y ) ix. f ( x, y ) = + 1
y2 9 4
v. f ( x, y ) = ln x + y x. f ( x, y ) = ( x 2 + y 2 )

2 2 2 2 2 2 2
i. 9-x -y >0 x +y <9 x +y <3 , -
f(x,y) (0,0) 3, -
( 7).
y
x x
y
7
ii. 1 y 1 | y | 1
f(x,y) 1 2 ( 8).
y
1
1
-1
x x
2
y
8
x0
x 2
y >0
iii. y > 0 G
yx>0
y>x
f(x,y) xx y>0,
, ( y>x)
y=x, xOy
(0,0) ( x 0) ( 9).
10 .
y=x
x x
y
3: , :
y
y y
i. f ( x, y ) = x 3 y +
3 2 2
e x
v. f ( x, y ) = x + x2 + y 2
3
x x
x2 + y 2 x
ii. f ( x, y ) = x y + y ln( x + 1)
2 2 2
vi. f ( x, y ) = ln
x2 + y2 + x

1
iii. f ( x, y ) = iv. f ( x, y ) = ln( x 2 + y 2 )
y

x
y x2 y 2
vii. f ( x, y ) = ln viii. f ( x, y ) =
x x2 + y2

i. x, y f(x,y) tx ty
:
y ty
y ty
f ( x, y ) = 3 x 2 3 y 2 + 3
e x
f (tx, ty ) = 3 (tx) 2 3(ty ) 2 + 3
e tx

x tx
y y
ty ty
f (tx, ty ) = 3 t 2 x 2 3t 2 y 2 + 3
e x
f (tx, ty ) = 3 t 2 ( x 2 3 y 2 ) + 1
e x

t3 x 3 3
t x
2 2
y 2 y
t y 3 t y 3
f (tx, ty ) = 3 t 2 3 x 2 3 y 2 + 3
e x
f (tx, ty ) = t 3 3 x 2 3 y 2 + 3
e x

x x
2
y
y 2
f (tx, ty ) = t 3 3 x 2 3 y 2 + 3 e x f (tx, ty ) = t 3 f ( x, y )
x
2
f (tx, ty ) = t m f ( x, y ), m = .
3
f(x,y) 2 .
3
: 3 11

12 .
2:

2.1.
2.1.1.

.
y=f(x), x(x1,x2,x3,,xn), n,
Y 1 (1,2,3,,n)
.
1: , y=f(x)
R, >0, >0, , d(,x)<, x , x
, : |f(x)-|<. = lim f ( x) .
xa
d(,x)< x , x U(,), -
x .
, x(x1x2,x3,xn)
( x1 a1 ) + ( x2 a2 ) + ( x3 a3 ) + ... + ( xn an ) < .
2 2 2 2
(1,2,3,,n), :
,
:
2: , y=f(x1,x2,x3,,xn)
(12,3,,n) R, >0, >0, ,
n
( x a ) < , x , x , : |f(x1,x2,x3,,xn)-|<.
2
0< i i
i =1
U(,) -
. -
:
3: , y=f(x1,x2,x3,,xn)
(12,3,,n) R, >0, >0, ,
|xi-i|<, i=1,2,3,,n, n N*, , |f(x1,x2,x3,,xn)-|<, x , x .
= lim f ( x1 , x2 , x3 ,..., xn ) .
xi ai
4: y=f(x), x(x1,x2,x3,,xn),
n, Y 1 (1,2,3,,n) -
. , R
, x = lim f ( x) ,
x a
(1) (2) (3) (m)
f(x ,x ,x ,,x ) ,
(m)
lim f ( x ( m ) ) = , {x }, -
m +
: lim x ( m ) = a , x(m) X, x(m) m N*.

m +
: ,
, 1 4, .
: 3 13
1: y=f(x) k=g(x)
X1 En X2 En, 1 2= .
(1,2,3,,n) n .
= lim f ( x) = lim g ( x ) , :
xa xa
i. lim [ f ( x) + g ( x) ] = +
xa
ii. lim [ f ( x) g ( x) ] =
xa
iii. lim [ f ( x).g ( x) ] = .

xa
f ( x)
iv. lim = , g ( x) 0 0
x a g ( x)

x2 y
f ( x, y ) = (x,y) (0,0). -
x4 + y 2
(0,0) .
(0,0)
x=lt, y=mt. t 0, x 0 y 0
(x,y) O(0,0).
: f (lt , mt ) = l 2 mt
l t + m 2t
4 2
t 0, .
, (0,0) ,
2
, f ( x, y ) = 4x y 0.
x + y2
(0,0)
2
y=x . : f ( x, x 2 ) = x2 x2 x4 x4 1
= = = .
x4 + ( x2 ) x +x
2 4 4 4
2x 2
1
(0,0) .
2
, f(x,y) (0,0)
, 0 1 ,
2
(0,0), . 4
2
, f ( x, y ) = 4x y 2 -
x +y
(0,0).
5: y=f(x1,x2,x3,,xn),
. lim lim lim ... lim f ( x1 , x2 , x3 ,..., xn ) .
x1 a1 x2 a2 x3 a3 xn an

xi, i=1, 2,
3,,n, n N*.
n,
n! . n!
.
y= y=f(x1,x2,x3,,xn), x(x1,x2,x3,,xn) (1,2,3,,n).
14 .
f(x,y) (x,y) G
(,)
, : lim lim f ( x, y ) lim lim f ( x, y ) .
x y y x

,
.
x
x + y + x3 y 3
y: f ( x, y ) = (0,0) -
x y
G
. :
x + y + x3 y 3 0 + y + 03 y 3 y y3
lim lim f ( x, y ) = lim lim = lim = lim =
y 0 x0 y 0 x 0 x y y 0 0 y y 0 y
y (1 y 2 ) 1 y2
= lim = lim = lim( y 2 1) = 02 1 = 1.
y 0 y y 0 1 y 0
x + y + x3 y 3 x + 0 + x 3 03 x + x3
lim lim f ( x, y ) = lim lim = lim = lim =
x 0 y 0 x 0 y 0 x y x 0 x0 x0 x
x(1 + x 2 )
= lim = lim( x 2 + 1) = 02 + 1 = 1.
x 0 x x 0
: f ( x, y) = x 1 + y 1 .
y x
f(x,y) (x,y) .
1 1 1 1
lim f ( x, y ) = x + y = ( x , ylim
lim x + lim y =
( x , y ) (0,0) ( x , y ) (0,0)
y x ) (0,0) y ( x , y ) (0,0) x
1 1
= lim x lim + lim y lim = 0.
( x , y ) (0,0) ( x , y ) (0,0) y ( x , y ) (0,0) ( x , y ) (0,0) x
:
1 1 1
lim lim f ( x, y ) = lim lim x + lim y = lim lim y .
y 0 x 0

y 0 x 0 y x 0 x y 0 x 0 x
1
lim y .
x 0 x
.
1 1 1
lim lim f ( x, y ) = lim lim x + lim y = lim lim x .
x 0 y 0

x 0 y 0 y y 0 x x 0 y 0 y
1
lim x .
y 0 y
.
f ( x, y ) = x 1 + y 1 ,
y x
0 P(x,y) (0,0).
f(x,y), P(x,y) G
(,) G . -
: 3 15
, lim f ( x, y ) = ( y ) . ,
x

y , x X
G. (y) y .
y, y Y
.
lim lim f ( x, y ) .
y x
2: f(x,y) G
(,) G. ,
[(,),1,2] G.
lim f ( x, y ) = lim f ( x, y ) = ( y ) , y (-2,+2),
( x , y ) ( , ) x
lim lim f ( x, y ) : lim f ( x, y ) = lim lim f ( x, y ) .

y x ( x , y ) ( , ) y x
: lim f ( x, y ) = ( y ) , y (-2,+2),
x
lim f ( x, y ) = ( x) , x (-1,+1), :
y
lim f ( x, y ) = lim lim f ( x, y ) .

( x , y ) ( , ) x y
6: f(x), x M -
. , f(x) -
+ , >0, >0, d(,x)<
, f(x)>N.
7: f(x), x M -
. , f(x) -
- , <0, >0, d(,x)< -
, f(x)<N.
8: , f(x) (x,y)
(,+ ) >0, (,+ ),
|x-|<, y>N>0, (x,y) , :
|f(x,y)-|< ( 1)
y
O - + x
1
16 .
9: , f(x) (x,y)
(- ,+ ), (- ,+ ),
: >0 >0 x>N y>M
( 2).
y
O M x
10: y=f(x), x(x1,x2,x3,,xn) X En.

y
, .
f(x) , -
, .
: M = sup f ( x) N = inf f ( x ) .
x X x X
11: y y=f(x)
, .
2.1.2.
1: , f ( x, y ) = x2 y 2
x2 y 2 + ( x2 y 2 )
2
: lim lim f ( x, y ) = lim lim f ( x, y ) = 0 ,

y 0
x 0 y 0 x0
lim f ( x, y ) .
( x , y ) (0,0)

x2 y 2 x2 y 2 x2 y 2
lim f ( x, y ) = lim = lim = lim 4 =
x2 y2 + ( x2 y )
2 2 x y + x 2x y + y y 0 x x 2 y 2 + y 4
y 0 y 0 y 0 2 2 4
2 2 4
x2 y2 y2 02
= lim = lim = 2 = 0.
x2 ( x2 y 2 + y 4 ) x y +y x 02 + 04
y 0 y 0 2
2 4
, lim f ( x, y ) = 0 .
x 0
lim lim f ( x, y ) = lim lim f ( x, y ) = 0 .

x 0
y 0 y 0 x0
, (x,y) (0,0)
y=kx, k R*. :
x2 y 2 x4 k 2
lim f ( x, y ) = lim = lim =
x2 y 2 + ( x2 y 2 ) ( x , y ) (0,0) x 4 x 4 k 2 + x 4 k 4
( x , y ) (0,0) ( x , y ) (0,0) 2
x4 k 2 k2 k2
= lim = lim = , k R* .
( x , y ) (0,0)
x 4 (1 k 2 + k 4 ) ( x , y ) (0,0) 1 k 2 + k 4 1 k2 + k4
: 3 17
2: :
xy x2 y
i. lim iii. lim
( x , y ) (2,0) y ( x , y ) (0,0) x 2 + y 2
xy xy
ii. lim iv. lim
( x , y ) (0,2) x ( x , y ) (0,4) x

xy xy xy
i. lim = lim x = lim x lim = 2.1 = 2 , lim t = 1 .
( x , y )(2,0) y ( x , y ) (2,0) xy ( x , y ) (2,0) ( x , y ) (2,0) xy t 0 t
xy xy
ii. lim = lim lim y = 1.2 = 2 , lim t = 1 .
( x , y ) (0,2) x ( x , y ) (0,2) xy ( x , y )( 0,2 ) t 0 t
iii. f ( x, y ) = xy xy 1
x .
x + y2
2
x +y 2
2 2
1
(x-y)2 0. f ( x, y ) x . >0, - .
2
|x|<2 , : f ( x, y ) 0 = f ( x, y ) <
x2 y
lim =0 .
( x , y ) (0,0) x 2 + y 2
3: :
x2 + y 2 1
i. lim
( x , y ) ( + , + ) x 4 + y 4
iv. lim x + y

( x , y ) (0,0) y
x y x+ y
ii. lim v. lim
( x , y ) (0,0) x+ y ( x , y ) ( + , + ) x 2 xy + y 2
xy x3 + y 3
iii. lim vi. lim
( x , y ) (0,0) x + y 2
2 ( x , y ) (0,0) x 2 + y 2

i. x=, y= x2+y2=2(2+2) = x 2 + y 2 . -
x + y + , + , . :
x2 + y 2 ( ) 2 + ( ) 2 2 2 + 2 2
lim = lim = lim =
( x , y ) ( + , + ) x 4 + y 4 ( x , y ) ( + , + ) ( ) 4 + ( ) 4 ( x , y ) ( + , + ) 4 4 + 4 4
-
2 ( 2 + 2 ) 1
= lim = lim .
( x , y ) ( + , + ) ( + )
4 4 4 ( x , y ) ( + , + ) ( + 4 )
2 4
1 1
, : 4+4=(2+2)-222=1- 22 -
2 2
x +y
2 2
lim =0.
( x , y ) ( + , + ) x 4 + y 4
v. x=, y=. x + y + , ,
, + :
18 .
x+ y ( + ) +
lim = lim 2 = lim = 0.
( x , y ) ( + , + ) x xy + y 2
2 +
( + )
2 2 + (1 )
4: :
x2 + y 2
i. lim iv. lim x 2 ln ( x 2 + y 2 )
( x , y ) (0,0) ( x , y ) (0,0)
x + y +1 1
2 2
1 xy e xy 1 1
ii. lim v. lim
( x , y ) (0,0) x2 y2 ( x , y ) (0,0) x 2 y 2 1
ln (1 + xy ) ln ( x + y ) x y + 1
iii. lim vi. lim
( x + y 1)
2
( x , y ) (0,0) xy ( x , y ) (0,0)
i. lim
x2 + y2
= lim
(x 2
+ y2 ) ( x2 + y2 + 1 + 1 ) =
( x , y ) (0,0)
x + y +1 1
2 2
( x +y
( x , y ) (0,0) 2 2
+1 1 )( x + y +1 +1
2 2
)
(x 2
+ y2 ) ( x2 + y2 + 1 + 1) (x 2
+ y2 ) ( x2 + y 2 + 1 + 1 )=
= lim = lim
( ) x + y +11
( x , y ) (0,0) 2 ( x , y ) (0,0) 2 2
x2 + y 2 + 1 1
(x 2
+ y2 ) ( x2 + y2 + 1 + 1 )=
= lim
( x , y ) (0,0) x +y2 2
lim
( x , y ) (0,0)
( )
x 2 + y 2 + 1 + 1 = 02 + 02 + 1 + 1 = 2.
5:
1 1 x2 y 2 + 1 1
i. lim ( x + y ) iii. lim
( x , y ) (0,0) x y ( x , y ) (0,0) x2 + y 2
x2 y 2 x2 y 2 + 1 1
ii. lim iv. lim
( x , y ) (0,0) x 2 + y 2 ( x , y ) (0,0)
(x 2
+ y 2 ) 3 xy
6:
x y
f ( x, y ) = , (x,y) (0,0).
x+ y

x y x0 x
lim lim
x 0 y 0 x + y
= lim
x 0 x + 0
= lim = lim1 = 1
x 0 x
x 0
x y 0 y y
lim lim
y 0 x 0 x + y
= lim
y 0 0 + y
= lim
y 0 y
= lim(1) = 1 .
y 0
2.2.
2.2.1.

.
12: f(x) n.
, f(x) , >0, >0,
: 3 19
d(x,)< ( x U(,)) ,
|f(x)-f()|<.
13: f(x) n.
, f(x) ,
f(x(1)), f(x(2)), f(x(3)),,f(x(m)) lim f ( x( m ) ) = f (a)
m+
{x } lim x( m ) = a x(m) X, m N*.

(m)
m+
:
1) 12 13 -
.
2) 12 13 ,
, -
: lim f ( x) = f (a ) lim [ f ( x) f (a) ] = 0 .
xa x a
14: y=f(x)-f(). lim y = 0 y

x a
f(x) -
x(x1,x2,x3,,xn).
x ( x ) , d(x,) 0.
n
d ( x, a) = ( x ai ) . xi-i , xi-i
2
i
i =1
=xi=hi, d ( x, a) = h12 + h2 2 + h32 + ... + hn 2 .

lim y = 0 : lim y = 0 , i=1, 2, 3,,n, n N*.
x a hi 0
1: f(x) g(x)
En ,
:
i. k ( x) = f ( x) + g ( x), , R
ii. l ( x) = f ( x).g ( x)
f ( x)
iii. m( x) = , g (a ) 0 g ( x) 0
g ( x)
15: f(x) n.
f(x),
:
i) , .
ii) , .
2: f(x)
n , x X.
3: f(x)
n, .
: f ( x, y ) = x 2 + y 2 + x 2 + y 2 , []

g ( x ) = x + y .
2 2
20 .
x2+y2=1, x2+y2=4, x2+y2=9, x2+y2=16 ... ,

r = x 2 + y 2 f(x,y)=r-[r].
r=n-, n Z +* 0<<1.
lim ( r [r ]) = lim n ( n 1) = lim( + 1) = 1 .

0 0 0
r=n+, n Z 0<<1. *
+
lim ( r [r ]) = lim ( n + n ) = lim = 0 .

0 0 0
,
x2+y2=n2, n Z +* ,
1. f(x,y) ,
x2+y2=n2, n+ , -
.
4 ( ): f(x,y)
>0, >0, -
, (x1,y1) M (x2,y2) ,
|x1-x2| |y1-y2|, , : |f(x1,y1)-f(x2,y2)|<.
2.2.2.
1: (0,0)
:
x2 y2 xy
i. f ( x, y ) = iv. f ( x, y ) =
x2 + y 2 x + y2
2
x3 y 3 1
ii. f ( x, y ) = v. f ( x, y ) =
x2 + y 2 x + y2
2
x4 y 4 x2 y 2
iii. f ( x, y ) = vi. f ( x, y ) =
x4 + y 4 x4 + y 4
(: i. , ii. , iii. , iv. , v. , vi.
.)
2: :
y2 + 2x 1
i. f ( x, y ) = iv. f ( x, y ) =
y2 2x 2 x + 2 x
3 1
ii. f ( x, y ) = v. f ( x, y, z ) =
yx x2 + y 2 + z 2 9
1 5
iii. f ( x, y ) = vi. f ( x, y, z ) =
x2 + y 2 1 ( x + y )( z 1)

i. y2=2x.
ii. y=x.
iii. x2+y2=1.
: 3 21
iv. x=y= 2k + 1 , k Z
2
2 2 2
v. x +y +z =1.
vi. x+y=0 z=1.
22 .
3 :

3.1.
3.1.1.
z=f(x,y) G.
G. y= R ( x= R), z=f(x,) ( z=f(,y))
.
1: f(x,y) G (,) G.
lim f ( x, ) f ( , ) ,
x x
f(x,y) x (,).
: f ( x, y )
x
( , )
z f ( , ) z ( , )
fx(,) fx(,) zx(,) zx(,).
x ( , ) x x
h=x-, f(x,y) x
f ( x, y ) f ( + h, ) f ( , ) .
= lim
x ( , )
h0 h
2: f(x,y) G (,) G.
f ( , y ) f ( , )
lim ,
y y
f(x,y) y (,)
: f ( x, y ) z
y ( , ) y ( , )
f ( , ) z ( , ) fy(,) fy(,) zy(,) zy(,).
y y
k=y-, f(x,y) y
f ( , + k ) f ( , )
f ( x, y )
= lim .
y ( , ) k 0 k
: , , f(x)
, .
f(x,y) x y,
f(x,y) (,).
, f f -
x y
,
.
: z=f(x1,x2,x3,,xn)
G n (1,2,3,,n) G.
: 3 23
xi , -
: f x (a1 , a2 , a3 ,..., an ) = lim f (a1 , a2 , a3 ,..., xi ,..., an ) f (a1 , a2 , a3 ,..., ai ,..., an ) .
i xi ai xi ai
z=f(x,y). fx(,) fy(,), -

(,), . fx(x,y) fy(x,y),
f f
.
x y
3: G1 G, G1
f(x,y) (,). -
x y G1.
f f
.
x y
f f
x y
x y
-
f(x,y) :
2 f f 2 f f 2 f f 2 f f
= , = , = = .
x 2
x x xy y x y 2
y y yx x y
f , -
2
xy
f(x,y) x y.
1: f f ,
2 2
xy yx
f2
2 f
: = .
xy yx

f(x,y) :
3 f 2 f 3 f 3 f
2 f 2 f , 3 f 2 f ,
= , = ,
2
= =
x 3 x x 2 xy
x y y x
2 2
y xy y 3 y y 2
, : z=f(x,y), k f n k = f x k y n k ( x, y ) .
n
x y
w=f(x,y,z), :
2w 2w 2w 2w 2w 2w
= , = , =
xy yx xz zx yz zy
3 w 3 w 3 w 3 w 3 w 3 w 3 w 3 w 3 w
= = , = = = = =
x2 y xyz yx2 xyz xyz xzy xyz zxy zyx
24 .
3.1.2.
4: f(x,y)
f f f f
df ( x, y ) = dx + dy , dx dy -
x y x y
f(x,y) ( x y).
dx dy x- y- -
x y .
5: n- f(x,y) -
h d m f ( x, y ) = nf dx n + n n1 f dx n1dy + ... + fn dy n -
n n 1 n
x 1 x y y
n
: d n f ( x, y) = dx + dy f ( x, y)
x y
,
n
n
dx dy f ( x, y )
x y
: n f dx n dy .
n n
x y
n=2, -
f(x,y) :
2 f 2 2 f 2 f
d2 f = dx + 2 dxdy + 2 dy 2
x 2
xy y
: z=exy.
dz : dz=yexydx+xexydy=exy(ydx+xdy),
d2z :
d2z=exy[y2dx2+2(1+xy)dxdy+x2dy2].
n=3, -
f(x,y) , :
3 f 3 3 f 3 f 3 f 3
d3 f = dx + 3 dx 2
dy + 3 dxdy 2
+ dy
x3 x 2 y xy 2 y 3
3.1.3.
S .
. S Q(x,y,z).
h Q r=PQ.
6: -
S, lim h = 0 .
QP r
z=f(x,y)
(x,y) U(A,), U(A,) (,). -
[x,y,z=f(x,y)] S (x,y) U(,), -
( 1).
: 3 25
2: -
, Oz, S: z=f(x,y)
[,,f(,)], f(x,y) (,).
z=f(x,y) Q[x,y,f(x,y)] .
R(x,y,z) -
Q.
:
z-f(,)=fx(,)(x-)+fy(,)(y-) dz= fx(,)(x-)+fy(,)(y-) dz=x-f(,).
y=, z=f(x,)
y=. zx=fx(,)
L(x,y) x= y=.
f(x,y) y x=
fy(,y) z=f(,y),
x=, (x,y), x= y= ( 1).
z P
R
S
dz
O y
A f(,)

x 1
3.1.4.
1: x
y :
1 xy
i. f ( x, y ) = xe y + ( xy + y 2 ) vi. f ( x, y ) =
1
(1 + x 2 + y 2 + x 2 y 2 )
2
ii. f ( x, y ) = xe xy 2 y vii. f ( x, y ) = ( x3 2 y ) 2 + xy
(
iii. f ( x, y ) = x 1 y 2 + y 1 x 2 ) viii. f ( x, y ) = e x xe y
x x 2
iv. f ( x, y ) = x 2 + y 2 + ix. f ( x, y ) =
y y
2x + y x y 2
v. f ( x, y ) = x. f ( x, y ) = ( x 2 + y 2 )e x + y
1 2 xy x 2
26 .

x y
f(x,y) x
.
y,
x . :
f ( x, y ) xe + ( xy + y )
y 2
xe y ( xy + y 2 )
i. = = + =
x x x x
x e y 2 ( xy + y )
2
= ey + x +(xy + y ) =
x x x
xy y 2 2 x y
=1.e y + x.0 + ( xy + y 2 ) + = e + ( xy + y ) y + x + 0 =
y
x x x x
= e + ( xy + y )(1. y + x.0) = e + y ( xy + y ).
y 2 y 2
f ( x, y ) xe + ( xy + y )
y 2
xe y ( xy + y 2 )
= = + =
y y y y
x e y 2 ( xy + y )
2
= ey + x +(xy + y ) =
y y y
xy y 2 2 x y
=0.e y + xe y + ( xy + y 2 ) + = xe + ( xy + y ) y + x + 2 y =
y
y y y y
= xe + ( xy + y )(0. y + x.1 + 2 y ) = xe + ( x + 2 y ) ( xy + y ).
y 2 y 2
f ( x, y ) ( xe xy 2 y ) x xy e xy 2 y
ii. = = e 2 y + x 2 y + xe xy =
x x x x x
xy
= 1.e xy 2 y + xe xy 2 y + xe xy .0 = e xy 2 y + xe xy y 2 y =
x
= e (1 + xy ) 2 y.
xy
f ( x, y ) ( xe xy 2 y ) x xy e xy 2 y
= = e 2 y + x 2 y + xe xy =
y y y y y
xy 2 y
= 0.e xy 2 y + xe xy 2 y + xe xy 2 y = xe xy x 2 y + xe xy 2 y.2 =
y y
= xe xy ( x 2 y + 2 2 y ).
2:
x, y f ( x, y ) = x 2 y 3 (-1,1).

f f
= 2 xy 3 , = 2.( 1).13 = 2 .
x x ( 1,1)
f f
= 3 x 2 y 2 = 3.(1) 2 .12 = 3 .
y y ( 1,1)
3: , x
y, :
: 3 27
y 1 0, xy 0
i. z = ii. z = , r = x12 + x2 2 + x32 + ... + xn 2 iii. f ( x, y ) =
x r 1, xy = 0
x2 y 2 2
xy , x + y2 0 z
4: z = f ( x, y ) = x 2 + y 2 .
0, x 2 + y 2 = 0 x

z
(0,0).
y

f ( x, y ) f (0, y ) x2 y 2 y2
f x (0, y ) = lim = lim y 2 = y = y fxy(0,0)=-1.
x 0 x x 0 x + y2 y2
f ( x, y ) f ( x, 0) x2 y 2 x2
f y ( x, 0) = lim = lim x 2 = x 2 = x fyx(0,0)=1.
y 0 y y 0 x + y2 x
5: x
y :
x
i. f ( x, y ) = ln( x + y 2 ) v. f ( x, y ) =
x + y2
2
ii. f ( x, y ) = xy 4 + y 4 4 x 2 y 2 vi. f ( x, y ) = x ( x + y )
x
iii. f ( x, y ) = xy + vii. f ( x, y ) = x y
y
x+ y x2
iv. f ( x, y ) = viii. f ( x, y ) =
1 xy y

x y
:
f ( x, y ) ( xy 4 + y 4 4 x 2 y 2 ) xy 4 y 4 4 x 2 y 2
ii. = = + - = y 4 - 8 xy 2
x x x x x
f ( x, y ) ( xy + y 4 x y ) xy y 4 x y
4 4 2 2 4 4 2 2
= = + - = 4 xy 3 + 4 y 3 8 x 2 y
y y y y y
x
y :
2 f ( x, y ) f ( x, y ) ( y 4 - 8 xy 2 ) y 4 8 xy 2
= = = = 8 y 2 .
x 2
x x x x x
f ( x, y ) f ( x, y ) (4 xy + 4 y - 8 x y ) 4 xy 3 4 y 3 8 x 2 y
2 3 3 2
= = = + =
y 2 y y y y y y
= 12 xy 2 + 12 y 2 8 x 2 .
2 f ( x, y ) f ( x, y ) ( y 4 - 8 xy 2 ) y 4 8 xy 2
= = = = 4 y 3 16 xy.
xy y x y y y
28 .
2 f ( x, y ) f ( x, y ) (4 xy 3 + 4 y 3 8 x 2 y ) 4 xy 3 4 y 3 8 x 2 y
= = = + - =
yx x y x x x x
=4 y 3 -16 xy.
:
f ( x, y ) f ( x, y)
( ) = xy 3 + 4 y 3 8 x 2 y = 4 xy 3 + 4 y 3 8 x 2 y , -
y y
2 f ( x, y ) 2 f ( x, y )
= = 4 y 3 -16 xy .
xy yx
2 f ( x, y )
, ,
xy
2 f ( x, y )
.
yx
6: x
y :
y 1
i. z = ii. z = , r = x12 + x2 2 + x32 + ... + xn 2
x r
7: -
:
i. f ( x, y ) = ( 3 x + y ) 2 , df ( x, y ) =; iv. f ( x, y ) = y 2 e x , d 2 f ( x, y ) =;
x + x2 y2
ii. f ( x, y ) = ln , df ( x, y ) =; v. f ( x, y ) = ln( x + y ), d 2 f ( x, y ) =;
x x y 2 2
x
iii. f ( x, y ) = ln , df ( x, y ) =;
y

df ( x, y ) = f dx + f dy
x y
f 2
2
f 2
2 f
d2 f = dx + 2 dxdy + 2 dy 2
x 2
xy y
, :
i. df(x,y)=2(3x+y)33xdx+2(3x+y)(-y)dy
df(x,y)=2(3x+y)( 33xdx- ydy).
f f 2 f 2 f 2 f
iv. = y2ex , = 2 ye x , = y 2 x
e , = 2e x
, = 2 ye x
x y x 2 y 2 xy
f(x,y) :
d 2 f = y 2 e x dx 2 + 2.2 ye x dxdy + 2e x dy 2 d 2 f = e x ( y 2 dx 2 + 4 ydxdy + 2dy 2 ) .
8: x y
:
: 3 29
i. f ( x, y ) = ( x 2 + y 2 ) vi. f ( x, y ) = x 2 + y 2
y
ii. f ( x, y ) = x vii. f ( x, y ) = xe xy
x
iii. f ( x, y ) = x + y 6 xy
3 3
viii. f ( x, y, z ) = xy z
x
iv. f ( x, y ) = ln ix. f ( x, y, z ) = x 2 y ( xyz )
y
y xy
v. f ( x, y ) = ln ( x 2 + y 2 ) + x. f ( x, y, z ) =
x z2
3.2.
3.2.1. ,
1: z=f(x1,x2,x3,,xn)
G, n
x(x1,x2,x3,,xn) G. t G n x1=1(t), x2=2(t),
x3=3(t),,xn=n(t). z=f[1(t),2(t),3(t),,n(t)] -
.
, z=f(x,y), u=(x,y)
v=(x,y) z=f(u,v) z=f[(x,y),(x,y)].
1: z=f(x,y)
G n (,) G. u=(x,y) v=(x,y)
(,), z=f(u,v)
[(,),(,)] G n, z=f(u,v)
(,).
2: f(x,y)
(,). (t)
(t) to (to)= (t)=.
z=f[(t),(t)] to
: z (to ) = f x ( 0 , ) (to ) + f y ( 0 , ) (to ).
( )
2, z=f(x,y) x=(t) y=(t),
z z
, : z = x + y .
x y
f(x,y) z=f(u,v,w),
u=(t), v=(t) w=(t),
z z z
: z = u + v + w .
u v w
3: u=(x,y) v=(x,y)
(,) z=f(u,v)
(,), =u(,) =v(,), z=f(u,v) -
(,).
z=f(u,v) , u=(x,y) v=(x,y),
:
30 .
z f u f v
= +
x u x v x
z f u f v
= +
y u y v y
f(u) (x,y) -
z=f[(x,y)],
z z
: = f [ ( x, y ) ] = f [ ( x, y ) ] .
x x y y
(x,y) u,
z u z u
: = f (u ) = f (u ) .
x x y y
z z
z = x + y , ,
x y
z z
z , ,
x y
z :
2 z 2 z z 2 z 2 z z
z = 2 x + 2 y x + x + x + 2 y x + y
x y x yx y y
2 z 2 z z z z
z = 2 ( x ) + 2 xy + ( y ) + x +
2 2
y .
x xy y x y
f(x,y) (x), -
z=f[x,(x)], , :
f f 2 f 2 f 2 f f
( x) + 2 [ ( x)] + ( x) .
2
z = + ( x) z = 2 + 2
x y x xy y y
, f(u,v), -
: z = f ( x 2 + y 2 , xy ) . -
f f f f f f
, : = 2x +y , = 2y +x
x u v y u v
2 f 2 f
2
2 f 2 f
2
f
= 4 x + 4 xy + y +2 ,
x 2
u 2
uv v 2
u
f
2
f
2
f
2
f
2
f
= 4 y 2 2 + 4 xy + x2 2 + 2 ,
y 2
u uv v u
2 f 2 f 2 f 2 f f
= 4 xy 2 + 4 xy + xy 2 +
xy u uv v u
y
: f(u) z = f . -
x
z y
z: = 2 f (u ) ,
x x
: 3 31
z 1 2 z 2 y y2 2 z 1
= f (u ) = f (u ) + f (u ) , = f (u ) ,
y x x 2 x3 x4 y 2 x 2
2 z 1 y
= 2 f (u ) 3 f (u )
xy x x
z=f(u,x)
, u=(x,y) v=(x,y), :
f u f v f u f v
dz = + dx + + dy
u x v x u y v y
f u u f v v
dz = dx + dy + dx + dy .
u x y v x y
u u v v
du = dx + dy dv = dx + dy .
x y x y
dz z=f(u,v),
f f
: dz = du + dv .
u v
, z=f[u(t),v(t)], -
, t , :
dz f du f dv du dv
= + , u(t)
dt u dt v dt dt dt
v(t), , t.
z=F(u), u=f(x,y), dz
u u u u
: dz = F (u ) dx + F (u ) dy dz = F (u ) dx dy -
x y x y
dz = F (u ) du .
2: z=f(x,y),
:
f f
d 2 z = d ( df ) dz = d dx + dy
x y
2 f 2 f 2 f 2 f
dz = 2 dx + dy dx + dx + 2 dy dy
x xy xy y
f2
f
2
f
2
dz = 2 dx 2 + 2 dxdy + 2 dy 2 .
x xy y
n n f n n f n n f
: d n f = n dx n + n 1 dx n 1 dy + ... + n dy n .
0 x 1 x y n y
, z=f[x1(t1,t2,t3,,tn), x2(t1,t2,t3,,tn),,xn(t1,t2,t3,,tn)],
dz f dx1 f dx2 f dxm
, : = + + ... + , i=1, 2, 3,,n.
dxi x1 dti x2 dti xm dti
4 ( Euler): z=f(x1,x2,x3,,xn)
m x 0, , :
32 .
f f f f
x1 + x2 + x3 + ... + xn = m. f ( x) .
x1 x2 x3 xn
3.2.2.
1: , f(x,y)=(x2+y2)ex+y
, (x,y) xOy.

u(x,y)=x2+y2 v(x,y)=x+y. f(x,y)=uev.
:
i. f(x,y)=uev (u,v),
uOv.
ii. u(x,y)=x2+y2 v(x,y)=x+y, -
xOy.
i., ii. 1, ,
f(x,y)=(x2+y2)ex+y , (x,y) xOy,
.
2: z=f(u,v), u=x+y, v=x-y, :

f f 2 f
i. ii. iii.
x y x 2

i. f = f + f .
x u v
ii. f = f f .
y u v
2 f 2 f 2 f 2 f
iii. = + 2 + .
x 2 u 2 u v v 2
3: ,
:
i. z = f (u , v), u = ax, v = by
ii. z = f (u , v), u = x + y, v = x y
x
iii. z = f (u , v), u = xy, v =
y
iv. z = f (u, v), u = x 2 + y 2 , v = 2 xy
x2
v. z = f (u, v), u = x3 + y 3 , v =
y2

:
u u v v f f
i. = a, = 0, = 0, = b , dz = adx + bdy .
x y x y u v
: 3 33
u u v v f f f f
ii. = 1, = 1, = 1, = 1 , dz = + dx + dy .
x y x y u v u v
u u v 1 v x f f 1 f f x
iii. = y , = x, = , = 2 , dz = y+ dx + x dy .
x y x y y y u v y u v y 2
u u v v
iv. = 2 x, = 2 y , = 2 y, = 2 x ,
x y x y
f f f f
dz = 2 x + y dx + 2 y + x dy .
u v u v
u u v 2 x v 2x 2
v. = 3x 2 , = 3 y 2 , = 2 , = 3 ,
x y x y y y
f f 2 x f 2 f 2 x 2
dz = 3x 2 + dx + 3y dy .
u v y 2 u v y 3
4: , z=f(x,y)
z z
m-, : x+ y = mz ( Euler).
x y

m- f(x,y) ,
: f(tx,ty)=tmf(x,y).
u=tx v=ty, ,
f u f v
t, , : + = mt m 1 f ( x, y ) .
u t v t
u v
= x = y . t=1 u=x v=y,
t t
, -
z z
, x+ y = mz .
x y
5: z=f(x,y), x=2t, y=2t,

x y z.
x 2 z 2 z
6: z=f(u), u= , : 2 , 2
y x y
2 z
.
xy
3.3.
3.3.1. ,
7: f(x,y) G -
(,) G. (,),
(x,y) G, (,),
f(x,y)<f(,) , f(x,y) () (,).
34 .
8: f(x,y) G -
(,) G. (,),
(x,y) G, (,),
f(x,y)>f(,) , f(x,y) () (,).
1: x f

x ( , )
y f f(x,y) f(,) ,

y ( , )
f f
= = 0 (,) .
x ( , ) y ( , )
2: (,) -
f(x,y) (,).
, :
, = f , = f2
2 2
2 f =-2. :
= 2
x ( , ) xy ( , ) y ( , )
i. f(,) >0 >0.

ii. f(,) >0 <0.
iii. f(,) <0.
iv. =0 , (,) f(,)
.
.
: i. ii.
, .
3.3.2.
1: :
i. f ( x, y ) = x 3 + y 3 +9 xy
ii. f ( x, y ) = x 4 + y 4
iii. f ( x, y ) = x 3 y 3
iv. f ( x, y ) = x3 y 3 3 x + 3 y
50 20
v. f ( x, y ) = xy + + ( x > 0, y > 0)
x y

x y
:
f ( x, y ) f ( x, y ) 2 f ( x, y ) 2 f ( x, y ) 2 f ( x, y )
i. = 3 x 2 +9y, = 3 y 2 + 9 x, = 6 x , =6y, =9
x y x 2 y 2 xy
f ( x, y )
=0
x 3 x 2 +9y=0
2 K (0, 0) (3, 3) - .
f ( x, y ) 3 y + 9 x = 0
=0
y
: 3 35
. (0,0)
f 2
2 f 2 f 2
= 2 = 0, = = 9 , = 2 = 0 =- =-81<0.
x (0,0) xy (0,0) y (0,0)
f(x,y)
(0,0).
. (-3,-3)
f 2
2 f 2 f 2
= 2 = 18 , = = 9 , = 2 = 18 =- =243>0.
x ( 3,3) xy ( 3,3) y ( 3,3)
f(x,y) (-3,-3)
f(-3,-3)=27.
f ( x, y ) f ( x, y ) 2 f ( x, y ) 2 f ( x, y )
2
2 f ( x, y )
2
ii. = 4 x3 , = 4 y3 , = 12 x , =12 y , =0
x y x 2 y 2 xy
f ( x, y )
=0
x 4 x 3 =0
K (0, 0) - .
f ( x, y ) 4y = 0
3
=0
y
2 f 2 f 2 f 2
= 2 ,
=0 = =0 , = 2 = 0 =- =0.
x (0,0) xy (0,0) y (0,0)
f(x,y)
.
: (x,y) (0,0) ,
: f(x,y)-f(0,0)=x4+y4>0, f(x,y)>f(0,0).
, , f(x,y)
(0,0), , f(0,0)=0.
2: :
i. f ( x, y ) = e 2 x +3 y (8 x 2 6 xy + 3 y 2 )
ii. f ( x, y ) = x 2 + xy + y 3 4 ln x 10 ln y
iii. f ( x, y ) = x 2 + y 2 2 x 4 xy 2 y + 8
iv. f ( x, y ) = x 2 + y 2 3 xy
36 .
4 :
4.1.
4.1.1. ,
1: f(x,y) G
(,) G. (,),
F
F(x,y) . , F(,)=0
y
F
0. y=f(x),
y ( , )
: f()=
F[x,f(x)]=0.
F(x,y)=0.
, :
1) F(x,y) 1-x2-y2=0. , F(x,y)
( )
y = 1 x 2 . 1 x 2 1 x 2 0 . -
y = 1 x 2 y = 1 x 2 ,
.
2) F(x,y) y3-x=0. y = 3 x
( x)
3
3
x 0.
, ,
, . -
:
x2 y2
1) F ( x, y ) 2 + 2 + 1 = 0 . y=f(x)
a b
F[x,f(x)]=0.
2) y=f(x) exy-y2=0.
F(x,y)=0 -
.
3) x2+y2+1=0
.
1: F(x,y) :
) (,)
F(x,y) Fy (x,y) .
) F(,)=0, Fy (,) 0.

y=f(x) F[x,f(x)]=0
=f().
: 3 37

F(x,y)=0 (,).
, F(x,y) y3-x=0. y3-x=0
, x (- ,+ ). y
Fy (x,y)=3y2. (0,0) Fy (0,0)=0 )
. x=y3
y (- ,+ ).
.
2: (,) F(x,y)
:
) (,)
F(x,y) Fy (x,y) .
) Fx (x,y).
) F(,)=0, Fy (,) 0.
[,=f()] y=f(x),
F ( , )
F(x,y)=0, f ( ) = x .
Fy ( , )
: F
x
, y=f(x)
F(x,y)=0 x , -
, -
x y=f(x) , :
F
dy F F dy
= x + = 0.
dx F x y dx
y
F(x,y) ,
y=f(x)
x F + F dy = 0 ,
x y dx
, x, ,
y=f(x). :
2
2 F 2 F dy 2 F dy F d 2 y
+ 2 + + =0
x 2 xy dx y 2 dx y dx 2
,
... y=f(x).
, y x
(x+y)-y=0.
, , :
dy dy dy ( x + y )
( x + y ) 1 + = 0 = .
dx dx dx 1 ( x + y )
( x + y ) 1 + dy dy = 0 , , :
dx dx
38 .
dy
2
d2 y d2 y d2y ( x + y )
( x + y ) 1 + + ( x + y ) 2 2 = 0 2 = .
1 ( x + y )
3
dx dx dx dx
: y -
x e2x+y-y2=0.
2e 2 x + y
1 : e 2 x + y 2 +
dy dy dy dy 2y
2 y = 0 = 2 x+ y
= .
dx dx dx 2 y e dx 2 y
( 2 y ) 2 y
dy dy dy dy
2
d y
2
dx dx
(4 2y + 2y) 4
2 : = = dx = dx =
dx 2 (2 y) (2 y) (2 y)
2 2 2
2y
4
2 y 2.4. y 8y
= = = .
(2 y) ( 2 y )( 2 y ) (2 y)
2 2 3
2: y=f(x),
F F
F(x,y)=0, : dx + dy = 0 .
x y
4.1.2.
dy
1: -
dx
, :
i. y nx ae nx + y = 0 vi.1 + xy ln(e xy + e xy ) = 0
y
ii. x 2 + y 2 = vii. x 1 y 2 = 0
x
x+ y
iii. e x xe y = 0 viii. y n =
x y
y x2 y 2
iv. ln x 2 + y 2 = ix. + 1 = 0
x a 2 b2
xa ya
v. = x. y x y 2 + x 2 = 0
x+a y+2 4

i. x :
dy dy dy n(ae nx + y y nx)
nx + ny nx ae nx + y n + = 0 = .
dx dx dx nx ae nx + y
dy dy dy
x y x+ y x y
1 dy 1 dx dx = dx
ii. 2x + 2 y =
2 x +y
2 2 dx y 2
x 2
x 2
+ y 2 x2 + y 2
1+ 2
x
dy x x2 + y2 + y
= .
dx y x2 + y2 x
: 3 39
2
2: d y2 -
dx
, :
a y
i. x = a 2ay y 2 v. x3 + y 3 3axy = 0
a
ii. y y = x (0 < < 1) vi. eax by c = 0
iii. x y = y x ( x y ) vii. y + ye x x = 0
y
iv. y = 2 x viii. x 2 + 2 xy y 2 = a 2
x

i. x :
1 1 dy 1 dy
1= a ( 2a 2 y )
a y a dx 2 2ay y dx
2 2
1
a
dy 1 dy a y dy 2a
1= = 1.
dx a 2ay + y
2 2 dx 2ay y 2 dx y
1
a2
x :
d2 y 1 2a dy d2 y a 2a
= 2 = 1
dx 2 2a y dx dx 2 2a y
2 1 y2 1
y y
d 2 y a
= 2.
dx 2 y
3:
x2+y2=10y,
x=3.

,
:
x 2 + y 2 = 10 y 32 + y 2 = 10 y y 2 10 y + 9 = 0 y =1 y = 9
. -
x=3 x=3 x=3 x=3
: (3,1) (3,9).
x2+y2=10y x ,
dy dy dy dy dy x
: 2 x + 2 y = 10 2 y 10 = 2 x = .
dx dx dx dx dx y 5
. (3,1)
dy 3 dy 3 3
= = , .
dx (3,1) 1 5 dx (3,1) 4 4
. (3,9)
40 .
dy 3 dy 3
= = , 3 .
dx
(3,9) 9 5 dx
(3,9) 4 4
4: x2+y2+2x-2y=2,
:
i. x
ii. Oy.
5: y=f(x)
x3+y3-3xy=0.
4.2.
4.2.1. ,
3: F(x,y,z)=0,
, z x y,
, z=f(x,y),
:
) (x,y) N, [x,y,f(x,y)]
F(x,y,z).
) (x,y) N, , : F[x,y,f(x,y)]=0.
, -
:
4: F(x1,x2,,xn)=0 ,
xn, x1, x2,,xn-1,
xn=f(x1,x2,,xn-1).
x1, x2,,xn, F(x1,x2,,xn)=0.

,
, , ...
x1, x2, x3,,xn.
: F(x,y)=F(x1,x2,,xn,y)
:
) (1,2,3,,n,)
F(x,y) Fy(x,y) .
) F(1,2,3,,n,)=0, Fy(1,2,3,,n,) 0.
, (1,2,3,,n,),
y=f(x1,x2,,xn) ,
F[x1,x2,,xn,f(x1,x2,,xn)]=0 = f(1,2,3,,n).
(1,2,3,,n,),
F(x1,x2,,xn,) F , (i=1, 2,,n),
xi
: 3 41
f(x1,x2,,xn) f , (i=1,
xi
2,,n), (1,2,3,,n). -
F
: f x (i=1, 2,,n).
= i
xi F
y
, n=3, F(x,y,z)=0
z=f(x,y) x y, -
z z 2 z 2 z z 2
F(x,y,z)=0. , , , , , z
x y x 2 y 2 xy
x y,
F(x,y,z)=0 x y, ,
x y, ,
z=f(x,y).
:
F
z x
F F z = F z Fx
x + z x =0 x x = F
z z
F F z
F z = Fy
+ =0
y z y z y y Fz
y = F

z
, F(x,y,z)= 0
2x+2y+2z=0. x y -
:
z z z 2 x
2 x x 2 z z = 0 2 x 2 z = 0 = .
x x x 2 z
, z = 2 y .
y 2 z

:
2F 2
2 F z 2 F z F 2 z
2 +2 + 2 + =0
x xz x z x z x 2
2
F F z F z F z z F z
2 2 2 2
+ + + + =0
x y x z y y z x z 2
x y z x y
2 2
F + 2 F z + F z + F z = 0
2 2 2
y 2 yz y z 2 y z y 2
4:
z=f(x,y), F(x,y,z)=0, :
F F F
dF = dx + dy + dz = 0
x y z
42 .
5:
z=f(x,y), F(x,y,z)=0, :
F 2
d 2 F = dx + dy + dz F + d F =0
x y z z
4.2.2.
z z
1: :
x y
i. x 2 2 y 2 + z 2 4 x + 2 z 5 = 0 iii. e x xyz = 0
x2 y 2 z 2
ii. z 3 + 3 xyz = a 3 iv. + + =0
a 2 b2 c2

x y -
:
z z 2 x z z 2y
i. 2 x 4 + (2 z + 2) =0 = 4 y + (2 z + 2) = 0 = .
x x z + 1 y y z + 1
2: ,
:
i. 2 x 2 ( y + 1) = y 2 + 4 z 1 iv. 3( x + y + z ) 2 = x 2 + y 2 + z 2
ii. ( x + 2 y ) 2 = 2 x ( z + xy ) v. xz = ( xz y x + 2 z ) 2
iii. x 2 + z 2 = 5( xy y ) vi. xe xy yz 2 = 0
:
z z z z
i. x 2 y = x2 + y 2 iv. ( y z )( z x) = x y
x y x y
z z z z
ii. x + y = z xy v. x + ( xz + y ) = z
x y x y
z z 2 z 2 z
2
z
iii. z + ( z 2 x2 ) + x = 0 vi. x 2 y 2y = 0
x y x 2
y 2
y

xy 2
vi. xe -yz =0 x y -
:
xy z
e + xe y y 2 z x = 0
xy
(1) :
2 xy 2 z
x e z 2 zy = 0
y
: 3 43
z e xy (1 + xy )
x = 2 yz
. (2) xexy-yz2=0 , :
(2)
z = x e z
2 xy 2
y 2 yz
z z ( xy + 1)
x = 2 x
(3) .
=z z ( xy 1)
y 2y
(1) x
y :
z 2 2 z
(4) ye + y (e + xye ) 2 y + z 2 = 0
xy xy xy
x x
z z z 2 z
(5) x e 2 z 2 z + y + yz 2 = 0
3 xy
y y y y
(4) (5) :
2 z 1 xy z
2
(6) = e ( xy + 2) 2
x 2 2 z x
1 3 xy z
2
2 z z
(7) = x e 4 2y
y 2 2 yz y y
(6), (7) (3) , :

2 z z
x 2 = 4 x 2 ( x y + 2 xy 1)
2 2

(8) 2
z = z ( x 2 y 2 2 xy + 3)
y 2 4 y 2
(3) (8) , :
z
2
2 z
2
z z z z ( xy 1)
x2 y 2y = x 2 2 ( x 2 y 2 + 2 xy 1) y 2 2 ( x 2 y 2 2 xy + 3) 2 y
x 2
y 2
y 4x 4y 2y
2 z 2 z
2
z z
x2 y 2y = (2 xy + x 2 y 2 1 x 2 y 2 + 2 xy 3 4 xy + 4)
x 2
y 2
y 4
2 z 2 z
2
z
x2 y 2y = 0.
x 2
y 2
y
.
2 z 2 z 2 z
3: , -
x 2 xy y 2
x2 y2 y 2
z=f(x,y) : + + 1 = 0
a2 2 2
44 .

x y z
i) dF ( x, y, z ) = dx + 2 dy + 2 dz = 0 .
a 2

1 1 1 z
ii) d 2 F ( x, y, z ) = 2 dx 2 + 2 dy 2 + 2 dz 2 + 2 d 2 z = 0 .
a
x y z x
2
2y
dx + dy + dz = 0 dz = dx dy .
a2 2 2 a2 z 2z
2
1 2 1 1 2x 2y z
dx + 2 dy + 2 2 dx 2 dy + 2 d 2 z = 0
2
a 2
a z z
4 x2 z 2 2 4 xy 4 y2 z2 2
d 2 z = 2 3 2 + 2 dx 2 2 2 3 dxdy 2 3 2 + 2 dy .
a z a a z z
2 z 2 2 z 2 z 2
, : d 2 z = dx + 2 dxdy + dy dx, dy, dz
x 2 xy y 2
. , :
2 z 4 x2 z 2 2 z 4 xy 2 z 4 y2 z2
= + , = = + .
x 2 a 2 z 3 a 2 2 xy a2 2 z3 y 2 2 z3 2 2
4: : 2(x+2y-3z)=x+2y-3z. , :
z z
+ =1.
x y
4.3.
4.3.1. ,
, ,
,
.
,
-
. ,
,
.
1: F(x,y,z) G(x,y,z) -
F ( x, y , z ) = 0
. , y z
G ( x, y , z ) = 0
x -
, y=f(x) z=g(x),
, :
) x , [x,f(x),g(x)] X.
) x , , : F[x,y,f(x),g(x)]=0 G[x,y,f(x),g(x)]=0.
: 3 45
, F(x,y,z) G(x,y,z)
,
y=f(x), z=g(x), , y, y, z, z ...
.
, y z
F ( x, y , z ) = 0
, y=f(x)
G ( x, y , z ) = 0
z=g(x), ,
:
F F F
+ y + z = 0
x y z
G G G
+ y + z = 0
x y z
.
y z ,
, . -
y z.
y z,

y z.
, y z
y 2 + z 2 = x2
x, . -
x+ y+ z =2
x+ y
y =
, : 2 yy + 2 zz = 2 x yy + zz = x y z .
1 + y + z = 0 y + z = 1 x+ y
z =
yz
2 ( x + z )( x + y )
y =
( y z)
2
: .
2 ( x + y )( x + z )
z =
( y z)
2
2: F(x,y,u,v) G(x,y,u,v)
F ( x, y , u , v ) = 0
4. , u
G ( x, y , u , v ) = 0
v x y ,
u=f(x,y) v=g(x,y), -
:
) (x,y) , [x,y,f(x,y),g(x,y)] X.
) (x,y) , , : F[x,y,f(x,y),g(x,y)]=0
G[x,y,f(x,y),g(x,y)]=0.

46 .
F ( x, y , u , v ) = 0
, , u v f(x,y)
G ( x, y , u , v ) = 0
g(x,y), . x, -
F F u F v
+ + =0 u
, : x u x v x .
G G u G v x
+ + =0
x u x v x
v
,
x
.
F ( x, y , u , v ) = 0
, y, -
G ( x, y , u , v ) = 0
F F u F v
+ + =0
u
, : y u y v y .
G G u G v y
+ + =0
y u y v y
v u v
, , .
y x x
x+ y =u+v
, x u .
=
y v
u v u 2v + y u v
1= + =
x x x y ( u + v )
x:
1 u u u v
= v v ( y u v )
=
y v x 2 v x x y ( u + v )
u v u x 2 v + y 2 u v
1= + =
y y y y ( u + v )
y:
x u u u v v v ( y u + x v )
2
2 = 2 =
y v y v y y y 2 ( u + v )
4.3.2.
1: y z -
x3 + y 2 3z + a = 0
x: .
z3 2 y2 x + b = 0
y z x.

y z x
dy dz
. :
dx dx
: 3 47
dy dz
3x 2 + 2 y 3 = 0
dx dx dy 2 x 2 z 2 1 dz 6 x 2 1
= , =
dy 2 dz dx 2 y (2 z 2 ) dx 6 3z 2
1 4 y + 3 z =0
dx dx
2: y z
x:
x3 + y 3 3 z + 12 = 0 ax + by + cz = m
i. 2 3 iii.
z 2 y2 x + = 0 a 2 x2 + b2 y 2 + c2 z 2 = n
10
x + y + z = a
ii. 3
x + y3 + z3 = b
y z x
.
3: y z
x:
x3 + y 3 + z 3 3xyz = 0 x + y + z = 1
i. ii.
x+ y+ z = 2 x3 + y 3 + z 3 = 1
y z x
.
.

4
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
2011
1
1.1

,
, , ,
1 .
-

. .
-
Giuseppe Camille.
1.2
,
,
,
( )
E 3 , E 4 ,..., E n .
1: , -
. (,
, ,, A, B, C ,..., Z ). .
2: , -
. {}.
3: .
, .
. 1.
4: . -
. -
= . 2.
5: .
-
: 4 19
, = .
3.
6: .

, =- =/. 4.
A
B
A
B

3
A
B

4.
A
B

5
20 .
1: =- ( =/) -
( 5).
2:
, ( ) .
3: , -
,
( ) .
.
7: 1 , 2 ,..., n . -
i ( i = 1, 2,..., n )
n . :
n
= U i .
i=1
8: 1, 2,n. -
i ( i = 1, 2,..., n ) n -
. :
n
= I i .
i=1
9: ,
,
.
1:
. ,
= . 1
( 6). 2
( 7). , 3
( 8). :
i) K1 K
ii) K2 K
iii) K3 K
A
B
: 4 21
A
B
A
B
.
:
,
, .
, .
. -
, .
. -

. -
.
,
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, .
, -
= ( 6). 1 .
22 .
1.3
. -
,
1 .
10:
, .
4: 10
. , 9
10.
10 10, -
. , 10 -
, .
5: 11 -
10.
6: .
,
,
,
.
S S(),
, 9. 6, -
0.

( 11).
11: ,
,
( 12).
9 10 11
: 4 23
12 13
12: .
, , -
( 13).
13: .
, , -
( 14).
,
. , , -
, . -

.
14:
. -
, .
. () .
14
24 .
15:
. ,
, , -
. -
, () .
, -
. -
. , ,
,
S(A)<S(B).
,
,
() S ( B) .
. -
() S ( B) () () .
16:
( ) = ( ) .
17: , ()
() = () = () .
7: ,
, .

.
8: ,
() S(), () = S () .
.
, -
.
,
, () .
, -
, () 0 .
2: , > 0,

.
3: 1 () =0,
(1 ) =0.
: 4 25
4: 0
0, (i ) = 0, (
n
i = 1, 2,..., n ), = U i=1 Pi , () = 0.
9: y = f ( x) -
[ a, ] , ,
C f y = f ( x) , xx, -
x = a , x = ( 15) . , -
, -
f ( x) a ,

S ( P) = f ( x)dx .
a
.
:

( P ) = f ( x ) dx .
a
10: ,
: , (. ,
, 2007, 231), -
,

,
.
y Cf
x O a x
y
15
1.4

, .
26 .
-
.
: .
-
,

S ( ) > ( ) .
2
,

S ( ) < ( )
.
2

R+.
, () = () . ,
, -
: S(B) - S(A) < .
, > 0,
, -
, S(B) - S(A) < .
:
,
,
. S() S()
S ( ) () () S () ,
0 ( ) ( ) S ( ) S ( ) < .
, () () <
() () = 0 , () = () . -
, .
5:
, .
16
: 4 27
6: -
.
7: -
.
8: .
9:
f ( x) , [ a, ] , -
.
1.5
, Peano Jordan
. -
, () .
10: 1 2
1 2 = , . :
( 1 2 ) = (1 ) + ( 2 ) .
11: 10 -
. , 1, 2,, n n -
= U i =1 i , : () = i =1 ( i ) .
n n
11: 1 2 1 2 ,
(1 ) ( 2 ) .
12: 11
n
, : = U i , () i =1 (i ) .
n
i=1
12: 1 2 , :
( 1 2 ) (1 ) + ( 2 ) .
1.6
1.6.1
-
.
. .
18: , , -
,
: , , , , ,
.
28 .
19: -
.
,
.
, , -
.
20: n
X ( x1 , x2 ,..., xn ) n ,
: ai < xi < bi , i = 1, 2,..., n .
21: n
X ( x1 , x2 ,..., xn ) n ,
: ai xi bi , i = 1, 2,..., n .
22: n -
.
13: , -
xx yy.
14: , -
Oxy, Oxz, Oyz.
15: -
1.3, 1.4, 1.5
.
1.6.2
Oxyz
Oxy. p
Oxy d .
, p : z = d, d > 0.
Oz.
Oxy.
p Oxy -
D , 17.
D ,
( D) : ( D) = d . () , ()
, , d 0 z
Oxy.
,
,
V.
: 4 29
z p
D
y
x P
17
1.7
1: -
: = { x, y R : 0 x 1, 0 y 1} .
i) .
ii)
iii)
i) .
ii) () 1.
iii) ,
1.
2: -
: = { x, y, z R : 0 x 1, 0 y 1, 0 z 1} .
i) .
ii)
iii)
i) .
ii) () 1.
iii) , 1.
3: , -
: = { x, y R : 0 x 1, 0 y 1} .
i) .
30 .
ii) , .
iii)
i) , -
.
ii) () = 0 , ( P) = 1 .
iii) xy
18 .
2
2.1
-
.
, -
, -

.
2.2
f ( x, y ) x y ,
( ) P -
.
P1 , P2 ,..., Pn
, .
:
n
( P) = ( Pi ) .
i =1
1: mi f ( x, y ) P .

n
s = mi ( Pi )
i =1
Darboux
f ( x, y ) .
2: M i f ( x, y ) P .

n
S = M i ( Pi )
i =1
Darboux
f ( x, y ) .
32 .
P -
, Darboux.
3: I1 Darboux
-
f ( x, y ) P .
4: I 2
Darboux -
f ( x, y ) P .
, I1 I 2
I1 I 2 .
5: f ( x, y ) P
I1 = I 2 .
6: , I1 = I 2 = I , -
f ( x, y )
P .
f ( x, y)dxdy .
P
7: P ,
f ( x, y ) .
1: f ( x, y ) -
x y , ,
.

f ( x, y ) >0
f ( x, y)dxdy ,
P

: i P -
z ( 1) G,

, Oxy ,
f ( x, y ) .
G ,
f ( x, y)dxdy
P
. V
() G . :
V ( G ) = f ( x, y )dxdy .
P
: 4 33
z
f ( x, y )
A
x
1
2: f ( x, y ) , -
P , :
f ( x, y ) = c c R+ , P . , P
() P1 , P2 ,..., Pn ,
Darboux s S :
n
s = S = c ( Pi ) = c ( Pi ) = c ( P ) .
i =1
, Pi ( i = 1, 2,..., n ) P , :
f ( x, y)dxdy = c ( P ) , c R
P
+ .
3: c =1,
f ( x, y)dxdy
P

.
4: ( P ) ,
f ( x, y ) P . : ( P ) = 0 ,
Pi ( i = 1, 2,..., n ) P ( Pi ) = 0 .
Darboux ,
f ( x, y )dxdy = 0.
P
1: P f ( x, y )
P , f ( x, y )dxdy .
P
2.3 Riemann
P n P1 , P2 ,..., Pn .
Pi ( i = 1, 2,..., n ). A ( i , i ) n -
.
8: = i =1 f ( i , i ) ( Pi ) Riemann.
n
34 .
s S Darboux -
P Pi , i = 1, 2,..., n , -
. -
1 , 2 ,..., ,... 0.
2: P ,
f(x, y) P . 1 , 2 ,..., ,... ,
0.
Riemann i ( i = 1, 2,..., n ), 1 , 2 ,..., n ,...

f ( x, y)dxdy ,
P
lim n = f ( x, y )dxdy .
n +
P
2.4
, , , ,
-
, :
i) f ( x, y ) P c
, :
cf ( x, y)dxdy = c f ( x, y)dxdy .
P P
ii) f ( x, y ) g ( x, y ) P ,

[ f ( x, y) + g ( x, y)] dxdy = f ( x, y)dxdy + g ( x, y)dxdy .

P P P
iii) f ( x, y ) g ( x, y ) P ,

[ f ( x, y) g ( x, y)] dxdy = f ( x, y)dxdy g ( x, y)dxdy .

P P P
iv) f ( x, y ) g ( x, y ) P
f ( x, y ) g ( x, y ) ,
f ( x, y)dxdy g ( x, y)dxdy .
P P
v) f ( x, y ) P , :
f ( x, y)dxdy
P P
f ( x, y ) dxdy .
vi) P1 P2
, f ( x, y )
P1 P2 ,
: 4 35

P1 P2
f ( x, y )dxdy = f ( x, y )dxdy + f ( x, y )dxdy .
P1 P2
( vi)): P1 , P2 ,..., Pn n
, f ( x, y ) -
n
n P1 , P2 ,..., Pn , P = U i =1 Pi ,
:
f ( x, y)dxdy = f ( x, y)dxdy + f ( x, y)dxdy + ... + f ( x, y)dxdy .

P P1 P2 Pn
vii) f ( x, y ) P ,
P m f ( x, y ) M ,
m ( P ) f ( x, y ) dxdy M ( P ) .
5: -
f ( x, y )
, P .
2.5
2.5.1
-
, -
, , .

P , . -
f ( x, y )
P.
P ,
-
.
, , -
, -
. -
(-
).
2.5.2
g ( x) h( x) [ a, ] , -
, g ( x) h( x) . Cg Ch -
36 .
g ( x) h( x) ,
Cg Ch, g ( x) h( x) .
x = a x = .
( g ( x) , h( x) , x = a ,
x = ) ( 2).
9: P ( )
Cg, Cf, x = a , x = ( 2). Ai ( x, y ) -
a x g ( x) y h( x) ,
.
g ( x) h( x) , P
, .
( P ) P ,
a x
g ( x) y h( x) , ( P ) = [ h( x) g ( x) ] dx
a
y
Ch
P
Cg
x a x
y x=a x=
( A ) = f ( x)dx ,
a
,
g ( x) h( x) . ,
m
g ( x) m , h( x) m x [ a, ]
P1
ax
P1 :
g ( x ) m y h( x ) m
: 4 37
P1 P ,
. P1 ,
g ( x) m h( x) m

{[ h( x) m] [ g ( x) m]} dx = [ h( x) g ( x)] dx .
a a
3: f ( x, y ) P ,

ax
P: ,
g ( x) y h( x)

h( x)
f ( x, y ) dy = F ( x)
g ( x)
x .
6: g ( x) = h( x) , F ( x)
.
4:
h( x)
F ( x) = f ( x, y ) dy
g ( x)
[ a, ] , g ( x) h( x)
.
7: 2, 2 2
2.
5: g ( x) h( x)
[ a, ] , g ( x) h( x) . f ( x, y )
P a x
g ( x) y h( x) , :

h( x)

f ( x, y )dxdy = f ( x, y ) dy dx
g ( x)
P a
8: p ( y ) q ( y ) -
[ a, ] xy p ( y ) q ( y ) . P
a y p( y ) x q( y ) ,
P :
q( y)

f ( x, y )dxdy = f ( x, y )dx dy .
a
P p( y)
38 .
2.5.3
1: P ,

x2 + y2 2x
x2 + y2 1
xx.
, x 2 + y 2 2 x ,
( x 1) + y 2 1 0 , 2
2
(1, 0) 1, .
1 (, 1), (0, 0).
1 2
22 , :
1 3
1 x = ,y =
1 x= 2 2
x2 + y2 = 2x 1 = 2x x= 2
2 2 2
x2 + y2 = 1 x + y2 = 1 1
x + y =1
2 2
+ y =1
2
1 3
2 x = ,y =
2 2
1 3 1 3
, B , , ,
2 2 2 2
4
1.0
y
2
1
0.5
-1 1 2x
x
- 0.5
y
- 1.0
4
P -
:
0 x 1
P : ,
m1 y m 2
: 4 39
m1 , m2
x 2 + y 2 = 1 y 2 = 1 x 2 y = 1 x 2
x2 + y 2 = 2 x y 2 = 2 x x2 y = 2 x x2
( ) (
m1 = min 1 x 2 , 2 x x 2 m2 = max 1 x 2 , 2 x x 2 . )
m1 m2 . P
P 1 P 2, P = P 1 P 2, -
:
1 1
0 x x 1
P1 : 2 P2 : 2
2 x x2 y 2 x x2 2 1 x2 y 1 x2
2: P

x2 + y2 2x
x2 + y2 1
yy.
1 3
, , (1,0), B ,
2 2
1 3
, , 4. P -
2 2
.
3 3
y
P: 2 2 ,
1 1 y x 1 y
2 2
:
x2 + y 2 = 1 y 2 = 1 x2 y = 1 x2
x 2 + y 2 = 2 x y 2 = 2 x x 2 y = 2 x x 2
3: P ,
0 y 1 2 y x 1 + 1 y 2 , -
.
P 2 y = x , y = 0 y = 1 , -
x = 1 + 1 y 2 ,
40 .
1 ( x 1) + y 2 = 1 (1, 0),
2
( 5).
1.0 y
B
0.5 2-y=x
y=0 A
x - 1 O 1 2
- 0.5
1
x=1
- 1.0 y
5
:
x = 1, y = 1
2 y = x x+ y =2 1 + 1 y2 + y = 2
.
x = 1 + 1 y2 x = 1+ 1 y2 x = 1 + 1 y2 x = 2, y = 0
, (2, 0) (1, 1).

P -
1 x 2
P :
2 x y 2x x2
2 x 2 x x 2 2 y = x
x = 1 + 1 y 2 y,
y 1.
4: W ,
y 2 2ax x 2 + y 2 , x 2a y 0 ,
.
y = 0 , x = 2a ,
y = a , x 2 + y 2 = 2ax .
( a,0 ) , , 6:
x 2 + y 2 = 2ax x 2 + y 2 2ax = 0 ( x a ) + y 2 = a 2
2
:
: 4 41
x = 2a , y = 2 a
y 2 = 2ax
,
x = 2a
x = 2 a , y = 2 a
, ( 2a,2a ) ( 2a, 2a ) .
3 y
B
2 Q
R y=
1
P
x - 2 2 4 x
-1

-2
-3 x=2
y
W = Q R , Q , , R :
0 ya 0 ya 0 ya
Q: y 2 , P: , R : y2
x a a2 y2 a + a 2 y 2 x 2a x 2a
2a 2a

( x a) + y2 = a2 ( x a ) = a2 y2
2 2
x a = a2 y2 x = a a2 y2

y2
y 2 = 2ax x = .
2a
5: , 0 x
0 y x , .
42 .
( 7).
y
1
y
0.5

x
2 3 3
2 O 2 2
-0.5 y = x
-1
0 y 1 , y = x x = y ,

x = y x .
0 x
2 2
: ( y,0 )
( y,0 ) .

0 y 1
P: .
y x y
6:
I = x 2 ydxdy ,
P
P 0 x 1 0 y 2.

1 2
1
1
2
1
1
2 1
1
I = x 2 ydy dx = x 2 y 2 dx = x 2 y 2 dx = 4 x 2 dx =
0 0
0 0 2 20 0 20
1
4 2
1
x3 13 03 2
2 0
= x dx = 2 = 2 = .
3 0 3 3 3
7:
I = x 2 y 2 dxdy ,
P
P
1
1 x 2 y x .
x
: 4 43
x x 3 x
2 y
2 2 2
2 2 2
I = x y dy dx = x y dy dx = x dx =
2
x
1 1
1
1x 1 3 1
x
2
1 x6
2 2
1 1 1 1 1 63
= x 2 x3 3 dx = x5 dx = ln x = ln 2 .
31 x 3 1 x 3 6 1 3 6
8:
x0
I = ( x y ) dxdy , P : y 0 .
P
x+ y =2
, P , -
,
0 x2
P: .
0 y 2 x
( 2 x ) dx =
2 x 2 2

2 2 x
2
y2
I = ( x y ) dy dx = xy dx = x ( 2 x )
0 0 0
2 0 0
2
2

2
x2
2
3x 2 4x2 3 x3
= 2 x x 2 2 + 2 x dx = 4 x 2 dx = 2 x = 0.
0
2 0
2 2 2 3 0
9:
y x2
I = x 2 ( y x ) dxdy , P : x y 2 .
P
0 x 1
0 x 1 , x 2 x . :
y x2 x2 y x

x y2 x0
x 2 x x 4 x 0 x ( x3 1) 0
x ( x 1) ( x 2 + x + 1) 0 x 1 0
x 2 + x + 1 0, x R .
, P

44 .
0 x 1
P: .
x2 y x
1 x 2 1
2 y2 3
x 1
x 3 7
x6 1
I = x ( y x ) dy dx = x x y dx = x 2 x 5 = .
0 x2 0 2 x2 0 2 2 504
10:
I = xy 2 dxdy ,
P
x = 2 , y = 0 y = x .
,
, 8 .
4
y
x=2
2 A y=x
x B
x
-1 1 2 3
-
0 x 2 0 y x .
:
x
x 2
2
x 2
y3 1
2
1
2
I = xy 2 dy dx = x y 2 dy dx = x dx = x ( x3 03 ) dx = x 4 dx =
0 0 0 0 0 3 0 30 30
2
1 x5 1 32
= = ( 25 0 5 ) = .
3 5 0 15 15
11:
xy 0 x 1
I = dxdy , P : .
P x +y
2 2 1 y 2
: 4 45
( 9),
1:
y
3
y=2
2
y=1
1
x
x
-2 -1 O 1 2
x=1
-1
1
2 x 2
2 dy 2 dx = 1 x
1 1 2 1
xy 1
I = dy dx = 0 2 1 x 2 + y 2 d ( y 2
+ x 2
) dx =
0 1 x 2 + y 2 0 1 x2 + y 2

( ) ( )
1 2 1 1
= x x 2 + y 2 dx = x x 2 + 22 x 2 + 12 dx = x x 2 + 4 x 2 + 1 dx =
0
1 0 0
1 1
= x x 2 + 4dx x x 2 + 1dx = I1 I 2 .
0 0
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1
I1 = x x 2 + 4dx =
2 0
x 2
+ 4 dx 2
=
2 0
x 2
+ 4 d ( x 2
+ 4 ) 2 (
= x 2
+ 4 ) 2 d ( x2 + 4) =
0 0
1 1
2 1 2 3
1 ( x + 4) 2 1 ( x + 4) 2
+1
3 1
1 2 1 2 3 3

=
2 1 +1
=
2
3 =
3
( x + 4 ) 2
= (1 + 4 ) ( )
2 02 + 4 2 =

0 3
2 0 2 0
46 .
1 3 1
( ) ( ) (
3
= 52 4 2 =
3 3
53 43 =
1
3
1
52.5 42.4 = 5 5 8
3
)
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1
I 2 = x x 2 + 1dx = x 2 + 1dx 2 = x 2 + 1d ( x 2 + 1) = ( x 2 + 1) 2 d ( x 2 + 1) =
0
20 20 20
1 1
2 1 2 3
1 ( x + 1) 2 1 ( x + 1) 2
+1
3 1
1 2 1 3 3

= = = ( x + 1) 2 = (12 + 1) 2 ( 02 + 1) 2 =
2 1 +1 2 3
3 0 3
2 0 2 0
1 23 23 1
= 2 1 =
3 3
( 23 13 = ) 13 ( ) 13 ( 2
22.2 1 = )
2 1
I=
1
3
( 1
3
) (
1
5 5 8 2 2 1 = 5 5 2 2 7 .
3
) ( )
12:
I = x 2 + y 2 dxdy ,
P
0 y x 1 .
y = 0, y = x, x = 1. -
, 10.
0 x 1
P : .
0 y x
x=1
2 y=x
x P B
x
-1 1 2 3
10
: 4 47

1 x

I = x 2 + y 2 dxdy = x 2 + y 2 dy dx.
0 0
x x x
x
y2 y 2 + x2 x2
I1 = x 2 + y 2 dy = y x 2 + y 2 dy = x 2 x 2 dy =
0
0 0 x2 + y2 0 x2 + y 2
x x x x
y 2 + x2 x2 1
= x2 2 dy + dy = x 2 2 x 2 + y 2 dy + x 2 dy =
0 x2 + y 2 0 x2 + y 2 0 0 x2 + y 2
( ) ( )
x
= x 2 2 I1 + x 2 ln y + x 2 + y 2 = x 2 2 I1 + x 2 ln x + x 2 ln x .
0

( )
I1 = x 2 2 I1 + x 2 ln x + x 2 ln x

2 I = x 2 + x ln ( x + x 2 ) ln x
2 2
1

2 + ln (1 + 2 )
I = 1 x 2
I =
1
(
2 + ln 1 + 2 ) x dx = (
2 + ln 1 + 2 x 3 1) (
2 + ln 1 + 2 ).
=
2
0
2 2 3 0 6
13:
I = ( x + y ) dxdy ,
P
y 2 = x
x = 1.
y 2 = x y = x ,
: 0 x 1 x y x ( 11).
1
y 2
1 x x
1 x x
x
I = ( x + y ) dy dx = xdy + ydy dx = x dy + dx =
0 x 0 x x 0 x
2 x
1 1 1
1
= x [ y ] x + ( x ) ( x ) dx = x 1
( x x ) dx = 2 x xdx =
x 2 2
x+ x+
0
2 0
2 0
1
3 +1 1
1 1 1
x2
3
4 52 4 5 5
4
= 2 xx dx = 2 x dx = 2
2 2
= x = 12 0 2 = .
3 5 0 5 5
0 0 + 1
2 0
48 .
x = y2
1
P
x
x
-2 O 2 4
-1
-2
x=1
-3
y
11
14:
I = y 2 dxdy ,
P
xy = 1
x = 0 , y = 1 , y = 2 .
1
1 y 2 0 x ,
y
1
xy = 1 x = ( 12).
y
: 4 49
y=2
2
P
y=1
1
xy=1
x
x
-4 -2 O 2 4
-1
-2
-3
y
12
, 8 , I
:
1y 1y
2
2 2
2 2
2 1y 2
1
I = y dx dy = y dx dy = y [ x ]0 dy = y 2 0 dy =
1 0 1 0 1 1 y

2
2
y 2 22 12 3
= ydy = = = .
1 2 1 2 2 2
50 .
15:
I = xydxdy ,
P
y = x y = x 2 .
y = x y = x 2
, :
x = 0, y = 0
y=x x2 = x x2 x = 0 x ( x 1) = 0 x = 0 x =1

y = x2 y = x2 y = x2 y = x2 y = x2
x = 1, y = 1
, (0, 0) (1, 1),

13.
0 x 1 x 2 y x ,
I .
x

1 x
1
x 1
y2 1
x2 x4
I = xydy dx = x ydy dx = x dx = x dx =
0 x2 0 x2 0
2 x2 0
2 2
1 x 4 x 6 1 14 04 16 06 1
1 1
1 3
1 1
2 0 0 2 4 6 = 2 4 4 6 6 = 24 .
= x dx x 5
dx =
0 0
16:
I = ( x 2 + y 2 ) dxdy ,
P
P y = 0 , x + y 1 = 0 , x y + 1 = 0 .
x + y 1 = 0 x y + 1 = 0
, (0, 1).
: 4 51
y
3
y = x2 1
A
P
x
x
-3 -2 -1 O 1
- 1 y
13
, , -

y 1 x 1 y
P: ( 14).
0 y 1
I .
52 .
y
3
1 A
P
x
x
-3 -2 -1 O 1
x=y-1
x=1-y
-1 y
14
1 y
1 y 2
1 1
x3 2
I = ( x + y ) dx dy = + xy dx =
2
0 y 1 0
3 y 1
1 (1 y )3 ( y 1)
3
1
2
= + y (1 y ) y 2 ( y 1) dy = (1 y ) + 2 y 2 (1 y ) dy =
2 3
3 0
0
3 3
1
2 (1 y )4 2 3 y4 2 1 1 2 1
= + y 2 = + = = .
3 4 3 4 0 3 2 6 6 3
17:
I = ydxdy ,
P
x + y = 2
2 2
xx.
: 4 53
1.0
y
0.5
P
x -1 1 x
- 0.5
y
- 1.0
15

x
P: ( 15),
0 y 2 x2
I ,
( , ) , > 0 , xx.

2
2 x 2 x2
y2 1 1 2 x3 2 3
I= ydy dx = dx =
2
( 2
x 2
) 2
dx = x = .

2 0 3 3
0

18: P
: x + y < 1, 1 x 1, y 0 .
19: P
: x + y 2, x 2 + y 2 2 x, y 0 .
20: P
: y 8 x, y 2 x, 4 x + y 24 .
54 .
3
3.1 ,
1: ,
, .
2: -
, .
3: , -

.
4: n
( )
F x, y, y , y ,..., y ( n ) = 0 , y -
x
dny
y( ) =
n
,
dx n
F n + 2 .
5:
( )
F x, y, y , y ,..., y ( n ) = 0 .
6: F ( x, y, y ) = 0
.
7: y = ( x) , , -
F ( x, y, y ) = 0 , x ,
A ( x, ( x), ( x) ) F
F ( x, ( x), ( x) ) = 0 .
8: F ( x, y, y ) = 0
.
9: F ( x, y, y ) = 0 -
.
56 .

. , -
y = f ( x, y ) .
3.2

G R2 , f y = f ( x, y )
A ( x0 , y0 ) G .
y = ( x) y = f ( x, y ) x0
( x0 ) = y0 .
Cauchy.
1 (Peano): f -
G = {| x x0 | a,| y y0 | b, a b > 0} . Cauchy -
, x [ x0 h, x0 + h ] ,
b
h = min , a
M
M = max | f ( x, y ) | .
( x , y )G
2: :
1) f
G = {| x x0 | a,| y y0 | b, a b > 0} .
2) f | f ( x, y1 ) f ( x, y2 ) | L | y1 y2 | , L R
( x, y1 ) , ( x, y2 ) G .
Cauchy , x [ x0 h, x0 + h ] ,
b
h = min , a
M
M = max | f ( x, y ) | .
( x , y )G
,
, ,
, 1, 2, 3 , .
-
(),
:
1) : y = ( x ) x = ( y )
2) : ( x, y ) = 0
3) : x = (t ), y = (t )
: 4 57
: y y , y ( x) y ( x) -
.
3.3
1: : y = 2 x .
y = 2 x ydx = 2 xdx y = x 2 + c, c R .
2: : x + yy = 0 .
x2 1 2
x + yy = 0 xdx + y ( x) y ( x)dx = 0 + y ( x) + c1 = 0
2 2
x 2 + y 2 = c, c R, c = 2c1
3: : x = y + ln y .
y = t , :
1 1
x = y + ln y x = t + ln t dx = d ( t + ln t ) dx = dt + dt dx = 1 + dt
t t
1 t2
y = y ( x)dx = t 1 + dt = ( t + 1)dt = + t + c, c R .
t 2
x = t + ln t

: t2
y = + t + c, c R
2
4: : y = x3 .
5: : y = 2 x , x 0 .
58 .
4
4.1
1: X 1 ( x )Y1 ( y ) dx + X 2 ( x )Y2 ( y ) dy = 0 , X 1 , X 2 -
x Y1 , Y2 y ,
.
Y1 ( y ) X 2 ( x) 0 , :
X 1 ( x) Y ( y)
dx + 2 dy = 0 .
X 2 ( x) Y1 ( y )
:
X 1 ( x) Y ( y)
X 2 ( x)
dx + 2 dy = c, c R .
Y1 ( y )
:
x y
X 1 ( x) Y ( y)

x0
X 2 ( x)
dx + 2 dy = 0 .
Y ( y)
y0 1
y = y ( x) , , Y2 ( y ) 0 , -
( x0 , y0 ) .
: x = a, y = b Y1 ( y ) = 0, X 2 ( x ) = 0 ,
, x = a, y = b
X 1 ( x )Y1 ( y ) dx + X 2 ( x )Y2 ( y )dy = 0 .
60 .
2: x = a, y = b
X 1 ( x) Y ( y)
X 2 ( x)
dx + 2 dy = c
Y1 ( y )
c R ,
.

x y
X 1 ( x) Y ( y)

x0
X 2 ( x)
dx + 2 dy = 0
Y ( y)
y0 1
X ( x ) + Y ( y ) = 0 , X ( x), Y ( y ) -
x0 , y0
Y1 ( y0 ) 0, X 2 ( x0 ) 0 .
Y1 ( y ) 0, Y2 ( y ) 0 y ( y0 , y0 + ) , R+* .
Y ( y ) ( y0 , y0 + ) ,
X ( x ) + Y ( y ) = 0 y : y = Y 1 ( X ( x ) ) , y 1 (u )
Y ( y ) , -
, .
y = Y 1 ( X ( x ) ) x | X ( x ) | . -
X ( x0 ) = 0 , -
| x x0 | .
X 1 ( x) 0, X 2 ( x) 0 -
x0 . , X ( x ) + Y ( y ) = 0 -
x , : x = X 1 ( Y ( y ) ) ,
| y y0 | .
4.2
1:
dy y
= .
dx x
dy y 1 1 1 1
= xdy = ydx dx = dy dx = dy
dx x x y x y
x x
ln | x |= ln | y | + c ln | x | ln | y |= c ln =c = ec
y y
| y |=| x | ec1 y = xec1 , c1 = c, c R
2:
: 4 61
dy
x (1 + y 2 ) + y (1 + x 2 ) = 0.
dx
dy
x (1 + y 2 ) + y (1 + x 2 )= 0 x (1 + y 2 ) dx + y (1 + x 2 ) dy = 0
dx
x y x y
dx + dy = 0 dx + dy = 0
1+ x 2
1+ y 2
1+ x 2
1+ y2
1 1 1 1 1
ln (1 + x 2 ) + ln (1 + y 2 ) = c1 ln (1 + x 2 ) + ln (1 + y 2 ) = ln c
2 2 2 2 2
ln (1 + x ) + ln (1 + y ) = ln c
2 2
ln (1 + x 2 )(1 + y 2 ) = ln c (1 + x 2 )(1 + y 2 ) = c
1
c1 = ln c, c R+*
2
3:
2 y y y 2 dx + (1 + x 2 ) dy = 0 ,
x0 = 0, y ( x0 ) = 1 ( 0 < y 1 ).
2 1
2 y y y 2 dx + (1 + x 2 ) dy = 0 dx + dy = 0
1+ x 2
y y y2
2 1 1 1 1
dx + dy = 0 dx + dy = 0
1+ x 2
y y y 2 1+ x 2
2 y y y2
1 y 1
x =c y= ,c R
1 + ( c + x )
2
y
1
y = 0 < y 1 .
1 + ( c + x )
2
1 + x 2 = 0, 2 y y y 2 = 0 y = 0, y = 1 .
y = 0 c + . y = 1 ,
x0 = 0, y ( x0 ) = 1
1
y= ,
1 + ( c + x )
2
c = 0 .
4:
x 2 y 2 y + 1 = y .
62 .
dy
x 2 y 2 y + 1 = y x 2 y 2
+ 1 = y x 2 y 2 dy + dx = ydx x 2 y 2 dy = ydx dx
dx
1 y2 1 y2
x y dy = ( y 1) dx 2 dx =
2 2
dy 2 dx = dy
x y 1 x y 1
1 y2 +11 1 y2
dx = y 1 dy = + y + ln | y 1| + c, c R
x2 x 2
x 2 ( y 1) x = 0 y = 1 .
y = 1 , x = 0 ,
.
5: y = y 2 + 1 . -
( x0 , y0 ) = ( 0, 0 ) .
X ( x ) + Y ( y ) = 0 :
x y = 0 y = x, x = y

y = Y 1 ( X ( x ) ) x , .
2 2
6: ( x + 1) y + xy = 0 .
2
( )
7: 2 xy 2 + x 2 1 y = 0 .
8: y = ( 2 y ) x .
9: 2 y 2 2 x 2 yy = 0 .
10: y = 2 x + y .
5
5.1
1: P ( x, y ) dx + Q ( x, y ) dy = 0 -
.
, P ( x, y ) , Q ( x, y )
x, y .
y = cx x = ty , c, t R ,
,
.

dy a x + b1 y + c1
= f 1 ,
dx a2 x + b2 y + c2
a1b2 a2 b1 0 , -
x = + d1 , y = + d 2 , , ,
d1 , d 2 2 2 :
a1 d1 + b1 d 2 + c1 = 0
a2 d1 + b2 d 2 + c2 = 0
, a1b2 a2 b1 0 .
a1b2 a2 b1 = 0, a22 + b22 > 0 , :
dy a x + b1 y + c1 dy k ( a1 x + b1 y ) + c1
= f 1 = f = f1 ( a2 x + b2 y )
dx a2 x + b2 y + c2 dx a2 x + b2 y + c2
z = a2 x + b2 y ,
.
: x = y = , -
.
64 .
5.2
1:
x+ y
y = , x y, x > 0 .
x y
y
y = tx t = y = tx .
x
dt dy dt
y = t + x = t + x dy = xdt + tdx .
dx dx dx
x+ y dt x + tx dt x (1 + t ) dt 1 + t
y = t+x = t+x = t+x =
x y dx x tx dx x (1 t ) dx 1 t
tdx + xdt 1 t 1 t 1
= ( tdx + xdt )(1 + t ) = (1 t ) dx dx + 2 dt = 0
dx 1+ t x t +1
1 t 1 1
dx + 2 dt = 0 ln x + ln ( t 2 + 1) t = c1
x t +1 2
1
1
ln x + ln ( t 2 + 1) t = ln c ln x + ln ( t 2 + 1) 2 t = ln c
2
ln x + ln t 2 + 1 t = ln c ln x t 2 + 1 ln et = ln c
x t2 +1 x t2 +1
ln = ln c = c x t 2 + 1 = cet
et et
y

x + y = ce
2 2 x
, c1 = ln c, c R+*
2:
(x 2
+ 2 xy y 2 ) dx + ( y 2 + 2 xy x 2 ) dy = 0 .
y
y = tx t = .
x
dt dy dt
y = t + x = t + x dy = xdt + tdx .
dx dx dx
(x 2
+ 2 xy y 2 ) dx + ( y 2 + 2 xy x 2 ) dy = 0
( x 2 + 2tx 2 t 2 x 2 ) dx + ( t 2 x 2 + 2 x 2 t x 2 ) ( xdx + tdx ) = 0
: 4 65
1 t 2 + 2t 1
( t 3 + t 2 + t + 1) dx + ( t 2 + 2t 1) xdt = 0
dx + 3 2 dt = 0
x t + t + t +1
1 t 2 + 2t 1 1 t 2 + 2t 1
dx + 2 dt = 0 dx + 2 dt = 0
x ( t + 1) ( t + 1) x ( t + 1) ( t + 1)
y 2 y
x ( t + 1) = c ( t + 1) x + 1 = c + 1 x 2 + y 2 = c ( x + y ) , c R
2
x x
x ( t 2 + 1) ( t + 1) x = 0 t = 1 . -
x = 0 .
,
y
t = 1 = 1 y = x
x
.
3:
( x + y + 1) dx + ( y x 3) dy = 0 .
a1b2 a2 b1 = 1.1 ( 1) .1 = 2 0 , x = + d1 , y = + d 2 dx = d
dy = d , d1 , d 2 2 2
1.d1 + 1.d 2 + 1 = 0 d1 = 2
.
( 1) .d1 + 1.d 2 3 = 0 d2 = 1
x, y 2, + 1 , :
d +
( + ) d + ( ) d = 0 = , .
d
1, :
y 1

( x + 2 ) + ( y 1)
2 2
+ = ce
2 2
= ce x+2
, c R+*
4:
( 2 x + y + 1) dx ( 4 x + 2 y 3) dy = 0 .
a1b2 a2b1 = 2.2 4.1 = 0 , z = 2 x + y :

dz 2dx + dy dy
dz = 2dx + dy = z = 2 + .
dx dx dx
66 .
( 2 x + y + 1) dx ( 4 x + 2 y 3) dy = 0 5 ( z 1) dx ( 2 z 3) dz = 0
2z 3 2z 3
dx dz = 0 dx dz = 0 ln c | z 1|= 2 z 5 x
5 ( z 1) 5 ( z 1)
1
2 x + y 1 = c1e 2 y x , c1 = , c R+*
c
5:
y
xy = y + x ln .
x
6:
xdy
= x2 y 2 + y .
dx
7:
dy
x y + 1 = ( y 2 x 1)
dx
8:
4 x 2 y = y 3 + 2 xy .
6
6.1
1:
dy
+ a ( x ) y = b( x )
dx
.
2:
dy
+ a( x) y = 0
dx
.

, : Lagrange,
Bernoulli, . :
Lagrange

dy
+ a ( x) y = 0 .
dx
y = ce
a ( x ) dx
. -
dy
+ a ( x) y = b( x)
dx
: 4 69
y = c( x)e
a ( x ) dx
.
dy
+ a ( x) y = b( x) :
dx
dc( x)
= b( x )e c ( x ) = c + b( x )e
a ( x ) dx a ( x ) dx
dx , c R .
dx
,
:
a ( x ) dx a ( x ) dx dx
y=e c + b( x)e
dy
+ a ( x) y = b( x) ,
dx
y ( x0 ) = y0 , :
x x

a ( t ) dt x
a (t ) dt
y = y0 e x0
+ b( )e d
x0
Bernoulli

dy
+ a ( x ) y = b( x )
dx
y = u ( x)v( x) .

du dv
v( x) + u ( x) + a ( x)u ( x)v( x) = b( x) .
dx dx
u ( x )
du
+ a ( x)u ( x) = 0
dx
u ( x) = e
a ( x ) dx
.
70 .
a ( x ) dx dv
v ( x ) e = b( x) . -
dx
v ( x ) = c + b ( x )e
a ( x ) dx
dx, c R .
,
:
a ( x ) dx a ( x ) dx dx .
y = u ( x )v ( x ) = e c + b( x)e

dy
+ a ( x ) y = b( x )
dx
e
a ( x ) dx
:
d a ( x ) dx a ( x ) dx ye a ( x ) dx = c + b( x)e a ( x ) dx dx
ye
dx
= b ( x )e

a ( x ) dx a ( x ) dx dx
y=e c + b( x)e
1:
x , y . , ,

dx
A( y ) + B ( y ) x C ( y ) = 0
dy

dy
+ a ( x) y = b( x) ,
dx

dx B( y ) C ( y)
+ ( y ) x = f ( y ) , ( y ) = f ( y ) = .
dy A( y ) A( y )

: 4 71
dy
+ f ( y ) a ( x ) = b( x)
f ( y )
dx
z = f ( y ) .
,
:
a ( y ) dy a ( y ) dy dy .
x=e c + b ( y ) e
3:
dy
+ a ( x ) y = b( x ) y n ,
dx
n 0,1 Bernoulli.
Bernoulli y n , n 0,1 ,
:
dy
y n+ a ( x) y1 n = b( x), y 0 ,
dx
, u = y1 n .
4:
dy
+ a ( x ) y + b( x ) y 2 = c( x)
dx
Riccati.
2: Riccati -
.
Riccati
y = y1 ( x) ,
dy
+ a ( x ) y + b( x ) y 2 = c( x)
dx
Bernoulli, y = y1 + z , z
, .
72 .
6.2
, 1, 2 3 -
Lagrange, Bernoulli , 4, 5, 6 7
Bernulli, 8 9 Riccati.
1: :
xy + y = x, x > 0 .
1
: xy + y = x y + y = 1 , x > 0
x
1
a ( x) = , b( x ) = 1 .
x
a ( x ) dx a ( x ) dx dx :
y = e
c + b( x)e
x dx x dx
1 1
( ) ( )

y=e

c + 1.e dx y = e ln x c + eln x dx y = x 1 c + xdx

1 x2
1
( )
y = c + xdx y = c + y = + , c R
x x 2
c x
x 2
2: :
xy + ( x + 1) y = 3 x 2 e x , x > 0 .
x +1
: xy + ( x + 1) y = 3 x 2 e x y + y = 3 xe x
x
x +1
a ( x ) = , b( x ) = 3 xe x .
x
a ( x ) dx a ( x ) dx dx :
y = e c + b ( x ) e

: 4 73
1+ dx
1 1

x +1
dx x +1
x x
dx x x
1+ dx
y=e c + 3xe e dx y = e c + 3 xe e dx
x x

( ) ( )
y = e x ln x c + 3 xe x e x eln x dx y = e x e ln x c + 3 xeln x dx
y = e x x 1 ( c + 3 xxdx ) y = xe1 ( c + 3 x dx ) y = xe1 ( c + x ) , c R

x
2
x
3
74 .
3: :
y
y = .
3x y 2
x, y x y -
y
( 1). y > 0 , > 0 ,
3x y 2
y
y < 0 , < 0.
3x y 2
:
y dy y dx 3 x y 2 dx 3
y = = x = y
3x y 2
dx 3x y 2
dy y dy y
3
: a ( y ) = , b( y ) = y .
y
a ( y ) dy a ( y ) dy dy :
x = e
c + b( y )e

3
dy y dy
3
3 dy
1 1
3 dy
x=e y
c + ( y ) e dy x = e y
c ye
y
dy

( ) ( )
x = e3ln y c ye 3ln y dy x = eln y c yeln y dy x = y 3 c yy 3 dy
3 3
( )
1
( )
x = y 3 c y 2 dy x = y 3 c + , c R
y
4: :
y + y = x 2 y 2 .
: 4 75
Bernoulli.
1
y 2 = 2 -
y
:
y y x 2 y 2 dy
y + y = x 2 y 2 2
+ 2 = 2 y 2 + y 1 = x 2
y y y dx
76 .
1
u = y , :
du dy 1 du 1 dy du dy dy du
= = 2 = y 2 = y2 .
dx dx dx y dx dx dx dx dx
:
dy du du du
y 2 + y 1 = x 2 y 2 y 2 +u = x
2
+ u = x2 u = x2
dx dx dx dx
( Lagrange Ber-
noulli) u x .
a ( x ) = 1 b ( x ) = x 2 , :
u = 2 + 2 x + x 2 + ce x y 1 = 2 + 2 x + x 2 + ce x y = ( 2 + 2 x + x 2 + ce x )
1
y = 0 .
5: :
xy y ( 2 y ln x 1) = 0 .
xy 2 -
:
xy y ( 2 y ln x 1) = 0 xy 2 y 2 ln x + y = 0
xy 2 y 2 ln x y 1 ln x
2 2
+ 2 = 0 y 2 y + y 1 = 2
xy xy xy x x
dy 1 1 ln x
y 2 + y =2
dx x x
1
u = y , :
du dy 1 du 1 dy du dy dy du
= = 2 = y 2 = y2
dx dx dx y dx dx dx dx dx
du 1 1 ln x du 1 ln x
y 2 y 2 + y = 2 u = 2
dx x x dx x x
: 4 77
1 ln x
a ( x ) = , b ( x ) = 2 , -
x x
u x .
a ( x ) dx a ( x ) dx dx , :
y = e
c + b( x )e
1

dx
ln x x dx
1
x dx
1
ln x x dx
1
u=e x
c + 2 e dx u = e c + 2 e dx
x x
ln x ln x ln x 1
u = eln x c 2 e dx u = x c 2 x dx
x x
ln x
u = x c 2 2 dx u = cx + 2 ( ln x + 1) y 1 = cx + 2 ( ln x + 1)
x
1
y = cx + 2 ( ln x + 1) , c R
y = 0 xy 2 = 0
.
6: :
( 2x 2
y ln y x ) y = y .
y ,
x, y , :
dx 1
+ x = 2 ( ln y ) x 2 .
dy y
Bernoulli.
x 2 0 :
dx 1
x 2 + x 1 = 2 ln y .
dy y
u = x 1 ,
du dx dx du
= x 2 = x2
dx dy dy dx
78 .
:
du 1 du 1
+ u = 2 ln y u = 2 ln y .
dy y dy y
1
a ( y ) = b ( y ) = 2 ln y .
y
,
a ( y ) dy a ( y ) dy dy ,
x=e c + b ( y ) e

:
u = y ( c ln 2 y ) x 1 = y ( c ln 2 y ) x = y ( c ln 2 y )
1
x = 0 ,
.
7: :
y = ( 2 x ay n x 2 ) y , a R* , n N * .
dx 2 x 2 ay n x 2
y = ( 2 x 2 ay n x 2 ) y = .
dy y
Bernoulli x .
du dx dx du
u = x 1 , = x 2 = x2 .
dx dy dy dx
dx 2 x 2 ay n x 2 du 2 x 2 ay n x 2 du 2
= x2 = + u = ay n 1 .
dy y dx y dy y
2
a ( y ) = b ( y ) = ay n 1 .
y
,
a ( y ) dy a ( y ) dy dy ,
x=e c + b( y )e
:
: 4 79
y dy 1
2 2

n 1 y
dy y n+2 1 1 y n+2
u=e c + ay e dy = 2 c + a x = 2
c + a
y n + 2 y n + 2

1 1
1 y n+2 2 y n+2
x = 2 c + a x = y c + a ,c R
y n + 2 n+2
8: :
x 2 y + xy + x 2 y 2 = 4
2
y = .
x
2 2
y = + u , y = 2 + u .
x x
x 2 y + xy + x 2 y 2 = 4 x 2 u + 5 xu + x 2 u 2 = 0 . -
Bernoulli x .
u 2 u 1 = z , :
dz du
= u 2 z = u 2u
dx dy
1 dz 5
x 2u 2u + 5 xu 1 + x 2 = 0 z 5 z =1 z = 1.
x dx x
5
: a ( x ) = b ( x ) = 1 .
x

a ( x ) dx a ( x ) dx dx ,
y=e c + b ( x ) e
:
80 .
1
x x 2 x
z = cx 5 u 1 = cx 5 y = cx 5
4 4 x 4
1
2 5 x 2 4
y = cx y = + ,c R
x 4 x 4cx 5 x
u 1 = z u = 0
2
y= ,
x
.
9: :
y (1 x 2 ) y 2 + x 2 y + 2 x = 0
y = x 2 .
y = z x 2 , y = z 2 x .
y (1 x 2 ) y 2 + x 2 y + 2 x = 0 ( z 2 x ) (1 x 2 ) ( z x 2 ) + x 2 ( z x 2 ) + 2 x = 0
2
(1 x ) z = z
2 2
3x z
2
(1 x ) z = z 3x z z = 3x
2 2 2 2
1
+
1
z (1 x ) z (1 x ) 1 x z 1 x2
2 2
2 2 2
z 2
du dz
u 1 = z , u 2 = u 2 u = z .
dy dx
z 3x 2 1 1 3x2 1 cx 1 cx
= + u = u u= =
z 2
1 x z 1 x
2 2
1 x 2
1 x 2
1 x 2
z 1 x2
1 cx 1 x2 1 x 2 cx 2 + x3
= y+x =
2
y= ,c R
y + x2 1 x2 cx cx
x = 1 , z = 0 y = x 2 -
.
, 10 15
Lagrange, Bernoulli , 16 22 -
Bernoulli 23 29 Riccati.
: 4 81
10: :
(x 2
+ 1) y (1 x ) y = xe x .
2
11: :
( )
1
xy + (1 x )
2 2
y = 1 + 1 x2 ex .
12: :
(1 x ) y + ( 2 x ) y = x .
13: :
( 2 x + y ) dy = ydx + 4 ln ydy .
14: :
1
y + y x = 2 y, y = .
4 2
15: :
y 3
y = x 2 + 4 x + 5, y ( 1) = .
x+2 2
16: :
x 2 y 2 yxy 3 = 3 .
17: :
xy + y 2 ln x + y = 0 .
18: :
1
y = y2 .
xy
19: :
(x 2
4 ) y 4 y = ( x + 2 ) y 2 .
20: :
82 .
y = y x + y x .
4
7
7.1 ,
1: a, b . -
( a, b ) z .
( a, 0 ) a , a = ( a, 0 )
, , (0,0) 0. ,

, C
C = { z = ( a, b ) , a, b R} .
2: z1 = ( a1 , b1 ) z2 = ( a2 , b2 ) .
a1 = a2 b1 = b2 .
3: z1 = ( a1 , b1 ) z2 = ( a2 , b2 )
z = ( a1 + a2 , b1 + b2 ) . z = z1 + z2 .
4: z1 = ( a1 , b1 ) z2 = ( a2 , b2 )
z = ( a1 a2 b1b2 , a1b2 + a2 b1 ) . z = z1 z2 .
1: z1 = ( a1 , b1 ) , z2 = ( a2 , b2 ) , z3 = ( a3 , b3 ) -
. :
i) z1 + z2 = z2 + z1 ( )
ii) z1 z2 = z2 z1 ( )
iii) ( z1 + z2 ) + z3 = z1 + ( z2 + z3 ) ( )
84 .
iv) ( z1 z2 ) z3 = z1 ( z2 z3 ) ( )
v) z1 ( z2 + z3 ) = z1 z2 + z1 z3 ( )
2: z
z1 + z = z2 , z1 = ( a1 , b1 ) z2 = ( a2 , b2 ) .
z = ( a2 a1 , b2 b1 ) .
3: z z1 z = z2 ,
z1 = ( a1 , b1 ) 0 z2 = ( a2 , b2 ) .
a a + b1b2 a1b2 a2 b1
z = 1 22 , 2 .
a1 + b1 a1 + b12
2
5: ( 0, 0 ) = 0 , (1, 0 ) = 1 , ( 0,1) = i ,
, .
-
: z + 0 = z , z 0 = 0 , z 1 = z i 2 = i i = 1 .
6: z = a + bi
. : a + bi = ( a, b )
7: z = a + bi , a
, b .
Re( z ) = a Im( z ) = b .
8: z = ( a, b ) = a + bi .
z = a 2 + b 2 .
4: z1 = ( a1 , b1 ) z2 = ( a2 , b2 ) .
: z1 z2 = z1 z2 .
5: z1 = ( a1 , b1 ) z2 = ( a2 , b2 ) ,
z2 0 . :
z1 z
= 1 .
z2 z2
6: z = ( a, b ) . -
:
i) z Re( z ) z
ii) z Im( z ) z
7: z1 = ( a1 , b1 ) z2 = ( a2 , b2 ) .
:
i) z1 + z2 z1 + z2
ii) z2 z1 z2 z1
iii) z1 z2 z1 + z2
: 4 85
9: z = ( a, b ) = a + bi .
z = ( a, b ) = a bi z .
z .
8: z1 = ( a1 , b1 ) z2 = ( a2 , b2 ) .
:
i) z1 + z2 = z1 + z2
ii) z1 z2 = z1 z2
iii) z z = z 2
iv) z + z = 2 Re( z )
v) z z = 2i Im( z )
1: , , ,
:
i) : < , > , = .
ii) < < , <
iii) < , + < +
iv) < ( > ) > 0, < ( > )
v) < ( > ) < 0, > ( < )
, , . -
, < >,
=.
z1 = ( a1 , 0 ) z2 = ( a2 , 0 ) ,
z1 < z2 , .
2: i 0 , -
i) i > 0 i < 0 .
) i > 0 , iv)
i i > 0 ( 1, 0 ) > 0 1 > 0 , .
) i < 0 , iii)
i > 0 , iv)
( i ) i < 0 i 2 < 0 (1, 0 ) < 0 1 < 0 , .

: i > 0 , i < 0 , i = 0 .
7.2
, Oxy.
z = ( a, b ) = a + bi A ( a, b ) ,
1. ,
.
86 .
10:
Gauss (z).
.

: z = ( a, b ) = a + bi -
A ( a, b ) , 2.
uuur
OA ,
uuur
OA = a 2 + b 2 ,
z , z = a 2 + b 2 .
y y
A ( a, b ) A ( a, b )
x O x x O x
y y
1 2
3: (0,0)
Oxy A ( a, b ) .
C
(z) . -
.
, ,
, :
11: z1 = ( a1 , b2 ) z2 = ( a2 , b2 )
z1 = z2 , b1 = b2 .
12: z1 = ( a1 , b2 )
R* z = z1 = ( a1 , a2 ) , z
> 0 < 0 .
13: z1 = ( a1 , b2 ) z2 = ( a2 , b2 ) -
z = z1 + z2 = ( a1 + a2 , b1 + b2 ) , -
, 3.
14: z1 = ( a1 , b2 ) z2 = ( a2 , b2 ) -
z = z2 z1 = ( a2 a1 , b2 b1 ) -
, 4.
: 4 87
z2
z = z1 + z2
y y
z1
z2 z1 z = z2 z1
x O x x O x
y y
3 4
() z = ( a, b ) = a + bi ,
r = z = a 2 + b 2 ,
z xx.
15: z
xx z = ( a, b ) = a + bi , arg ( z ) ,
5.
.
, 2. -
,
< arg( z ) 0 arg( z ) < 2 , .
y
z
r
b
x O x
y
5
5 a = r , b = r . -
, z = ( a, b ) = a + bi :
z = r + ir = r ( + i ) .
16: z = ( a, b ) = a + bi arg( z ) = ,
z = r ( + i )
z . :
b a
=
= .
r r
9 ( Euler): z1 = bi .
ebi = b + i b .
88 .
4: z = a + bi , Euler
: e z = e a + bi = e a ebi = e a ( b + i b ) .
17: z1 = ( a1 , b2 ) z2 = ( a2 , b2 ) r1 , r2
1 , 2 , . z1 z2 -
z = z1 z2 , r r1 r2 -
z1 , z2 , 1 + 2 -
.
, ( 6).
z
y
z2
z1

1 2
x x
y
6
:
z = z1 z2 = r1 r2 (1 + 2 ) + i (1 + 2 )
:
z = z1 z2 = r1 (1 + i1 ) r2 ( 2 + i 2 ) =
= ( r11 r2 2 r11 r2 2 ) + i ( r11 r2 2 + r2 2 r11 ) =
= ( a1 a2 b1b2 ) + i ( a1b2 + a2 b1 ) = ( a1 a2 b1b2 , a1b2 + a2 b1 )

z1 = ( a1 , b1 ) = a1 + b1i z2 = ( a2 , b2 ) = a2 + b2 i , 4.
18: z1 = ( a1 , b2 ) z2 = ( a2 , b2 ) r1 , r2
z2
2 , 1 , . z1 z2 z =
z1
r2
r z1 , z2 ,
r1
1 2 .
:
: 4 89
z2
z= z2 = zz1 r2 ( 2 + i 2 ) = rr1 ( + 1 ) + i ( + 1 )
z1
r r
r= 2 r= 2
r2 = rr1 r1 r1

+ i = + + i + = + =
2 2 ( 1) ( 1) 2 1
2 1

:
r
z = 2 ( 2 1 ) + i ( 2 1 ) =
r1
rr
= 1 22 21 + 21 + i (1 2 1 2 ) =
r1
1
= 2 r2 2 r11 + r2 2 r11 + i ( r11 r2 2 r11 r2 2 ) =
r1
a1 a2 + b1b2 + i ( a1b2 a2 b1 )
a1 a2 + b1b2 a b a2 b1 a1 a2 + b1b2 a1b2 a2 b1
= = + i 1 22 = 2 , 2
a +b 1
2
1
2
a1 + b1
2 2
a1 + b12 a1 + b1
2
a1 + b12
3,
a a + b b a b a2 b1 a1 a2 + b1b2 a b a2 b1
z = 1 22 12 2 , 1 22 = + i 1 22 .
a1 + b1 a1 + b1 a1 + b1 a1 + b12
2 2 2
7.3
z = i . :
z 4k = 1

z 4 k +1 = i
k Z . :
z 4 k + 2 = 1
z 4 k +3 = i
i 0 = 1, i1 = i, i 2 = 1, i 3 = i, i 4 = 1, i 1 = i, i 2 = 1, i 3 = i i 4 = 1
Euler, ebi = b + i b , b =
ei = + i . , z , -
z =| z | ( + i ) , :
z =| z | ei . ,
:
90 .
e i 2 k = 1

e ( ) = 1
i 2 k +1

i

e 2 =i

2
1 3
k Z .
i
e 3 = +i
2 2
i
3
e = i
2
4

i 1 3
e 3 = i
2 2
, -
:
1) ( a + bi ) = a 2 + 2abi b 2
2
2) ( a bi ) = a 2 2abi b 2
2
3) ( a + bi ) = a 3 3ab 2 + i ( 3a 2b b3 )
3
4) ( a bi ) = a 3 3ab 2 + i ( 3a 2b + b3 )
3
5) ( a + bi ) = a 4 6a 2b 2 + b 4 + i ( 4a 3b 4ab3 )
4
6) ( a bi ) = a 4 6a 2b 2 + b 4 + i ( 4a 3b + 4ab3 )
4
10 ( DeMoiver): z =| z | ( + i ) .
z n =| z |n ( n + i n ) , n Z . z =| z | ei ,
z n =| z |n ein , n Z .
7.4
19: x n = z , n N * {1} . -
n z = a + bi .
z ,
z =| z | ( + i ) , x =| x | ( + i ) . ,
DeMoiver, :
x n = z | x |n ( n + i n ) =| z | ( + i )
| x |= n | z |
| x |n =| z |
, n N * {1}
n = =
n
n
x n = z , n N * {1}
:
+ 2 k + 2 k
xk = n | z | + i , n N {1}, k {0,1, 2,3,..., ( n 1)}
*
n n
: 4 91
i + 2 k
z = ei , xk = n | z |e k
, n N * {1}, k {0,1, 2,3,..., ( n 1)} .
, | z |= 1 = 0 , :
2 k 2 k
1) xen = 1, xek = + i
n n
+ 2 k + 2 k
2) xen = 1, xek = + i
n n
n N * {1}, k {0,1, 2,3,..., ( n 1)} .
5: x n + a0 = 0, n N * {1} . -
:
n a0 xr , a0 0, xe = 1
xk = k k
, n N * {1}, k {0,1, 2,3,..., ( n 1)}
n a0 xrk , a0 < 0, xek = 1
ax 2 + bx + c = 0, a 0 , -
< 0 . C -
:
b i
x1,2 = .
2a
b + i b b i b
x1 = = +i x1 = = i ,
2a 2a 2a 2a 2a 2a
-
, x1 = x2 x2 = x1 .
, 9 -
.
7.5
20: z =| z | ( + i ) , z 0 . -
w = u + vi , z = e w .
eu + vi = eu evi = eu ( v + i v ) ,
| z | ( + i ) = z = e w = eu ( v +i v ) . u , v R , -
: eu =| z | u = ln | z | v = + 2k , k Z . , :
ln z = w = u + vi = ln | z | + vi = ln | z | +i ( + 2k ) , k Z .
21: k = 0 , : ln z = ln | z | +i ,
.

:

1) z = bi, b > 0 . =
2
92 .

ln z = ln b + i + 2k , k Z
2
3
2) z = bi, b > 0 . =
2
3
ln z = ln b + i + 2k , k Z
2
3) z = a, b > 0 . = 0
ln z = ln aei( 0+ 2 k ) = ln a + 2k i, k Z
4) z = a, b > 0 . =
ln z = ln aei( +2k ) = ln a + ( + 2k ) i, k Z
5) z = 1 z = 1 z = i z = i , :

ln1 = 2k i , ln ( 1) = ( + 2 ) i , ln i = + 2k i ln ( i ) = 3 + 2k i .
2 2
22: z1 z2 .
z1z2 = e z2 ln z1 ,
ln z1 = ln | z1 | +i (1 + 2k ) , k Z .
7.6
1: z1 = 1 + i, z2 = 2 3i, z3 = 3 + 2i . -
:
) z1 + z2 ) z1 z3 ) z1 z2 ) z1 + z2 z1 z2 ) z1 z2 z3
) z1 + z2 = (1 + i ) + ( 2 3i ) = (1 + 2 ) + (1 3) i = 3 2i
) z1 z3 = (1 + i ) ( 3 + 2i ) = (1 3) + (1 2 ) i = 2 i
z1 z2 = (1 + i )( 2 3i ) = 1.2 1. ( 3) + 1. ( 3) + 1.2 i =
)
= ( 2 + 3) + ( 3 + 2 ) i = 5 i
z1 + z2 z1 z2 = ( z1 + z2 ) z1 z2 = ( 3 2i ) ( 5 i ) =
)
= ( 3 5 ) + 2 ( 1) i = 2 i
z1 z2 z3 = ( z1 z2 ) z3 = ( 5 i )( 3 + 2i ) = 5.3 ( 1.2 ) + 5.2 + ( 1) 3 i =

)
= (15 + 2 ) + (10 3) i = 17 + 7i
2: z1 = 3 + i, z2 = 1 i .
z2
.
z1
: 4 93
z2 3 + i 3.1 + 1. ( 1) 3. ( 1) 1.1 3 1 3 1 2 4 1 2
= = + i= + i= i= i
z1 1 i 3 +1
2 2
3 +1
2 2
9 +1 9 +1 10 10 5 5
3:
2+i
z=
.
2i
, a + bi .
2 + i ( 2 + i )( 2 + i ) 22 + 2.2.i + i 2 4 + 4i 1 3 + 4i 3 4
z= = = = = = + i.
2 i ( 2 i )( 2 + i ) 22 i 2 4 +1 5 5 5
4: z = 2 + i w = 2 i .
: z , w, z + w, z + w .
z = 2 + i = 2 i , w = 2 i = 2 ( i ) = 2 + i , z + w = ( 2 + i ) + ( 2 i ) = 4 = 4 -
z + w = 2 + i + 2 i = ( 2 i ) + ( 2 + i ) = 2 i + 2 + i = 4 .
5: z = 3 + i .
.
( 3) b 1 a 3
2
| z |= + 12 = 3 + 1 = 4 = 2 , = = = = .
|z| 2 |z| 2

= (1 ), z = 2 + i .
6 6 6
94 .
6: z = 1 i .
.
2 1 1 2
( 1) + ( 1) = 1 + 1 = 2 , =
2 2
| z |= = = = . -
2 2 2 2
5 5 5
= + = (3 ) z = 2 + i .
4 4 4 4
7: z = 1 + i .
) .
) w = z 4
b 1 2
) | z |= 12 + 12 = 1 + 1 = 2 , = = =
|z| 2 2
a 1 2
= = = .
|z| 2 2

= (1 ) z = 2 + i .
4 4 4
) DeMoiver, :
( 2 ) 4 4 + i 4 4 = ( 2 )
4 2 2
w = z4 = ( + i ) =
= 4 ( 1 + 0i ) = 4
: 4 95
8: z = 3 + i .
) .
) w = z10 .
) | z |= ( 3) +1 2 1
= 3 + 1 = 4 = 2 , =
2
=
2
3
.
5 5 5
= = (2 ), z = 2 + i .
6 6 6 6
5 5 10 25 25
) w = z10 = 210 10 + i10 = 2 + i .
6 6 3 3
9: C,
: x 2 x + 1 = 0 .
= ( 1) 4.1.1 = 1 4 = 3 < 0 , :
2
( 1) i ( 3) 1 i 3 1 3
x1,2 = = = i.
2.1 2 2 2
1 3 1 3
x1 = +i x2 = i .
2 2 2 2
10: z = 3 i .
b 1 a
w = i . | w |= 02 + 12 = 1 = = = 1 = = 0.
|z| 1 |z|

= , w = + i . :
2 2 2

+ 2k + 2k

z = 3 w = 3 + i = 2 .+ i 2
2 2 3 3
z = 3 i :
3 1
x0 = + i =
+ i, k = 0
6 6 2 2
5 5 3 1
x1 = + i = + i, k = 1
6 6 2 2
3 3
x2 = + i = i, k = 2
2 2
11: 4 z = 1 3i .
96 .
( )
| z |= 12 + 3 = 1 + 3 = 4 = 2 , =
2
3 1
= .
2
5 5 5
= 2 = (4 ), z = 2 + i .
3 3 3 3
:
5 5
+ 2k + 2k
xk = 2 3 + i 3
, k .
4
4 4

:
5 5
+ 2.0. + 2.0. 4
3 3 5 5
x0 = 2
4
+ i = 2 + i , k = 0
4 4 12 12

5 5
+ 2.1. + 2.1. 4
3 3 11 11
x1 = 2
4
+ i = 2 + i , k = 1
4 4 12 12

5 5
+ 2.2. + 2.2. 4 17 17
x2 = 4 2 3 + i 3 = 2 + i , k = 2
4 4 12 12

5 5
+ 2.3. + 2.3. 4
3 3 23 23
x3 = 2
4
+ i = 2 + i , k = 3
4 4 12 12

12: z = 64 .
: z = 64 = 64 ( 1) = 64 ( + i ) . ,
:
+ 2k + 2k
xk = 3 64 + i , k
3 3
+ 2.0. + 2.0.
x0 = 4 + i = 4 + i , k = 0
3 3 3 3
+ 2.1. + 2.1.
x1 = 4 + i = 4 ( + i ) , k = 1
3 3
+ 2.2. + 2.2. 5 5
x2 = 4 + i = 4 + i , k = 2
3 3 3 3
: 4 97
13: z = i .
ln z .

ln z = ln i = ln1 + i + i 2k = + 2k i, k Z , :
2 2

z = i = 1 + i
2 2

| z |= 1 = .
2
14: z = i . w = z z .

: z = i = 1 + i . ln z = + 2k i, k Z .
2 2 2

+ 2 k
: w = z = i = e
z i i ln i
=e 2
, kZ .
15: :

1+ i
) z = ei ) z = e 2
Euler :
) z = + i = 1 + i 0 = 1
1 i
) z = e 1 + i = ( 0 + i 1) =
2 2 e e
16: z = 3 + 2i . -
w = 2 z k = 2 z .
17: z = (1 + 2i ) .
2
a + bi .
18: z = (1 + 2i ) .
3
a + bi .
19:
1
. z=
3 2i
a + bi .
98 .
20: z = 2 + i w = 2 i .
( z) .
2
: z 2 , z 2 ,
21: z = 2 + i w = 2 i .
( ) ( z + w) .
2 2
: z + w ,
22: z = 3 + 3i .
.
8
8.1
8.1.1 , ,
1:
a11 a12 ... a1n

a21 a22 ... a2 n
... ... ... ...

am1 am 2 ... amn
aij , i, j = 1, 2,..., n , n N * . -
. ,
( ),
a11 a12 ... a1n
a a22 ... a2 n
21
... ... ... ...

am1 am 2 ... amn

a11 a12 ... a1n
a21 a22 ... a2 n
.
... ... ... ...
am1 am 2 ... amn
m n .
, , -
[ ],
a11 a12 ... a1n
a a22 ... a2 n
A = 21 .
... ...... ...

am1 am 2... amn
2: aij ( i = 1, 2,..., m j = 1, 2,..., n ) .
100 .
3: aij R , , aij C
.
ai1 ,ai 2 ,...,ain ( i = 1, 2,..., m ) i ,
a1 j ,a2 j ,...,amj ( j = 1, 2,..., n ) j .
4: m n . -
( )
, A = aij A = aij , A = aij
Amn , i = 1, 2,..., m, j = 1, 2,..., n m, n N .
*
5: ,
aij = 0 , O ( ).
6:
a11 a12 ... a1n
a a22 ... a2 n
A = 21
... ... ... ...

am1 am 2 ... amn
,
.
a11 a21 ... am1
a a22 ... am 2
A = 12
T
.
... ... ... ...

a1n a2 n ... amn
n m .
1: ( AT )
T
= A.
7: m = n , n
. a11 , a22 ,..., ann -
.
8:
, .
a11 0 ... 0
0 a ... 0
diag ( a11 , a22 ,..., ann ) = 22
.
... ... ... ...

0 0 ... ann
, m n ,
ai , j , i = 1, 2,..., k , j = 1, 2,..., k m = n = k N * .
9:
: 4 101
1
0 0 ...
0
0 1 ...
diag (1,1,...,1) =
...
... ... ...

0
1 0 ...
. I I n E En , n N * .
10:
,
:
a11 0 ... 0
a a22 ... 0
A = 21 .
... ... ... ...

an1 an 2 ... ann
11:
,
:
a11 a12 ... a1n
0 a22 ... a2 n
A= .
... ... ... ...

0 0 ... ann
12: m n A = aij B = bij
aij = bij , i = 1, 2,..., m j = 1, 2,..., n . A=B
aij = bij .
2: -
m n .
13: A = aij
aij = a ji , i = 1, 2,..., n j = 1, 2,..., n , -
.
, -
A = AT . ,
.
14: A = aij -
aij = a ji , i = 1, 2,..., n j = 1, 2,..., n .
15: -

102 .
a11
a
A = 21 A = [ ai1 ] , i = 1, 2,..., m .
...

am1
16:
A = [ a11 a12 ... a1n ] A = a1 j , j = 1, 2,..., n .
8.1.2
17: A = aij B bij i = 1, 2,..., m j = 1, 2,..., n
( m n ). A B C
m n C = cij , cij = aij + bij .
C = A+ B.

1) A + B = B + A ( )
2) A + ( B + C ) = ( A + B ) + C ( )
3) A + O = O + A = A ( )
3: , s m n :
A1 + A2 + .... + As 1 + As = ( A1 + A2 + ... + As 1 ) + As .
18: A = aij i = 1, 2,..., m j = 1, 2,..., n (
m n ). R . A
C = cij , cij = aij . C = A .
19: A = aij i = 1, 2,..., m j = 1, 2,..., n (

m n ). A = aij , aij = aij , A . -
A .
, -
:
4) A + ( A ) = ( A ) + A = O .

1) kA = Ak , k R A = aij , i = 1, 2,..., m, j = 1, 2,..., n
2) k ( lA ) = ( kl ) A , k , l R A = aij , i = 1, 2,..., m, j = 1, 2,..., n
3) k ( A + B ) = kA + kB , k R A = aij , B = bij , i = 1, 2,..., m, j = 1, 2,..., n
4) ( k + l ) A = kA + lA , k , l R A = aij , i = 1, 2,..., m, j = 1, 2,..., n
5) 1. A = A.1 = A , A = aij , i = 1, 2,..., m, j = 1, 2,..., n
6) 0. A = A.0 = 0 , A = aij , i = 1, 2,..., m, j = 1, 2,..., n
4: A B = A + ( 1) B = A + ( B ) .
: 4 103
20: A = aij , m n , B bij -

n s . A B C ,
m s C = cij ,
n
cij = ai b j = ai1b1 j + ai 2 b2 j + ... + ain bnj .
=1
C = AB .
A B ,
C : i
j i A ( n
) j B ( n ),
.
5: ,

,
m n n s

1) A = aij , i = 1, 2,..., m j = 1, 2,..., n , -
I m I n : I m A = A AI n = A .
2) O n s , C = OA = O
m s , A = aij i = 1, 2,..., m j = 1, 2,..., n .
3) O s m , C = OA = O
s n , A = aij i = 1, 2,..., m j = 1, 2,..., n .
4) ( AB ) C = A ( BC ) , A, B, C
5) k ( AB ) = ( kA ) B = A ( kB ) , A, B k R
6) ( A + B ) C = AC + BC , A, B, C
7) C ( A + B ) = CA + CB , A, B, C
6: 4) , -
:
A1 A2 A3 ...As 2 As 1 As = ( A1 A2 A3 ...As2 As1 ) As = ( A1 A2 A3 ... As 2 ) As1 As = ...
... = A1 ( A2 A3 ...As2 As1 As )
7: 6) :
A + B , A B m n . -
, ( A + B ) C , C
n s . ,
D = ( A + B ) C = dij , i = 1, 2,..., m j = 1, 2,..., s ,
104 .
m s . dij , ,
i A + B
j C . :
n n n
dij = ( ai + bi ) c j = ai c j + bi c j
=1 =1 =1
i j AC
BC , m n ,
n n

a c
=1
i j

b c
=1
i j .
21: A = aij , n n , i, j = 1, 2,..., n .
k A :
A1 = A , Ak = Ak 1 A = 1
A4
. A24 A, k > 1.
.....3
k
A O , A0 = I .
8.1.3

a11 a12 ... a1n
a a22 ... a2 n
A = 21
... ... ... ...

am1 am 2 ... amn
m n
a11 ... am1
a21
a
a22 ... am 2
A = 12
T
,
...
... ... ...

a1n
a2 n ... amn
n m . :
(A )
T
1) T
=A
( kA) = kAT , k R
T
2)
( A + B ) = AT + BT
T
3)
( AB ) = BT AT
T
4)
, -
. :
( AB ) BT AT -
T
. : A m n -
B n s . AB
m s ,
: 4 105
( AB )
T
s m . , BT -
s n , AT n m , BT AT
s m , .
( AB ) BT AT . -
T
: , -
, dij AB (i j
), :
dij = ai b j = ai1b1 j + ai 2 b2 j + ... + ain bnj .
j i -
( AB ) . BT AT ,
T
j BT i AT , -
j B i
A , BT AT B A .
,
dij = ai b j = ai1b1 j + ai 2 b2 j + ... + ain bnj ,
.
8: A1 A2 A3 ..... Ak ,
( A1 A2 A3 ..... Ak 1 Ak ) = AkT AkT1 ..... A3T A2T A1T .
T
8.1.4 ( Gauss)
n n
a11 ... a1n
a12
a a22 ... a2 n
A = 21 .
...... ... ...

an1
an 2 ... ann
,
( ), A -
. :
1 Gauss :
A
0 1 ... 1
1 0 ... 1
J = ,
... ... ... ...

1 1 ... 0
106 .
2 Gauss :

A
c 0 0
...
0 c 0
...
I = ,c R ,
... ... ...
...

0 0 ...
c
,
c .
3 Gauss : ,
(
Gauss), A -
I , i I
j .
i , i = 1, 2,..., n ,
():
i ai b j , i, j = 1, 2,..., m a, b R .
9:
Gauss. ,
,
= .
A , m n ,
1), 2), 3) .
10:
, (
) (2 Gauss).
8.1.5
1:
1 2 3 2 3 7
A = 3 4 3 , B = 2 4 0 .

2 1 5 1 2 3
C = A + B .
1 2 3 2 3 7 1 + 2 2 + 3 3 7 3 5 4
C = A + B = 3 4 3 + 2 4 0 = 3 + 2 4 + 4 3 + 0 = 5 0 3
2 1 5 1 2 3 2 + 1 1 2 5 3 3 1 2
: 4 107
2:
2 1 3
A= .
0 2 5
C = 2 A .
2 1 3 2.2 2. ( 1) 2.3 4 2 6
C = 2A = 2 = =
0 2 5 2.0 2.2 2.5 0 4 10
3:
2 3 2 4 5
A= , B= .
0 2 1 3 0
C = AB . D = BA ;
C 2 3 , :
2 2 2 3
2 3 2 4 5 2.2 + ( 3)( 1) 2.4 + ( 3) .3 2.5 + ( 3) .0 7 1 10

C= = =
0 2 1 3 0 0.2 + 2. ( 1) 0.4 + 2.3 0.5 + 2.0 2 6 0
BA , -
B 3, A 2.
4:
2 3 2 4
A= , B= .
1 2 2 1
C = AB D = BA .
2 3 2 4 ( 2 ) .2 + ( 3) .2 ( 2 ) 4 + ( 3) .1 = 10 11
C= = 6
1 2 2 1 1.2 + 2.2 1.4 + 2.1 6
2 4 2 3 2. ( 2 ) + 4.1 2. ( 3) + 4.2 0 2
D= = =
2 1 1 2 2. ( 2 ) + 1.1 2. ( 3) + 1.2 3 4
C D , AB BA .
5:
1 2 0 2
A= , B= .
3 4 1 2
C = AB D = BA .
108 .
1 2 0 2 1.0 + 2. ( 1) 1.2 + 2. ( 2 ) 2 2 1 1
C= = = = 2
3 4 1 2 3.0 + 4. ( 1) 3.2 + 4. ( 2 ) 4 2 2 1
0 2 1 2 0.1 + 2.3 0.2 + 2.4 6 8
D= = = .
1 2 3 4 ( 1) .1 + ( 2 ) .3 ( 1) .2 + ( 2 ) .4 7 10
C D .
6:
1 1 1 1
A= , B= .
1 1 1 1
C = AB D = BA .
1 1 1 1 1.1 + 1. ( 1) 1. ( 1) + 1.1 0 0
C= = = =O
1 1 1 1 1.1 + 1. ( 1) 1( 1) + 1.1 0 0
1 1 1 1 1.1 + ( 1) .1 1.1 + ( 1) .1 0 0
D= = = =O
1 1 1 1 ( 1) .1 + 1.1 ( 1) .1 + 1.1 0 0
C = D
7:
1 3
A= .
4 12
: A , ( A ) , AT , AT , R .
T
1 3 3 4 T 1 4
, ( A) =
T
A = = , A = 3 12
4 12 4 12 3 12
4
AT = .
3 12
( A ) = AT , R .
T
8:
1 3 2 3
A= B = .
4 12 1 0
: A + B , ( A + B ) , AT , BT , AT + BT .
T
9:
1 1
1 0 1
A= B = 2 1 .

2 1 2 1 3
: 4 109
: AB , ( AB ) , AT , BT , BT AT .
T
10:
1 0 1
A= .
2 1 2
: AAT AT A .
11:
0 1 1
A = 2 3 4 .
1 3 1
.
0 1 1 1 2 2 3 4
2 3 4 0 1 1

1 3 1 1 3 1 3 ( 2 ) .3 + 1
2 3 4 2 3 4
0 1 1 0 1 1

0 3 2 3 3. 2 + 3 0 0 1
12:
0 1 1
A = 2 3 4 .
1 1 1
.
13:
11 2 3 2 0 0

A = 13 4 3 , B = 0 2 0 .
2 1 2 0 0 3
C = A + B .
14:
2 1 3
A= .
0 2 1
B = kA, k R .
110 .
15:
1 2 3 6 1 0 0
1 2 3 3
A= , B = 2 3 0 .
0 0 1 1 0 0 1

2 2 1 1 1 1 2
C = AB .
16:
1 0 0 2 1 2
A = 1 2 0 , B = 0 2 4 .

2 2 3 0 0 3
C = AB D = BA .
17:
1
2 0 1 1 2 4

A = 2 3 1 B = 2 1 4.
1 3 2 0 1
0 0
3
A2 B 2 ( A B )( A + B ) .
18:
0 1 1 1
3 4 0 1
A= .
1 2 3 0

1 1 3 0
.
19:
1 2 3 0 1
3 2 1 1 0
A= .
0 2 1 2 0

1 1 2 0 1
, .
20: x, y R :
1
x y 0
2 2 + = .

y 3
x
: 4 111
8.2
8.2.1 ,
{
n X = x1 , x2 ,..., xi ,..., x j ,..., xn . }
22: Y
X .
Y X Pn ,
n ! = 1 2 3 ... ( n 1) n .
-
.
, X = {1, 2,3} .
Y = {123,132, 213, 231,312,321} . P3 = 3! = 1 2 3 = 6 .
a1 , a 2 , a 3 ,..., a i ,..., a j ,..., a n 1, 2,3,..., n .
23:
.
[ a1 , a 2 , a 3 ,..., a n ] .
24: -
, .
:
1) 1, 2,3,..., n -
.
2) 3, 6, 2,1, 7 5 ( ) , -
: ( 3, 2 ) , ( 3,1) , ( 6, 2 ) , ( 6,1) ( 2,1) , -
.
3) 0, 6, 2,5 2 ( )
: ( 6, 2 ) ( 6,5 ) , .

a11 ... a1n
a12
a
a22 ... a2 n
A = 21 .
...
... ... ...

an 2 ... ann
an1
n A
: () .
( )
: a1a1 .a2a 2 .a3a3 .....ana n , -
( ) a1 ,a 2 ,a 3 ,...,a n . -
1 -1 -
. -
n , n ! .
112 .
25: n ! A ,
det A | A | | aij |
a11 a12 ... a1n
a21 a22 ... a2 n
.
... ... ... ...
an1 an 2 ... ann
| A | .
:
[ a1 ,a 2 ,a 3 ,...,a n ]
| A |= ( 1) a1a1 a2a 2 a3a3 ...ana n ,
( a1 ,a 2 ,a 3 ,...,a n )
[ a1 ,a 2 ,a 3 ,...,a n ]
a1 ,a 2 ,a 3 ,...,a n .
26: n | A | .
10: -
. | A | -

[ a1 ,a 2 ,a 3 ,...,a n ]
| A |= ( 1) aa11 aa 2 2 aa3 3 ...aa n n .
( a1 ,a 2 ,a 3 ,...,a n )
8.2.2. 2 3
2 2
a a12
A = 11 ,
a21 a22
. -
| A | :
a11 a12 [a ,a ] [1,2] [ 2,1]
| A |= = ( 1) 1 2 a1a1 a2a 2 = ( 1) a11 a22 + ( 1) a12 a21 =
a21 a22 ( a1 ,a 2 )
= ( 1) a11 a22 + ( 1) a12 a21 = a11 a22 a12 a21
0 1
1, 2
( ), 2,1 -
, ( 2,1) , .
3 3
a11 a12 a13
A = a21 a22 a23 ,
a31 a32 a33
. -
| A | :
: 4 113
a11 a12 a13

| A |= a21 a23 = ( 1) 1 2 3 a1a1 a2a 2 a3a3 =
[a ,a ,a ]
a22
( a1 ,a 2 ,a 3 )
a31 a32 a33
[1,2,3] [1,3,2] [ 2,1,3]
= ( 1) a11 a22 a33 + ( 1) a11 a23 a32 + ( 1) a12 a21 a33 +
[ 2,3,1] [3,1,2] [3,2,1]
+ ( 1) a12 a23 a31 + ( 1) a13 a21 a32 + ( 1) a13 a22 a31 =
= ( 1) a11 a22 a33 + ( 1) a11 a23 a32 + ( 1) a12 a21 a33 +
0 1 1
+ ( 1) a12 a23 a31 + ( 1) a13 a21 a32 + ( 1) a13 a22 a31 =

2 2 3
= a11 a22 a33 a11 a23 a32 a12 a21 a33 + a12 a23 a31 + a13 a21 a32 a13 a22 a31
1, 2,3
, 1,3, 2 ,
( 3, 2 ) , 2,1,3 , ( 2,1) , -
2,3,1 , ( 2,1) ( 3,1) , 3,1, 2
, ( 3,1) ( 3, 2 ) , 3, 2,1
, ( 3, 2 ) , ( 3,1) , ( 2,1) .
3 3
Sarrus. Sarrus 3 3 .

a11 a12 a13 a11 a12
B = a21 a22 a23 a21 a22 ,
a31 a32 a33 a31 a32
. , Sarrus, -
:
+ + +
a11 a12 a13 a11 a12
| B |= a21 a22 a23 a21 a22 =
- - a- 31 a32 a33 a31 a32
- - -
= ( + a11 ) a22 a33 + ( + a12 ) a23 a31 + ( + a13 ) a21a32 +

+ ( a31 ) a22 a13 + ( a32 ) a23 a11 + ( a33 ) a21a12 =
= a11a22 a33 + a12 a23 a31 + a13 a21a32 a31a22 a13 a32 a23 a11 a33 a21a12 =
= a11a22 a33 a11a23 a32 a12 a21a33 + a12 a23 a31 + a13 a21a32 a13 a22 a31
8.2.3.
, :
1) | A |
114 .
a11 a12 ... a1n

a a22 ... a2 n
A = 21
... ... ... ...

an1 an 2 ... ann
AT , | A |=| AT | .
2) ( ) A
, | A |= 0 .
3) B A
, | B |= | A | .
) i A
,
a11 ... a1i + a1i ... a1n
a ... a2i + a2i ... a2 n
A = 21 ,
... ... .... ... ...

an1 ... ani + ani ... ann
:
a11 ... a1i ... a1n a11 ... a1i ... a1n
a ... a2i ... a2 n a21 ... a2i ... a2 n
| A |= 21 + .
... ... .... ... ... ... ... .... ... ...
an1 ... ani ... ann an1 ... ani ... ann
) j A
,
a11 a12 ... a1n
... ... ... ...

A = a j1 + a j1 a j 2 + a j 2 ... a jn + a jn ,

... ... ... ...
an1 an 2 ... ann
:
a11 a12 ... a1n a11 a12 ... a1n
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
| A |= a j1 a j 2 ... a jn + a j1 a j 2 ... a jn .
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
an1 an 2 ... ann an1 an 2 ... ann
4) , -
1 .
: 4 115
5) A ( ),
.
6) A ( ), -
.
7) ( ) -
( ),
.
8.2.4

a11 a12 ... a1n
a a22 ... a2 n
A = 21
... ... ... ...

an1 an 2 ... ann

a11 a12 ... a1n
a a22 ... a2 n
| A |= 21 .
... ... ... ...
an1 an 2 ... ann
27: | Aij | ,
i j , -
A . ( 1)
i+ j

: 1 1 , -

a22 ... a2 n a22 ... a2 n
| A11 |= ( 1)
1+1
... ... ... = ... ... ... .
an 2 ... ann an 2 ... ann
2 1 ,

a12 a13 ... a1n a12 a13 ... a1n
a32 a33 ... a3n a32 a33 ... a3n
| A21 |= ( 1)
1+ 2
= ...
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
an 2 an 3 ... ann an 2 an 3 ... ann
3 3
116 .
a11 a12 a13

A = a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33

a11 a12 a13
| A |= a21 a22 a23 .
a31 a32 a33
:
a22 a23 a22 a23 a21 a23 a21 a23
A11 = ( 1) , A12 = ( 1)
1+1 1+ 2
= = ,
a32 a33 a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a33
a21 a22 a a22
A13 = ( 1)
1+ 3
= 21 ...
a31 a32 a31 a32
1:
a11 a12 ... a1n
a a22 ... a2 n
A = 21 .
... ... ... ...

an1 an 2 ... ann
:
) i ,
| A |= ai1 Ai1 + ai 2 Ai 2 + ... + ain Ain .
) j ,
| A |= a1 j A1 j + a2 j A2 j + ... + anj Anj .
2: n n
s ( 1 s n ), -
s ( ), ( )
( 1) .
i+ j
3 3
a11 a12 a13
A = a21 a22 a23 ,
a31 a32 a33
:
a11 a12 a13
a a23 a21 a23 a21 a22
a23 = ( 1) a11 22 + ( 1) + ( 1)
1+1 1+ 2 1+ 3
| A |= a21 a22 a12 a13 =
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32
a31 a32 a33
= a11 ( a22 a33 a23 a32 ) a12 ( a21a33 a23 a31 ) + a13 ( a21a32 a22 a31 ) =
= a11a22 a33 a11a23 a32 a12 a21a33 + a12 a23a31 + a13 a21a32 a13 a22 a31
: 4 117
8.2.5
21: 3 3
1 2 4
A = 0 1 4 ,
1 0 2
, | A | .
1 2 4
| A |= 0 1 4 = 1 ( 1) 2 1 4 0 2 0 2 + 2 4 ( 1) + 4 0 0 4 ( 1)( 1) =
1 0 2
= 2 0 0 8 + 0 4 = 14.
22: 3 3
1 2 4
A = 0 1 4 ,
1 0 2
Sarrus, | A | .
+ + +
1 2 4 1 2
| A |= 0 1 4 0 1 = 1 ( 1) 2 + 2 4 ( 1) + 4 0 0 ( 1)( 1) 4 0 4 1 2 0 2
1 0 2 1 0
- - -
= 2 8 + 0 4 0 0 = 14
23: 2 2
2 3
A= .
0 1
) AT .
) | A | | AT | .
24: 3 3
1 2 4
A = 0 0 0 .
1 2 2
| A |= 0 .
118 .
25: 3 3
3 2 3
A = 1 2 3 ,
5 2 0
, | A | .
3 2 3
2 3 1 3 1 2
| A |= 1 2 3 = ( 1) 3 + ( 1) 2 + ( 1) 3
1+1 1+ 2 1+ 3
=
2 0 5 0 5 2
5 2 0
= 3 ( 2 0 3 2 ) 2 (1 0 3 5 ) + 3 (1 2 2 5 ) = 3 ( 6 ) 2 ( 15) + 3 ( 8) = 12
26: 4 4
1 2 3 0
2 3 1 2
A= .
1 3 3 2

2 0 3 4
) AT .
) | A | | AT |
8.3
8.3.1 , ,
4 4
a11 a12 ... a1n
a a22 ... a2 n
A = 21
... ... ... ...

an1 an 2 ... ann

a11 a12 ... a1n
a a22 ... a2 n
| A |= 21 .
... ... ... ...
an1 an 2 ... ann
C :
a22 ... a2 n a21 ... a2 n
A11 = ...
... ... , A12 = ... ... ... ,
an 2 ... ann an1 ... ann
: 4 119
a21 ... a2 n 1 a12 ... a1n

A13 = ... ... ... , A21 = ... ... ... ...
an1 ... ann 1 an 2 ... ann
:
A11 A21 ... An1
A A22 ... An 2
C = 12
... ... ... ...

A1n A2 n ... Ann
.
3: A C , :
AC = CA =| A | I , I n n .
28: A n n A1
AA1 = A1 A = I .
4: A1 A | A | 0 ,

1
A1 = C.
| A|
29: ,
.
.
5: A1 A , .

1
1) | A1 |=
| A|
2) (A )
1 1
=A
( AB )
1
3) = B 1 A1
(A ) = ( A1 ) , k N
k 1 k
4)
11: 2 2
a a12
A = 11
a21 a22
| A |= a11 a22 a12 a21 .
:
1 a22 a12
A1 = .
| A | a21 a11
30:
m n rank ( A ) .
120 .
12: , -
, , ,
.
A I , I n n , C ,
| A I | .
31: p ( ) =| A I |
A .
32: p ( ) = 0
A .
33: 1 , 2 ,..., n C -
A .
34: A -
, ( A) .
8.3.2
27:
2 3 5
A = 1 1 4
1 9 2
.
| A |= 0 . 4, A1 -
A .
28: 3 3
1 2 1
A = 2 1 2 .
1 2 1
, .
A | A |= 6 0 . -
, 4.
:
: 4 121
1 2 2 +1 2 1 3+1 2 1
A11 = ( 1) = 3 , A21 = ( 1) = 4 , A31 = ( 1)
1+1
= 5,
2 1 2 1 1 2
1+ 2 2 2 2 + 2 1 1 3+ 2 1 1
A12 = ( 1) = 0 , A22 = ( 1) = 2 , A32 = ( 1) = 4 ,
1 1 1 1 2 2
2 1 2+3 1 2 3+ 3 1 2
A13 = ( 1) = 3 , A23 = ( 1) = 0 , A33 = ( 1)
1+ 3
= 3
1 2 1 2 2 1
, :
A11 A21 A31 3 4 5
C = A12 A22 A32 = 0 2 4 .
A13 A23 A33 3 0 3
, A1 A :
1 2 5

3 4 5 2 3 6

1 1 1 2
A1 = C = 0 2 4 = 0 .
| A| 6 3 3
3 0 3
1 0
1
2 2
29:
1 2 0
A = 0 3 1 .
1 1 0
.
1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0

A = 0 3 0 0 3 0 .
0 3 0
1 1 0 3 ( 1) 1 + 3 0 3 0 3 3 + 2 0 0 0
rank ( A ) = 2 , -
2 ( 1 2 ).
30:
1 3
A= .
1 4
:
) A
) A
) ( A ) A
122 .
1 3 1 0 1 3
) p( ) =| A I |=| A | | I |= = =
1 4 0 1 1 4
= (1 )( 4 ) 3 ( 1) = 4 4 + 2 + 3 = 2 5 + 7
) p ( ) = 0 2 5 + 7 = 0 , = ( 5 ) 4 1 7 = 25 28 = 3 < 0 .
2
A . :
( 5 ) i 3 5i 3 5 3
1,2 = = = i ,
2.1 2 2 2
5 3 5 3
1 = +i 1 = i .
2 2 2 2
5 3 5 3
) 1 = +i 1 = i , ()
2 2 2 2
A ( A) = 2 .
31: 3 3
1 2 1
A = 2 0 2 .
0 2 2
, .
32: 4 4
1 2 3 0
1 2 4 1
A= .
1 1 0 3

4 2 1 2
, .
33: 3 3
0 2 0
A = 0 2 1 .
1 1 1
.
: 4 123
8.4
8.4.1
n n
a11 a12 ... a1n
a a22 ... a2 n
A = 21
... ... ... ...

an1 an 2 ... ann
n 1
x1
x
x = 2.
...

xn
, , :
a11 a12 ... a1n x1 a11 x1 + a12 x2 + ... + a1n xn
a a22 ... a2 n x2 a21 x1 + a22 x2 + ... + a2 n xn
Ax = 21 =
... ... ... ... ... ......................................

an1 an 2 ... ann xn an1 x1 + an 2 x2 + ... + ann xn
b1 , b2 ,..., bn .
:
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + ... + a1n xn = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + ... + a2 n xn = b2

............................................
an1 x1 + an 2 x2 + ... + ann xn = bn
b1
b
b = , Ax = b .
2
...

bn
35:
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + ... + a1n xn = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + ... + a2 n xn = b2

............................................
an1 x1 + an 2 x2 + ... + ann xn = bn
n n .
36:
124 .
x1
x
x = 2
...

xn
Ax = b .
37:
a11 ... a1n
a12
a a22 ... a2 n
A = 21
...
... ... ...

an1
an 2 ... ann
,
b1
b
b = 2
...

bn
.
38:
a11 a12 b1
... a1n
a22 ... a2 n b2
%A = a21
... ... ... ... ...

an1 an 2 ... ann bn
,
aij , i = j i, j = 1, 2,..., n .
8.4.2
-
n n , Gramer,
, Gauss, Gauss Jordan.
Gramer
n n
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + ... + a1n xn = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + ... + a2 n xn = b2

............................................
an1 x1 + an 2 x2 + ... + ann xn = bn
: 4 125
a11 a12 ... a1n b1 x1

a
a22 ... a2 n b2 x
A = , x = .
21 2
, b=
... ... ... ... ... ...

an1 an 2 ... ann bn xn
1
| A | 0 A .
1
A1 = C ,
| A|
A11 A21 ... An1
A A22 ... An 2
C = 12 .
... ... ... ...

A1n A2 n ... Ann
1
: Ax = b x = A1b x = Cb
| A|

A11 A21 ... An1 b1 b1 A11 + b2 A21 + ... + bn An1
A A22 ... An 2 b2 b1 A12 + b2 A22 + ... + bn An 2
Cb = 12 =
... ... ... ... ... .....................................

A1n A2 n ... Ann bn b1 A1n + b2 A2 n + ... + bn Ann
| Ai |= b1 | A1i | +b2 | A2i | +... + bn | Ani |, ( i = 1, 2,..., n ) i
Cb . Ai -
A i
b ,
a11 ... a1, j 1 b1 a1, j +1 ... a1n
a21 ... a2, j 1 b2 a2, j +1 ... a2 n
| Ai |= .
... ... ... ... ... ... ...
an1 ... an , j 1 bn an , j +1 ... ann
, :
A1

1 A2
x=
| A | ...

An

| A1 | |A | |A |
x1 = , x2 = 2 ,..., xn = n .
| A| | A| | A|
| A | | A | | A |
( x1 , x2 ,..., xn ) = 1 , 2 ,..., n .
| A| | A| | A|
126 .

n n
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + ... + a1n xn = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + ... + a2 n xn = b2

............................................
an1 x1 + an 2 x2 + ... + ann xn = bn
a11 a12... a1n b1 x1

a
a22 ... a2 n b2 x
A = , b = , x = .
21 2
... ... ... ... ... ...

| A | 0 A1 .
1
A1 = C ,
| A|
A11 A21 ... An1
A A22 ... An 2
C = 12 .
... ... ... ...

A1n A2 n ... Ann
:
Ax = b A1 ( Ax ) = A1b ( A1 A ) x = A1b IA = A1b x = A1b
1 1
x= Cb x = B
| A| | A|

A11 A21An1 b1 b1 A11 + b2 A21 + ... + bn An1
...
AA22 ... An 2 b2 b1 A12 + b2 A22 + ... + bn An 2
B = 12 = .
...
... ... ... ... .....................................

A2 n ... Ann bn b1 A1n + b2 A2 n + ... + bn Ann
A1n
:
x1 b1 A11 + b2 A21 + ... + bn An1
x
2 = 1 b1 A12 + b2 A22 + ... + bn An 2
... | A | .....................................

xn b1 A1n + b2 A2 n + ... + bn Ann

1
x1 = ( b1 A11 + b2 A21 + ... + bn An1 ) ,
| A|
1 1
x2 = ( b1 A12 + b2 A22 + ... + bn A21 ) ,, xn = ( b1 An 2 + b2 An 2 + ... + bn An1 ) .
| A| | A|
, :
: 4 127
( x1 , x2 ,..., xn ) =
1 1
= ( b1 A11 + b2 A21 + ... + bn An1 ) , ( b1 A12 + b2 A22 + ... + bn A21 ) ,...,
| A| | A|
1
, ( b1 An 2 + b2 An 2 + ... + bn An1 )
| A|
Gauss
n n
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + ... + a1n xn = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + ... + a2 n xn = b2

............................................
an1 x1 + an 2 x2 + ... + ann xn = bn
a11 ... a1n

a12 b1 x1
a
a22 ... a2 n b2 x
A = , b = , x = .
21 2
... ... ... ... ... ...

A% , A
b:
a11 b1
a12 ... a1n

a22 ... a2 n b2
%A = a21 .
...
... ... ... ...

an1
an 2 ... ann bn
Gauss,
, , -
:
a11 a12 ... a1n b1

%A = 0 a22 ... a2 n b2
... ... ... ... ...

0 0 ... ann bn
, ,
n
bn
xn = .
ann
xn , n 1 xn 1 , -
n 1 ...,
x1 1
x2 , a11 x1 + a12 x2 + ... + a1n xn = b1 .
128 .
13: , ,
.
-
. :
1 a12 ... a1nb1

... a2 n b2
%A = 0 1 a b
, a12 = 12 , bn = n ...
... ... ... ... ... a11 ann

0 0 ... 1 bn
xn = bn .
xn , n 1 xn 1 ,
n 1 ..., -
x1 1 x2 ,
x1 + a12x2 + ... + a1nxn = b1 .
Gauss Jordan
n n
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + ... + a1n xn = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + ... + a2 n xn = b2

............................................
an1 x1 + an 2 x2 + ... + ann xn = bn
a11 ... a1n

a12 b1 x1
a
a22 ... a2 n b2 x
A = , x = .
21 2
, b=
... ... ... ... ... ...

A% , A
b:
a11 a12b1 ... a1n

a22 ... a2 n b2
%A = a21 .
...
... ... ... ...

an1
an 2 ... ann bn
Gauss Jordan, , -
, ,
:
: 4 129
a11 b1
0 ... 0

a22 ... 0 b2
%A = 0 .
...
... ... ... ...

0 ... ann bn
0
, n -

bn
xn = ,
ann
n 1
bn 1
xn 1 = , ...,
an 1n
2
b2
x2 =
a22
, 1
b1
. x1 =
a11
14: , , -
.
-
. :
1 0 ... 0 1
b
1 ... 0 b2
%A = 0 b1 b b
, b2 = 2 , , bn = n
1 =
, b
... ... ... ... ... a11 a22 ann

0 0 ... 1 bn
xn = bn . n 1
xn 1 = bn 1 , 2 -
x2 = b2 , 1
x1 = b1 .
15: n n , -
| A | .
130 .
8.5
34: Gramer, 3 3
:
2 x1 3 x2 + 2 x3 = 9

3 x1 + 2 x2 x3 = 3 .
3 x + 3 x 2 x = 1
1 2 3
2 3 2 x1 9
A = 3 2 1 , x = x2 , B = 3 Ax = b .

3 3 2 x3 1
, :
2 3 2 9 3 2
| A |= 3 2 1 = 1 0 , | A1 |= 3 2 1 = 8 ,
3 3 2 1 3 2
2 9 2 2 3 9
| A2 |= 3 3 1 = 79 | A3 |= 3 2 3 = 131 .
3 1 2 3 3 1
| A1 | 8 | A | 79 | A | 131
x1 = = = 8 , x2 = 2 = = 79 x3 = 3 = = 131 .
| A| 1 | A| 1 | A| 1
( x1 , x2 , x3 ) = ( 8, 72,131) .
35: ,
3 3 :
x1 + 2 x2 x3 = 1

2 x1 + x2 + 2 x3 = 2 .
x + 2x + x = 0
1 2 3

1 2 1
A = 2 1 2 .
1 2 1
A | A |= 6 0 .
:
: 4 131
1 2 2 +1 2 1 3+1 2 1
A11 = ( 1) = 3 , A21 = ( 1) = 4 , A31 = ( 1)
1+1
= 5,
2 1 2 1 1 2
1+ 2 2 2 2 + 2 1 1 3+ 2 1 1
A12 = ( 1) = 0 , A22 = ( 1) = 2 , A32 = ( 1) = 4 ,
1 1 1 1 2 2
2 1 2+3 1 2 3+ 3 1 2
A13 = ( 1) = 3 , A23 = ( 1) = 0 , A33 = ( 1)
1+ 3
= 3
1 2 1 2 2 1
, :
A11 A21 A31 3 4 5
C = A12 A22 A32 = 0 2 4 .
A13 A23 A33 3 0 3
, A :
1 2 5
2
3 4 5 3 6

1 1 1 1 2
A = C = 0 2 4 = 0 .
| A| 6 3 3
3 0 3
1 0 1
2 2
, ,
:
1 1 11
x1 = ( b1 A11 + b2 A21 + b3 A31 ) = 1 ( 3) + 2 ( 4 ) + 0 5 = ,
| A| 6 6
1 1 2
x2 = ( b1 A12 + b2 A22 + b3 A32 ) = 1 0 + 2 2 + 0 ( 4 ) = ,
| A| 6 3
1 1 1
x3 = ( b1 A13 + b2 A23 + b3 A33 ) = 1 3 + 2 0 + 0 ( 3) = .
| A| 6 2

( x1 , x2 , x3 ) =
11 2 1
, , .
6 3 2
36: Gauss, 3 3
:
2 x1 + 2 x2 x3 = 1

x1 2 x2 = 2 .
x x x = 1
1 2 3
132 .
2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1
A = 1 2 0 2 2 2 2 + 1 0 2 1 5

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 2 3 + 1
2 2 1 1
0 2 1 5

0 0 3 1
, 3 , -
:
1
3x3 = 1 x3 =
3
1
x3 = 2
3
:
1 1 16 8
2 x2 x3 = 5 2 x2 = 5 2 x2 = 5 + 2 x2 = x2 =
3 3 3 3
8 1
x2 = x3 = , 1 -
3 3
:
8 1 17 10
2 x1 + 2 x2 x3 = 1 2 x1 2 = 1 2 x1 = 1 + x1 =
3 3 3 3

( x1 , x2 , x3 ) = , , .
10 8 1
3 3 3
37: Gauss Jordan, 3 3
:
x1 + x2 + 2 x3 = 2

x1 + 2 x2 x3 = 1 .

2 x1 x2 + x3 = 1
1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2
A = 1 2 1 1 2 2 1 0 1 3 1

2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 3 ( 2 ) 1 + 3
1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 2
0 1 3 1 0 1 3 1

0 3 3 3 3 3 2 + 3 0 0 12 6
: 4 133
1 0 5 3 1 5 3 + ( +12 ) 1 12 0 6
0
0 1 3 1 0 1 3 1 2 ( 4 ) 2 + 3

0 0 12 6 0 0 12 6
1
1 0 0
2
12 0 0 6 1 1 : (12 )
0 4 0 2 : 4 1
2 2 ( ) 0 1 0
2
0 0 12 6 3 3 : ( 112 )
0 0 1
1
2
, 3 , -
14, :
1
x3 =
.
2
2 -
:
1
x2 = .
2

1 -
:
1
x1 = .
2

( x1 , x2 , x3 ) =
1 1 1
, , .
2 2 2
38: Gramer, 3 3
:
x1 3 x2 2 x3 = 2

x1 + 2 x2 x3 = 3 .
3 x + 3 x x = 1
1 2 3
39: ,
3 3 :
x1 + 2 x2 x3 = 1

3 x1 x2 + 2 x3 = 2 .
3 x + 2 x + x = 2
1 2 3
134 .
40: Gauss, 3 3
:
2 x1 x2 + 3 x3 = 0

2 x1 + x2 = 0 .
x x + x = 1
1 2 3
41: Gauss Jordan, 3 3

:
x1 x2 3 x3 = 2

3 x1 + x2 + x3 = 1 .
2 x 1x + x = 1
1 2 3
8.6
8.6.1
n n
b = O .
39:
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + ... + a1n xn = 0
a x + a x + ... + a x = 0
21 1 22 2 2n n

............................................
an1 x1 + an 2 x2 + ... + ann xn = 0
n n .
| A |
a11 a12 ... a1n
a a22 ... a2 n
A = 21
... ... ... ...

am1 am 2 ... amn
,
0
0
x = .
...

0
, | A |= 0 ,
.
, ( -
), , Gauss ( -
: 4 135
).
:
a11 a12 ... 0
a1n
0 a22 ... a2 n 0
A=
... ... ... ... ...

0 0 ... ann 0
xn = xn 1 = ... = x2 = x1 = 0 .
, | A |= 0 ,
:
a11 a12 ... a1n 0
0 a22 ... a2 n 0
A=
... ... ... ... ...

0 0 ... 0 0
xn 2 , xn 3 ,..., x2 , x1 x3 .
,
, .
8.7
42: 3 3
x1 + x2 + x3 = 0

x1 2 x2 + x3 = 0 .
2 x + x 3x = 0
1 2 3
,
, . :
1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0
A = 1 2 1 0 2 2 + 1
0 1 2 0

2 1 3 0 2 1 3 0 3 ( 2 ) 1 + 3
1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0
0 1 2 0 0 1 2 0

0 1 5 0 3 3 2 0 0 7 0
7 x3 = 0 x3 = 0 , x2 + 2 x3 = 0 x2 = 0 , 1 x1 + 1 x2 + 1 x3 = 0
x1 = 0 .
3 3
( x1 , x2 , x3 ) = ( 0, 0, 0 ) .
136 .
43: 3 3
x1 + x2 2 x3 = 0

x1 + 4 x3 = 0 .

x1 x2 + 2 x3 = 0
, , | A |= 0 .
3 3 . :
1 1 2 0 1 1 2 0
A = 1 0 4 0 2 2 + 1 0 1 2 0

1 1 2 0 1 1 2 0 3 3 + 1
1 1 2 0
0 1 2 0

0 0 0 0
x3 R .
2 ,
:
1 x2 + 2 x3 = 0 x2 = 2 x3 .
1 -
:
1 x1 + 1 x2 2 x3 = 0 x1 = x2 + 2 x3 x1 = ( 2 x3 ) + 2 x3 x1 = 4 x3
( x1 , x2 , x3 ) = ( 4 x3 , 2 x3 , x3 ) ,
x3 R .
44: 3 3
2 x1 + x2 + x3 = 0

x1 + x2 + x3 = 0 .
2 x + x + 3 x = 0
1 2 3
45: 3 3
x1 2 x2 + 2 x3 = 0

x1 4 x2 + 2 x3 = 0 .
2 x + 4 x 4 x = 0
1 2 3
: 4 137
.

1.
2.
3.

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
2011
1
={,,,}
{ }
{, , , } , , .
{}
( )
( -
)
( , )
( , )

* 0

* 0
+
-
Q
Q*
Q+
Q-
R
R*
R+
R-
sup
inf
1 1
2 2
3 3

( )
( )
( )
( )
2 .
( )
(, )
(,,) ,
(1,2,3,..,) - 1,2,3,.. ,
d
(-,+) , >0
U(,) , >0
(,1,2,3,,) , >0
( )
( )
=

>

<

+
-
| |
+ ()
- ()
.
x * ()
: / ()
( 0)
( 2, )
log (>0, 1, >0)
log lg (>0)
ln (>0)
(>0, 1)
!
e 2,71
3,1415 180
3

() {}
n
i=1
1 n

1, 2,, 1, 2 ,
(, ) ,
[, ] ,
[, ) ,
(, ] ,
f(x) y=f(x) x, x , y
Df f(x)
f(Df) f(x)
f(x,y)
f(x1,x2,x3,,xn)
f-1(y) f(x)=y
1-1

(t)=F(f(t)
(fog)(x)=f(g(x)) g f
(gof)(x)=g(f(x)) f g
lim f ( x) f(x) x x0
x x0
lim f ( x) f(x) x +
x +
lim f ( x) f(x) x -
x
lim f ( x, y ) f(x,y) x x0 y y0
( x , y ) ( x0 , y0 )
lim lim f ( x, y ) f(x,y) x x0 y y0

x x0 y y0
df ( x) df dz
f(x) fx fx zx zx
dx dx dx
z=f(x)
d 2 f ( x) d2 f d2z
f(x) fx fx zx zx -
dx dx dx
z=f(x)
4 .
d ( ) f ( x) d ( ) f d ( ) z
f (x) fx() zx() -
dx dx dx
z=f(x)
df y=f(x)
d2f y=f(x)
df y=f(x) -
f f
, y=f(x) x y -
x y
2 f 2 f 2 f
, , z=f(x,y) x
x 2 xy y 2
y
df(x,y) z=f(x,y)
dm f(x,y) m- z=f(x,y)
F[x,f(x)]
F[x,y,f(x,y)]

s = m ( x x 1 ) Darboux
v =1

S = M ( x x 1 ) Darboux
v =1

= f ( ) ( x x 1 ) Riemann
v =1
f ( x)dx f(x)
f ( x) f(x)
, , ,
, , ,
p, q, r,
=

a

,

5

rad ()
l
S
V
sin
cos
tan
ctan
arcsin
arccos
arctan
arcctan
6 .
: = a1
.a24
4 3a , R, , ,
.a....

.
: 2 , 3 .

1) 0=1, R*
2) 1=1, R
3) 1=, R
4) .=+, R+, R, R
5) :=-, R+, R, R
6) ()=., R+, R, R
7) (.)=., R+, R+, R

8) = , R+, R*+ , R

1
9) a = , R*+, R

p
q
10) q = a p , 0, q=2,
p
q
11) q = a p , R, q=2+1,
12) >1 >0, >1
13) >1 <0, <1
14) 0<<1 >0, <1
15) 0<<1 <0, >1
8 .
a, a > 0

R: a = 0, a = 0
, a < 0

1) || 0, R
2) |-|=||, R
3) ||, R
4) || - , R, R+
5) || - , R, R+
6) |+| ||+||, R, R
7) |-| ||-||, R, R
8) |+| |||-|||, R, R
9) |.|=||.||, R, R

10) = , R, R*

10 .

11
0, >1, , ,
=, 0,
=

. .
<0 .

1) 0 =0, >1, .
2) 1 =1, >1, .

3) =||, >1, .
4) . = . , 0, 0, >1, .

5) = , 0, >0, >1, .

( )

6)
= , 0, >1, >1, , .
.
7) = , 0, >1, >1, , .
8) = . . , 0, >1, >1, , , .
+ 2 2
1) + = + , 0, 0, 2- 0.
2 2
+ 2 2
2) = , 0, 0, 2- 0, - 0.
2 2
( )
2
3) + + 2 . = + = + , 0, 0.
12 .

1) = = = = , >0.

| |
2)

=
( m ) =
( m ) , 0, 0, .
( )( m )
13

>0, 1 >0, log= =, , -
.

1) log1=0, >0, 1.
2) log=1, >0, 1.
3) log = , >0, 1, >0.
4) log=log, A=B, >0, 1, A>0, B>0.
5) >1 >>0, log>log.
6) 0<<1 >>0, log<log.
7) >1, 0<<1, log<0.
8) >1, >1, log>0.
9) 0<<1, 0<<1, log>0.
10) 0<<1, >1, log<0.

1) log(.)=log+log, >0, 1, >0, >0.

2) log( )=log-log, >0, 1, >0, >0.

3) log=log, >0, 1, >0, R.
4) log
1 log , >0, 1, >0, , >1.
=

log
5) : log= , >0, 1, >0, 1, >0.
log
6) =, : log = 1 log >0, 1, >0, *.

: =e 2,71, log=ln -
( ).
14 .

15

.
, 2, 3,,,(1 , ).
. 1
{}
=-1+, , .
=2-1=3-2==--1= - .
>0 .
<0 .

1) = 1 + +1 .
2
2) 1+=2+-1=.
3) =1+(-1).
4) = . 21 + ( 1) = . 1 + - .
2 2

..
, 2, 3,,,(1 , 1 0
.. 1
). {}
=-1.
= 2 = 3 = 4 = ... = = ... - .
1 2 3 1
>1 .
<1 .

1) 2 =-1.+1.
2) =1.-1.
3) 1.=2.-1=
4) = . 1 = 1. 1 , 1 - .

1 1
5) S = 1 , ||<1 - .
1
16 .

17
:
1 + x x3 +
1) 2x2+x, , , x 3
- .
x y
x2 +
2) 2x2+y3, x, , - .
y3
x3 +
3) , x 3 , 2x+lnx .
y
1: x x,
a xy 3
R, Z +* x , x R. : x2y, 2x3y2z, .
3 2
2: x
x+-1x-1++1x+0, , 0, 1,,-1, R. P(x)
. : x+y3,
x4+2x3y+2x.
3: x, -1x-1,,1x, 0 ( , 0, 1,,-1, R)
(x), 1,,-1,
(x), 0 (x).

1) : P(x)=0.
2) : P(x)=0.
4: P(x)= x+-1x-1++1x+0
Q(x)=x+-1x-1++1x+0 , , 0, 1,,-1, R 0, 1,,-1,
R. P(x)=Q(x), 0=0,
1=1,,-1=-1, = +1=+2===0, .
5: x
.
6: P(x)=x+-1x-1++1x+0, , 0, 1,,-1, R,
P()=+-1-1++1+0
P(x). ()=0, P(x).
18 .

19
1) : (+)2=2+2+2
1) 2+2=(+)2-2
2) : (-)2=2-2+2
2) 2+2=(-)2+2
3) : (+)3=3+32+32+3
3) 3+3=(+)3-32-32
4) : (-)3=3-32+32-3
4) 3-3=(-)3+32-32
5) : 2-2=(-)(+)
6) : 3-3=(-)(2++2)
6) : -=(-)(-1+-21+-32++-2+-1), , >1
7) : 3+3=(+)(2-+2)
7) : +=(+)(-1--21+-32-+-2--1), , >1
8) (++)2=2+2+2+2+2+2
9) (++)3=3+3+3+32+32+32+32+32+32+6
10) Euler: 3+3+3-3=(++)(2+2+2---)=
1
= (++)[(-)2+(-)2+(-)2]
2
11) Lagrange: (2+2)(x2+y2)-(x+y)2=(y-x)2
12) De Moure: 4+4+4-222-222=-(++)(-++)(-+)(+-)
20 .

21
x2+x=x(x+)
x3+x2+x=x(x2+x+)
x2+xy+y+x=x(x+y)+(x+y)=(x+1)(x+y)
4x2+-2x-2x=2x(2x-1)-(2x-1)=(2x-1)(2x-)
1) 2+2+2= (+)2
2) 2-2+2=(-)2
3) 2-2=(-)(+)
4) 3+32+32+3=(+)3
5) 3-32+32-3=(-)3
6) 3+3=(+)(2-+2)
7) +=(-)(-1--21+-32-+-2--1), , >1
8) 3-3=(-)(2++2)
9) -=(+)(-1+-21+-32++-2+-1), , >1
22 .

23

(x)= P( x) , P(x)
Q( x)
3x +
Q(x) Q(x) 0. :
1+ y
y -1, ( x + 2) x 1 y 3.
( x 1)( y 3)

P( x) P( x) M ( x)
= , Q( x) 0 M(x) 0
Q( x) Q( x) M ( x)
P( x) R( x) P( x)T ( x) + R( x)Q( x)
1) : + = ,
Q( x) T ( x) Q( x)T ( x)
Q ( x ) 0, T ( x ) 0 .
2) : P( x) R( x) = P( x)T ( x) R( x)Q( x) ,
Q( x) T ( x) Q( x)T ( x)
Q ( x ) 0, T ( x ) 0 .
3) : P ( x) . R ( x) = P ( x) R ( x) ,
Q( x) T ( x) Q ( x)T ( x )
Q( x) 0, T ( x) 0 .
4) : P ( x) : R ( x ) = P( x)T ( x) ,
Q( x) T ( x) Q( x) R( x)
Q ( x ) 0, T ( x ) 0, R ( x ) 0 .
5) : P( x) = ( ) = P ( x) , P( x) 0, * .

P( x)
+
Q( x) ( Q( x) )

Q ( x)

(x)=(x)(x)+(x), (x), (x), (x) (x)
(x) 0 (x)
(x)
(x)
(x) (x)
(x)
(x) (x)
(x)
(x)
1: P(x) (x-) -
()=, (x)=(x-)(x)+().
24 .
2: (x) x- ,
()=0, (x).
Horner

P(x)=3x3+6x2-17x+20 x-.
P(x)
3 6 -17 20
3 (3+6) [(3+6)-17]
3 3+6 (3+6)-17 [(3+6)-17]+20

2
(x)=3x +(3+6)x+(3+6)-17
(x)=[(3+6)-17]+20
3: x1, x2,, x
x1<x2<<x, f(x)=(x-x1)(x-x2)(x-x)
:
) 1=(-, x1), 2=(x1, x2), , =(x-1, x),
+1=(x, +) f(x) ..
) i, i+1 f(x) .
) +1=(x, +) f(x) .
3
x1, x2,,x -
. (x, +)
,
f(x).
: x R,
f(x)= -5x(x-2)(x-1)(x+2).

:
- -2 + 0 1 + 2 +
- - -
Cf f(x) 2,
-
xx ( f(x)<0) xx ( f(x)>0).
25
20 0
y
x x
5 3 1 1 3 5
200 Cf
400 y
f(x)>0 x (-2, 0) (1, 2), f(x)<0

x (-, -2) (0, 1) (2, +). x= -2 x=0 x=1 x=2 f(x)
.
f(x)=(x-x1)(x-x2)(x-x)
: : 2 3 4
+ 1+
x 2 x 1 x
2 3 4
: + 1 0
x 2 x 1 x
2 x( x 1) 3x( x 2) x( x 1)( x 2) 4( x 1)( x 2)

+ 0
x( x 1)( x 2) x( x 1)( x 2) x( x 1)( x 2) x( x 1)( x 2)
: 2 x( x 1) + 3 x( x 2) x( x 1)( x 2) 4( x 1)( x 2) 0
x( x 1)( x 2)
... 0: x(x-1)(x-2) 0 x 0 x 1 x 2
2 x 2 2 x + 3x 2 6 x x 3 + 3x 2 2 x 4 x 2 + 4 x + 8 x 8
: 0
x( x 1)( x 2)
x + 4x + 2x 8 0
3 2
x( x 1)( x 2)
: Horner
-1 4 2 -8 = 4
-4 0 8
-1 0 2 0
( x 4)( x 2 + 2)
0
(
( x 4) x + 2 x 2 )(
0
)
x( x 1)( x 2) x( x 1)( x 2)
26 .
/ -
,
( )( )
x( x 1)( x 2)( x 4) x + 2 x 2 0 x(x-1)(x-2)(x+2)<0.
:
- - - 2 0 - 1 2 - 2 + 4 +
+ + -
( ) ( )
x 2, 0 1, 2 ( 2, 4 ) .

f ( x ) = ( x x1 ) k1 ( x x 2 ) k 2 ...( x x ) k m , k1, k2,km -
, i=1,,, m N * . . -
k1, k2,km ,
m N * .
: x R,
f(x)=x(x-1)(x-2)(x+1)2.

4 -
x, x-1, x-2 x+1.
x - -1 0 1 2 +
x - - + + +
x-1 - - - + +
x-2 - - - - +
(x+1)2 + + + + +
f(x) - - + - +
f(x)>0 x (0, 1) (2, +), f(x)<0

x (-, -1) (-1, 0) (1, 2), f(x)=0 x= -1, x=0, x=1, x=2.
27
1: ,
, , -
.
n (n) {n} 1, 2, 3,,n,
1, 2, 3,,n , 1 , n
, n .
3 6 9 3n 3n
: , , ,..., ,... an = .
11 16 21 5n + 6 5n + 6
2: n : >0, n , ,
n>n, n , |n|<. : lim an = 0 lim an = 0
n +
an 0 .
3: : n , : n .
4: : n , : n.
5: : n , , : n .
6: n
.
7: n -
.

1) liman = 0 lim ( an ) = 0 lim | an |= 0
2) k N , liman = 0 liman + k = 0
3) liman = 0, n

1) lim n = 0 k : n>k, n |n| |n|, lim an = 0 .
2) lim an = lim n = 0 , lim ( an + n ) = 0 .
3) lim an = 0, n , lim ( an n ) = 0 .
4) lim an = 0 , lim an = 0 , R.
5) lim an = 0 lim n = 0 , lim ( an n ) = 0 .
4: : >0, n , , n>n,
n , |n-|<. : lim an = lim an =
n +
an .
5: 1, 2, 3,,n, , -
n , n n+1.
28 .
6: 1, 2, 3,,n, , -
n , n n+1

1) n n ,
lim an = lim n = , n>k n n n, , lim n = .
( )
2) lim an = >0, lim m an = m , m N {0,1} .
3) lim an = >0, lim n an = 1 .
4)
.
n
1
5) an = 1 + , lim an = , 2,71
n

1) lim ( an + n ) = lim an + lim n
2) lim ( an n ) = lim an lim n
3) lim ( an . n ) = lim an .lim n
4) lim ( man ) = m lim an , m R
5) lim ( an ) = ( lim an ) , m R
m m
an lim an
6) lim = , n 0
n lim n
7: : >0, n , ,
n>n, n , n>, lim an = + lim an = + an + .
n +
>0, n , , n>n, n , n<-,

lim an = lim an = an .
n +

1) k N * , lim an = + ( ) lim an + k = + ( ) .
2) lim an = +( ) lim ( an ) = ( +) .
3) lim an = +( ) lim | an |= + .
4) lim an = +( ) , n , , n>n, n ,
n>0 ( n<0).
5) k N n N , n n. :
) lim an = + lim n = +
) lim an = lim n =
29

1) n >0 , , n , n1,
n2 , n1>no, n2>no | an1 an2 | .
2) n , .
3) lim | an |=| lim an | .
4) lim n n = 1 .
5) lim an = 0 , n , n>no -
.

1) n n , k , , n>k,
n , an n lim an lim n .
2) lim an = + , n * an 0 , lim m an = +, m N {0,1} .
3) >1, lim a n = + .

1) lim an = n ( ), lim ( an + n ) = .
2) lim an = n , lim ( an . n ) = .
3) lim an = n , lim ( an . n ) = m .

1
1) lim an = +( ), n N , an 0 lim = 0.
an
1
2) lim an = 0, k N : n > k , an > 0(an < 0) lim = + ( ) .
an
30 .

31

=90, <90 <90.
- ,
= , =
= , = ,

= , = , = , =

() (rad)

=
.a , , .
180
0 1 30o 45o 60o 90o 180o 270o 360o
3
rad .rad 0 0,017 2
6 4 3 2 2

y t q
B(0,r)
s
P
q
M(,)
k 2
r

x O 1 A(0,r) x
k(O,r=1) , t||yy, s||xx

2 1
= = = , = = = , = = , = =
r r r r r r
32 .

.

1 + + + +
2 + - - -
3 - - + +
4 - + - -

= 0 30o 45o 60o 90o 180o 270o 360o
1 2 3
0 1 0 -1 0
2 2 2
3 2 1
1 0 -1 0 1
2 2 2
3 - -
0 1 3 0 0
3
- 3 - -
3 1 0 0
3

1
1) 2 + 2 = 1 4) 1 + 2 =
2
1
2) = 5) 1 + =
2

3) = 6) . = 1

33

x= x x x x
- - - -

-
2

+ - - -
2
- - - -
+ - -
3
- - -
2
3
+ - - -
2
2- - - -
2+ +

1) ( + ) = +
2) ( ) =
3) ( + ) =
4) ( ) = +
+
5) ( + ) =
1

6) ( ) =
1 +
1
7) ( + ) =
+
+ 1
8) ( + ) =

34 .

1) 2 = 2
2) 2 = 2 2 = 1 2 2 = 2 2 1
2 k
3) 2 = , ,k Z
1
2
4
2 1 k
4) 2 = , ,k Z
2 2

1) 3 = 3 4 3
2) 3 = 4 3 3
3 3
3) 3 =
1 3 2
3 3
4) 3 =
3 2 1

1
1) =
2 2
1 +
2) =
2 2
1 1
3) = = =
2 1 + 1 +
1 + 1 +
4) = = =
2 1 1
+

.
2

1) 2 2 = 1 2
2) 2 2 = 1 + 2
3) 4 3 = 3 3
4) 4 3 = 3 + 3
35

+
1) + = 2
2 2
+
2) = 2
2 2
+
3) + = 2
2 2
+ +
4) = 2 = 2
2 2 2 2
( + )
5) + =

( )
6) =

( + )
7) + =

( )
8) =

1
1) = ( ) ( + )
2
1
2) = ( ) + ( + )
2
1
3) = ( + ) + ( )
2
+
4) =
+
+
5) =
+
+
6) =
+
36 .

2
1) = 2

1 + 2
2

1 2
2) = 2

1 + 2
2
3) + = 1 + 2
4) = 1 2

5) + = 2
4

6) = 2
4

7) 1 + = 2 2
4

8) 1 + = 2 2
2

9) 1 = 2 2
4 2

10) 1 = 2 2
2

2
11) 1 = 4 = 4

4
( m )
12) 1 =

( m )
13) 1 =

2
14) 1 2 =
2
2
15) 1 2 =
2
37

x = 2 k +

1) x = , x ( , + ) , k Z
x = 2k + 1
( )
x = 2 k +

2) x = , x ( , + ) , k Z
x = 2 k

3) x = x = k + , x ( 2k + 1) , kZ
2
4) x = x = k + , x k , k Z
5) , 0, x R , : x+x=(x+), = 2 + 2

R = = .

38 .

Notes M I 1

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.

ii. f(x)=x2+x+, Df=R, R*, , R

iii. f(x)=x3, Df=R,

vi. f(x)= | x | , Df=R

vii. f(x)=x Df=R

viii. g(x)=x Dg=R

xi. f(x)=x, Df=R, 0< 1

xii. f(x)=logx, Df= R+* , 0< 1

f(x) g(x) Df Dg. -

11: f(x), g(x)

10: f(x)=lnx g(x)= x . -

ax>1, x>0 a x1 < a x 2 , x1<x2, a x 2 -a x1 > 0 1 x 1 x > 0 .

f(x2)-f(x1)>0 x>0 f(x)

17: f(x)=2e3x-2 1-1.

18: , : g(y)= y g(y)= - y

iii. x1, x2 Df, x1 x2. :

>0, >0 , |x|< ,

: f(x)=c, cR, lim f ( x) = c lim c = c .

i. lim [ f ( x) + g ( x) ] = lim f ( x) + lim g ( x)

ii. lim [ f ( x) g ( x)] = lim f ( x) lim g ( x)

iii. lim [ f ( x).g ( x)] = lim f ( x).lim g ( x)

5: f(x), g(x) h(x)

, lim [ f ( x).g ( x)] = 0 .

0<x<90 x< x <1 -1<- x <-x 0<1- x <1-x

2 x 2 1 < 2 ( x + 1)( x 1) < 2 x + 1. x 1 < x + 1. x 1 < .

4: =10-2, >0, , 0< x 1 <,

lim x + lim 4 2+4 6 6 6 1

>0, x 0<|x-|< f(x)<. :

: , lim log a x = , a > 1 .

ii) lim g ( x) = lim [ f ( x) + g ( x)] =

i) >0 lim [ f ( x).g ( x)] = +

ii) <0 lim [ f ( x).g ( x)] =

ii) lim [ f ( x).g ( x)] = +

, >0 =log. x<B, -

) f(x)>0 lim f ( x) = 0 . , lim 1 = + .

<x<+ |f(x)-|<. : lim f ( x) = lim f ( x) =

lim f ( x) = lim+ f ( x) = lim f ( x ) = lim f ( x) .

lim f ( x) = f (0) = 0 , f(x) xR.

x<2 3x<6 3x+5<11 : |x-1|<1 (x-1)2<1 -(x-1)2>-1

lim f ( x) = lim x 2 = 12 = 1 lim f ( x) = lim(

(x)= 5-2 (2)=5-2.2=5-4=1.

viii. f(x)=x, -1<x<1, 1

f(u) f(u) f(u) f(u)

iii. f ( x) = ( x ) x vi. f ( x ) = (ln x) x

) , n=k+1: f ( k +1) ( x) = x + (k + 1).

lim g ( x) = + lim g ( x) = , F(x)

ii. De L Hospital Bernoulli :

00. [f(x)]g(x)=eg(x)lnf(x), f(x)>0 -

vii. f(x) x=0, x=

ii. f(x+T)=f(x) (x+T)=x T=.

iii. x xdx vi. a 2 x 2 dx

iv. e x xdx = xde x = e x x - e x d x = e x x - e x xdx =

u=x-3, du=d(x-3) , : I = u102 du = u

VII. : u ( x)v ( x)vdx = u ( x)dv( x)

ii. xdx vi. a x dx

iii. xdx vii. ln( x + x + 1)dx

x 2 + a 2 dx viii. ln( x + 1)dx

vii. u= ln( x + x 2 + 1) , v=x :

1 x=t t=x, dx=tdt

s = q p , t = x + p , I k = 2 1 k dx, (ab > 0) .

iii. ax 2 + bx + c = ( x 1 )t , = b 2 - 4ac > 0 . a ( x 1 )( x 2 ) = ( x 1 )t , -

ii. . =-1<0 c=1>0 1 x x 2 = 1 xt (-

iii. =4>0 x2+2x x1=0 x2=-