562 COMBUSTION A N D FLAME 99:562-572 (1994)

The Development of Instabilities in Laminar Explosion Flames

D E R E K BRADLEY* and C. M. HARPER
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, England

Theoretical and experimental studies are presented of the growth of flame instabilities arising from
perturbations of spherically propagating laminar flames in an explosion bomb. High-speed cin6 schlieren
photographs show flame instability to be associated with the propagation of cracks, originating from
disturbances due to flame movement over the spark electrodes, along the flame surface. Such cracks are the
precursors of a cellular flame structure and they propagate at a rate that corresponds qualitatively with the
theoretically predicted growth rate of the amplitude of a perturbation. The theoretical critical Peclet number
for the growth of instabilities is associated with the onset of crack propagation, not with the completion of
cell development. The theoretical approach follows that of Bechtold and Matalon and a flame stability
diagram is derived in terms of dimensionless groups, including Peclet and Markstein numbers. Further
experiments on vented explosions, in which stronger pressure pulses are created, are described. Taylor
instabilities, arising from the baroclinic, vorticity generation term, Vp x Vp/p 2, create macro and micro
vorticity at the flame front that enhance the burn rate and create a turbulent flame. Based upon this term, a
flame vorticity number is proposed for the prediction of the onset of turbulent flame propagation.

INTRODUCTION = (2/r)(dr/dt)), can be stabilizing and suffi-

If a wavelike deformation of a flame occurs,
then at the crest of the wave there is a diverg-
ing conductive heat flux away from the flame
surface into the cold reactants ahead of it and
a converging diffusive flux of the deficient re-
actant into the surface. If the diffusion coeffi-
cient in the Lewis number expression is that
for this reactant, then for values of the number
less than unity there is a resulting increase in
enthalpy by the flame and the local burning
velocity increases. The converse situation arises
at the trough of the wave, where there is a loss
of enthalpy and the burning velocity decreases.
The crest then propagates faster than the
trough and the amplitude of the wave-like dis-
turbance of the front increases. If the Lewis
number, Le, is greater than unity, similar rea-
soning shows the burning velocity to decrease
at the crest and to increase at the trough, with
consequent decrease in the amplitude of the
perturbation. On the other hand, at small radii
of a spherically propagating flame of surface
area, A, the flame stretch, (= ( 1 / A ) ( d A / d t )
* Corresponding author.
Presented at the Twenty-Fifth Symposium (International)
on Combustion, Irvine, California, 31 July-5 August 1994.
0010-2180/94/$7.00
cient to reduce the amplitude of the perturba-
tion and counter any thermodiffusive instabil-
ity.
The planar numerical solutions of Michelson
and Sivashinsky [1] show an unstable perturba-
tion of the flame to evolve to a cellular flame
structure in which the cells are in continuous,
but irregular, motion. Hertzberg [2] has char-
acterized a cellular flame structure as a stabi-
lized steady state condition. Deformation of a
flame surface can arise from its movement
over a solid body, from pressure pulses, and
from acoustic oscillations.
Theoretical and experimental studies are re-
ported of the development of flame instabili-
ties arising in spherically propagating laminar
flames. The instabilities are associated with
the propagation of cracks arising from distur-
bances, along the flame surface. Such cracks
are the precursors of a cellular structure and
they grow in length at a rate which is related to
the theoretically predicted growth rate of the
amplitude of the perturbation. The critical
Peclet number for the growth of instabilities is
associated with the onset of crack propagation,
not with the completion of cell development.
Also presented are the consequences of
the stronger perturbations that arise from the
pulses of pressure, p, created in vented explo-
Copyright 1994 by The Combustion Institute
Published by Elsevier Science Inc.
THE D E V E L O P M E N T OF INSTABILITIES IN L A M I N A R EXPLOSION FLAMES
sions in another vessel. These interact with the
steep gradient of density, p, at the flame front
and Taylor instabilities arises from the baro-
clinic, vorticity generation, term Vp V p / p 2.
Flame instabilities can grow at each pressure
wave interaction and eventually make the flame
turbulent.
THEORY OF SPHERICAL
FLAME PERTURBATION
Clavin and Williams [3] and Matalon and
Matkowsky [4] have analyzed asymptotically for
large Zeldovich numbers, /3 ( = T,(T b - T , ) /
Tb2), the propagation of a perturbation of a
planar flame over a spectrum of wavelengths.
Suffices u and b indicate unburned and burned
gas and T, the activation temperature. Linear
perturbation analysis leads to a dispersion re-
lationship that expresses the growth of the
perturbation in terms of wavenumber. The
wavelength associated with the maximum rate
of growth of the perturbation predominates in
any ensuing cellular structure. Bechtold and
Matalon [5] analyzed the perturbation of a
spherical flame incorporating the global flame
stretch, and this provides the present theoreti-
cal framework. The hydrodynamic instability
arises from an initial perturbation of the flame
front and the thermal expansion and irrota-
tional disturbances ahead of it. Perturbed vari-
ables are expanded in a spherical harmonic
series. After the flame of radius, r, has propa-
gated beyond the initial value, r 0, significantly
greater than the flame thickness, 3t, the ampli-
tude, a, of the perturbation relative to r, devel-
ops according to
a = a o R '(l+ex~/In R) (I)
Here a 0 is the initial dimensionless amplitude,
R is r / r o, = 6t/r and ~o is a growth rate
parameter, dependent upon the density ratio
o-, while 1-/ depends upon or, Le, and /3. The
ratio 6t/r o is taken to be 1/50, while ~t =
v / u n is the kinematic viscosity divided by the
laminar burning velocity. Solutions for oJ and
f~, and the growth rate of a perturbation,
(= (1/a)(da/dt)), at different flame radii, are
given in terms of the spherical harmonics, or,
and Markstein number, Ma, in the Appendix.
563
Shown in Fig. 1 are the variations of E with
wavelength, A, given by Eq. A7, for a spherical
explosion flame with u t = 0.4 m s- I, Ma = 3.5,
or = 5.9, and 8l = 0.05 mm. At small flame
radii, E is negative at all wavelengths, any
perturbations are removed, and the flame is
stable. Up to a flame radius of 15 mm the
flame is stable for all wavelengths, but at
greater radii E becomes positive and the flame
unstable. This occurs first at a wavelength of
about 7 mm, but thereafter over a wider range.
The wavelength associated with the maximum
growth rate decreases. Instability first arises
when Pe ( = r / 8 l) becomes equal to ~. Above
this critical Peclet number, Pe c, a perturbation
can overcome the stabilizing influences of a
diminished flame stretch and thermodiffusion.
Greater generality is demonstrated by the
dimensionless plots for o" = 6. 7 in Fig. 2 of the
maximum growth rate of a perturbation, ~m, at
the most unstable wavelength, Am. This is a
function of Pe and Ma, as given by Eq. A8.
The near-vertical full line curves are the values
of Am, the most unstable wavelength normal-
ized by 6t. The broken lines show where the
Peclet number has the critical value, Pec, and
are the demarcation between stable and unsta-
ble r6gimes. The value of A m increases with
Ma. The analytical technique is invalid for
A < 30, but it is clear that the lower the value
of Ma, the earlier do instabilities develop in
the explosion. When Ma _< 1.5, the flame is
always unstable.
300
200
I00
,.ha
~" '~,~ RADIUS
o
STABLE REGIME
,u~ RADIUS_____-
-100
11mm
/
-200 0' 4.O 8i 0
' '
WAVELENGTH ~, I rnm)
Fig, 1. G r o w t h rate of instability, ]2, with increasing flame
radius. L a m i n a r burning velocity = 0.4, m s - 1 Ma = 3.5,
= 5.9, and 61 = 0.05 mm.
564
.t
3000
,.=,
2ooo
7=
el_
1000
d ~t 222
b.88
__ _ I _ I
2
MARKSTEIN NUMBER
Fig. 2. Variation of m a x i m u m growth rate of perturbation, ~m, at most unstable wavelength
A m, with Markstein and Peclet numbers; ~r = 6.7. Lettered experimental points and associated
values of C,, are from Fig. 5.
APPARATUS
The cylindrical bomb was of cast steel of 305
mm diameter and 305 mm length, with win-
dows in each of the two end plates. Centrally
spark-ignited flames were observed by He-Ne
laser, high speed, schlieren photography. The
fuels--hydrogen, methane, propane, and iso-
octane--were fan-mixed with air in the bomb.
The pressure was one atmosphere and initial
temperature 328 K.
Vented explosions were observed in another
vessel. This comprised two parallel plates of
perspex, 20 mm thick and 280 mm square,
maintained at a distance of 20 mm apart by
space bars along three sides. At the center of
the middle space bar, along the end of the
vessel, was access for one pair of spark elec-
trodes. Another pair was provided at the vented
end. The fourth side comprised a membrane of
either a single or double sheet of paper, se-
cured by adhesive tape. The thickness con-
trolled the strength of the venting pressure
pulses. Into one of the two parallel space bars
was fitted a Kistler 410 B pressure transducer
at the closed, with another at the vented end.
Again, high speed laser schlieren photography
was employed, with the expanded beam normal
D. B R A D L E Y AND C. M. H A R P E R
,,
,, - - </
. "5.g
I I
Ha
to the parallel plates. To study the develop-
ment of instabilities, it was necessary to max-
imise the time the flame was exposed to the
pressure pulses created by the venting, and yet
retain it within the field of view of the camera.
This was achieved by igniting the mixture si-
multaneously at the two pairs of electrodes at
each end of the vessel. The sole purpose of the
flame at the venting end was to reduce the
flame speed of the flame under observation
and hold it in the view of the camera as long as
possible.
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Growth of Instabilities in Spherical Explosions
The schlieren photographs in Fig. 3, taken by
Hamid [6], show the rapid development of cel-
lular flame structure in a hydrogen-air mixture
explosion, equivalence ratio, ~b, of 0.26, in the
cylindrical bomb. Cell development is rapid, as
it was also with a rich, ~b = 1.4, iso-octane
flame. Cell evolution on this flame surface is
traced in Fig. 4 from the schlieren cin~ film.
The spark creates some initial disturbance, (i),
which soon decays. Localized deformations
arise from the flame movement over the elec-
T H E D E V E L O P M E N T OF INSTABILITIES IN L A M I N A R E X P L O S I O N FLAMES 565

(a) 0.67 ms (d) 20.04 ms

(b) 2.51 ms (e) 40.92 ms

(c) 11.69 ms ff) 59.29 ms

Fig. 3. Schlieren cin6 photographs of cellular flame development during explosion of H 2 air mixture,
= 0.26. Read downwards from top left.

trodes. These persist and create cracks that
propagate along the s u r f a c e - - t h e precursors
of a more stable cellular structure. The circled
regions show such propagation to be followed
by cross-cracking at the waist (v) of two neigh-
boring, near-parallel, cracks.
The crack propagation velocity along the
spherical surface is a measure of instability
growth. The length of a continuous crack is the
sum of arcs of great circles. For an arc of
length c that subtends an angle 0 at the cen-
ter of the flame sphere c = rO and d c / d t =
r d O / d t + 0 dr/dt. The first term arises from
crack propagation, the second from flame sur-
face growth. Shown in Fig. 5 are measured
crack propagation velocities, C,., along the
flame surface, obtained solely from the sum-
ming of the first crack propagation term at
566 D. BRADLEY AND C. M. H A R P E R

in dimensionless form in Fig. 2. The numerical

- (i) @ (ii) ~ (iii) values alongside are normalized crack propa-
gation velocities, ~,, ( = C~,/ut). In general, for
a given mixture, C,, increases with Pe, as does
~m" A negative value of C,, corresponds to the
stable r6gime (Pe _< Pec), where perturbations
are removed. Low values of Ma are associated
with high values of C,, and, as a consequence,
the mixture with Ma = 0.23 most rapidly ap-
proached a full cellular structure.

Fig. 4. Flame crackingand evolutionof cellular structure Growth of Instabilities in Vented Explosions
on iso-octane-air explosion flame surface, 4~= 1.4. (iii)
shows crack initiation, (iv) crack propagation, and (v) Strong pressure pulses were generated by vent-
cross-cracking. ing the parallel plate vessel. Shown in Fig. 6
are methane-air (~b = 1, Ma = 3.6) schlieren
flame photographs. Time is measured from the
different radii for the full range of mixtures. instant of membrane rupture, between (a) and
An increase in C~ with r indicates perturba- (b). The flame propagates from left to right
tion growth, and suggests the flame is unstable and the second flame can be seen on the right
to the electrode-created disturbance, while a in (a). When the membrane, at the right, rup-
decrease in C o indicates a stable flame. Values tures the flame accelerates to the right and
of Ma and ut for the mixtures are given in the hot, less dense gas accelerates the more rapidly,
figure. Measured values of Ma have large un- (b). A rarefaction wave enters the vessel and
certainties. The present values derive from pressure gradients are reversed, now with pref-
those reported in Ref. 7 and Eq. A6. Values at erential acceleration of hot gas towards the
the lettered points in Fig. 5 are plotted by closed end (d). The Vp Vp interactions gen-
crosses, with the same lettered identification, erate flame folding on a large scale, with cusp

120 ' ' Me utIms-1) ' I

m HYDROGEN-AIR 1.59 5./+ t+. 2
a HYDROGEN-AIR 0.26 0.23 0.5 /
e,f,g METHANE-AIR 1.0 3.6 0.51 /Ha =5.4
c,d PROPANE-AIR 1.4 1.1 0.36 /
B0 h,i PROPANE-AIR 0.9 t,.0 0.k7 / t d
u~
j,k,[ IS0-OCTANE - AIR 0.9 4..3 0.4.2 / /
(E b ISO-0ETANE - AIR 1.4 1.0 0.36 J //
l
//Ha = 1.1

>- k.0
Ma : 1.1 a Ha: 0.2 / / o b /'
c~
._J , , t //"
LO
', ',/ m ,,".i"'Ma : 1.o

=__5 ~Ma=3.6i~x "'j/ f Ma =3.6 g _ Ha = 4..0

I.-
<
L.~
0
.<

OC Ma = 1.0 \Ha =4..3 ~

O-
\ \~ ~o Ha = 4..0
.<
to=
J - 40 '\ \ \

I I I ! I

20 ~0 60
FLAME RADIUS (rnm)
Fig. 5. Measuredflamecrackpropagationvelocitiesfor differentmixtures.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF INSTABILITIES IN LAMINAR EXPLOSION FLAMES 567

(a) -0.69 ms (b) 0.73 ms

(c) 1.46 ms (d) 2.8 ms

(e) 4.02 ms (f) 6.52 ms

Fig. 6. Schlieren cin~ photographs of the influence of venting pressure pulses on the structure of a
stoichiometric m e t h a n e - a i r explosion flame. Read across and downwards from top left. Venting occurs
between (a) and (b).

formation (f) and vorticity at the flame inter-
face, in directions that alternate with the pres-
sure wave gradients. Photographs also were
obtained of stoichiometric methane-air explo-
sions, but with a wire grid around the elec-
trodes. This generated surface perturbations
and flame wrinkling to enhance these interac-
tions. The greater the venting pressure, the
more pronounced the cusp formation, flame
folding, and vorticity generation.
568
DISCUSSION
Although the detailed structure of a crack is
not fully understood, some clues are provided
by the direct numerical simulations of Patnaik
et al. [8]. Perturbation of a lean, premixed,
hydrogen flame induces a growing instability
that evolves toward a cellular structure, where-
as no such evolution is observed for a rich
mixture of large Markstein number, and the
perturbation decays. Additional results of the
computations, kindly made available by the
authors, show clear discontinuities in the con-
centration profiles for H and OH, at the trough
of the reaction zone, suggestive of a crack.
As the amplitude of a flame perturbation
increases, a crack might be expected to form at
the trough of the wave and propagate along
the surface with a velocity proportional to that
of the growth of the amplitude. General sup-
port for this is provided on Fig. 2, which shows
an approximate correlation of measured values
of C,, with the theoretical values of ~m, with
negative values of C,, in regions where the
flame is theoretically stable. For the low Mark-
stein number values of 0.23 and 1.1, the val-
ues of t~L, are particularly high, as might be
expected from the analysis. Only in the case
of the lean hydrogen mixture did the flame
surface appear completely cellular. The rich
iso-octane mixture exhibited the next most de-
veloped cellularity, but cross-cracking was in-
complete. The rate at which cells develop de-
pends not only upon the rate of growth of the
perturbation amplitude, but also upon the ex-
tent of the initiating perturbations. This was
well illustrated by the extra cracking and wrin-
kling resulting from the introduction of a wire
grid.
For a given value of Ma, and hence of Pe c, it
can be inferred from Fig. 2 that an increase in
the explosion pressure, because of the associ-
ated decrease in 61, would initiate instability at
a lower value of r. This is borne out by the
explosions of Groff [9] at between 2 and 5
atm., in which a cellular structure was devel-
oped earlier than with comparable mixtures
in the present study. Critical flame Reynolds
numbers were measured at the onset of cellu-
lar flames in lean propane-air explosions. With
~t = u / u t , such Reynolds numbers are equal
D. BRADLEY AND C. M. HARPER
to Pe c. However, his experimental values are
between 10 and 20 times greater than the
corresponding present theoretical values of
Pe, as also are those of McCann et al. [10].
Groff's values are higher than those suggested
by the earlier stability analysis of Istratov and
Librovich [11]. The theoretical values of Pe c in
Ref. 5 are much lower than those suggested by
Groff. Figure 2 shows that experimental values
of Pe t , based upon the radius at which cracks
just begin to propagate, are much closer to the
theoretical values. Close agreement between
theory and practice cannot be expected, in
view of the inevitable simplifications of the
asymptotic theory and the uncertainty of the
factors controlling crack propagation velocity.
The predominant size of the developed cells
will be that of the wavelength associated with
the maximum growth rate of the instability,
as indicated by A m, for a given value of Ma.
Figure 2 shows that, once the unstable region
has been entered, there is little change in A m
with Pe. There are difficulties in comparing
experimental cell sizes with theoretical predic-
tions. First, only with the lean hydrogen mix-
ture did cellularity develop over the whole
surface and it is doubtful if it could be classed
as fully developed, in that the cells were con-
tinuing to decrease in size as the flame propa-
gated. A larger vessel would have been re-
quired to observe fully developed cells. Second,
both this mixture and the other with a limited
degree of cellularity were in the theoretically
invalid regime of A _< 30. Within the valid
regime of Fig. 2, with o- = 6.7, the value of A
for maximum growth rate is given by A m =
62(Ma - 1.5). A value of A = 30 leads to a
theoretical maximum growth rate wavelength
for the lean hydrogen mixture of 1.2 mm,
whereas the measured cell size was 5 mm.
The magnitude of the Vp x V p / p 2 term in
the vorticity equation influences the flame front
perturbation due to vorticity generation. For
the venting conditions of Fig. 6 the size of the
flame and the value of Ma are sufficient to
render it unstable, while the flow field after
vent opening enhances orthogonality of pres-
sure and density gradients. This is sufficient to
generate the macro-vorticity after vent opening
that creates the cusps and the micro-vorticity
that breaks up the flame front, eventually lead-
THE D E V E L O P M E N T OF INSTABILITIES IN LAMINAR EXPLOSION FLAMES
ing to a turbulent flame. Similar cusps are
reported in Ref. 10, while Tsuruda and Hirano
[12] have observed the growth of spikes within
the flame during the passage through it of a
pressure wave formed by venting and have
simulated numerically the growth of vorticity
inside the flame [13]. Liu et al. [14] have shown
numerically that when burned gas is acceler-
ated towards unburned gas the disturbance is
unstable, but when the acceleration is reversed
the disturbance is stable.
The effectiveness of vorticity generation de-
pends not only upon the orthogonality of the
two gradients, but also upon the duration of
their interaction. An acoustic wave, with a ve-
locity of a C, will interact with the flame during
its transit time through the flame, ~ l / a c = v ~
u l a C. In cartesian coordinates, this suggests a
dimensionless flame vorticit~ number, V =
"~ 2 2 ~
(c?p/c)x)((Op/Oy)(v-/u t acp,, )). W~th O p / c ) y
= ( P u - P b ) / ~ t = puUl( 1 - 1 / o - ) / v the
group becomes ( 8 p / O x ) ( v(o- - 1 ) / a f p u o" u ) .
Comparison is instructive between the val-
ues of V that arise from the most rapidly
burning mixture in the bomb, namely H2-air,
05 = 1.59, and from the vent opening, indicated
in Fig. 6. The former mixture exhibits a high
value of Ma (5.4) with lower values of "Z,,, and
the measured values of C,. are relatively small.
Despite these low values, cell development,
though incomplete, was more rapid than for
some mixtures of lower Markstein number.
This is because the high value of ut created a
strong pressure pulse at the flame and a rela-
tively high rate of pressure rise and amplitude,
60 M P a / s and 0.01 MPa. This produced a
zig-zag cracking pattern with crosscracking at
regions of high curvature, which accelerated
cell development in what was still a laminar
flame, with no evidence of micro-vorticity.
Based upon measured pressure pulses, the re-
lationship c ) p / O x = a C i O p / O t , and the
acoustic velocity for the unburned mixture, the
value of V is 6 10 -6. Vent opening for the
conditions of Fig. 6 created an even higher rate
of pressure rise and amplitude, 100 M P a / s ,
and 0.02 MPa, with a value of V of 70 10 6.
Here, the orthogonality of the two gradients
was more assured and the higher value of V is
associated with visible vorticity generation at
the flame.
569
Figure 2 shows that most flames soon enter
an unstable regime. It then can take some time
for them to attain the metastable cellular flame
condition. However, with the strong pressure
gradients after venting, the macro and micro
vorticity generation associated with the high
flame vorticity number, V, of 70 10 -6 create
a flame structure more akin to turbulence than
to cellular stability. In experiments on acoustic
instability in premixed propane flames propa-
gating along a tube, Searby [15] showed that
when pressure oscillations attained a high am-
plitude, the organized cellular structures de-
stabilized into incoherent highly turbulent
motion, and the flame accelerated with a tur-
bulent burning velocity. Accurate measure-
ment of rapid rates of pressure rise is difficult,
but it is estimated that the value of V at this
transformation was 6.5 10 -6, slightly higher
than for the rapidly burning mixture in the
bomb, which did not create a turbulent flame,
but less than the value for the flame in the
vented vessel, which did. For the vented exper-
iments of Ref. 12 that generated a turbulent
flame, the value of V is estimated to be 2.5
10 6. It is, however, unlikely that V alone is a
sufficient parameter to describe turbulent
flame generation and that, additionally, the
number of pressure pulse transits through the
flame, its stretch rate and the Markstein num-
ber are relevant.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The onset of instability in a spherically
propagating flame is associated with the sur-
face propagation of discontinuities in the
flame structure that have the appearance of
cracks.
2. Measured crack propagation velocities cor-
relate qualitatively with the predictions, by
asymptotic analysis, of the growth rate of
the amplitude of a perturbation.
3. A flame stability diagram is presented in
terms of dimensionless groups, including the
Markstein number.
4. Flame cracking eventually leads to a meta-
stable cellular flame.
5. Taylor instabilities can hasten the develop-
ment of a cellular structure.
570 D. B R A D L E Y A N D C. M. H A R P E R

6. S t r o n g e r p r e s s u r e pulses can c r e a t e m a c r o spherical h a r m o n i c a n d o- is the density ratio.

a n d micro vorticity at the flame front that Pu/Pb, a r e
e n h a n c e the b u r n r a t e a n d p r o d u c e local
t u r b u l e n t flames.
-(b - a) + ~/((b - a) 2 - 4ac)
7. A flame vorticity n u m b e r is p r o p o s e d for 09
the p r e d i c t i o n o f w h e t h e r flame vorticity 2a
g e n e r a t i o n might initiate t u r b u l e n t flame
Q1 + IQz
propagation. 1] = , (A1)
09
The authors express their indebtedness to en-
lightening discussions with Drs. V. Babkin, M. N. where
Hamid, N. Kidin, F. K-I~ Lung, G. Makhviladze,
A. C. Mclntosh, a n d E. Oran. Brian Spalding /3(t~ - 1)
generously provided the parallel plate vessel. l=
(0-- 1)

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1. Michelson, D. M., and Sivashinsky, G. I., Acta Astro-
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(1989). b=2n 2+(4+50-)+4,
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(1982). (o-- l)n 3
4. Matalon, M., and Matkowsky, B. J., J. Fluid Mech. c + 2n 2
O"
124:239-259 (1982).
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298-311 (1990). Q1 = (2a09 + b - 2 a )
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Laskey, K. J., Twemy-Second Symposium (Interna- [ln0-
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Pittsburgh, 1989, pp. 1517-1526.
9. Groff, E. G., Combust. Flame 48:51-62 (1982).
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O"
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Flame 95:76-86 (1993).
14. Liu, F., McIntosh, A. C., and Brindley, J., Combust. 1
Sci, Technol. 91:373-386 (1993). Q2 = (20-(2a09 + b - 2 a ) ) a
15. Searby, G., Combust. Sci. Technol. 81,221-231 (1992).
16. Harper, C. M., Ph.D. thesis, University of Leeds, [ 2 n 4 + (2090-+ 2 0 9 + 1 0 0 - - 3)n 3
1989.
17. Clavin, P., Pro& Ener. Combust, Sci. 1l:1-59 (1985). +(20"09 2 + ( 5 0 " - 1)09
Received 29 November 1993; revised 9 May 1994 +30"- 2 0 -2 -- 2 ) n 2

+{0-o92(1 -- 40-) -- (140- 2 + 1)09

APPENDIX
+ 3 - 9 0 - - 8 0 -2}
F o l l o w i n g B e c h t o l d a n d M a t a l o n [5], solutions
for 09 a n d 1~ in Eq. 1, in which n is an i n t e g e r X n -- 20-(092 + 409 + 3)]. (A4)
T H E D E V E L O P M E N T OF INSTABILITIES IN L A M I N A R E X P L O S I O N FLAMES 571

In Eq. A4 a = o-f~(ln s / s - 1) ds. The expres- Clavin gives

sions for Q1 and Q2 are different from those
o. /3(Le - 1) 1
in Ref. 5 and reduce to the planar flame solu- Ma = In o. +
tions as R ~ ~. Further details are given in o.-1 2 or-1
Ref. 16. Bechtold and Matalon express the ,T l l n ( l + x ) d x
flame radius as a function of dimensionless x f~ x (A6)
time T (real time, t) by
Differentiation of Eq. 1 with respect to T leads
& eventually to
R = T--2'a(l - lo)ln T, where
ro 1 da [ 2o.6 I 1
E o.~ouI [ 1 - --{Ma - In o . } ]
a dt r
ul 2o- In o-
T= 1 + o-t--, and l0 -
ro a(o-- 1) (A7)
(A5)
The wavelength of the disturbance is A =
27rr/n.
From the relationships given by Clavin [17] it
Equation A7 is made dimensionless by intro-
can be shown that a(l - l o) = 2Lb/61, where
ducing Y, = (1/aXda/dt)(27rr/nu~) and A =
L b is the burned gas Markstein length and Ma b
2~rr/n6 t and the Peclet number, Pe = r/at:
( = Lb/6l) is the corresponding Markstein
number. This is related to the unburned gas
Markstein number, Ma ( = L / 6 t) by Ma b = - 1 - {Ma-lnor} 1-
Pe
o.(Ma - In o-).
(A8)

COMMENTS
T. Tsuruda, The University of Tokyo, Japan. Is
there some critical intensity of the pressure
wave which causes the global flame front de-
formation?
Author's Reply. The mean distance across one
of the two hot 'penisulars' in Fig. 6(f) is ap-
proximately 40 ram.

Author's Reply. A more appropriate critical H. S. Mukunda, Indian Institute of Science,

parameter for flame turbulerisation than one
derived solely from the pressure wave is the
vorticity number, V. Some values of pressure
gradient are given in the paper.
R. Dobashi, The University of Tokyo, Japan.
You showed the picture of the flame front
disturbance induced by the Rayleigh-Taylor in-
stability effect. How large is the observed scale
(or characteristic wave-length) of such distur-
bance?
India. 1. The governing instability in the exper-
iments appears to be of Landau-Darrieus type.
Linear stability results are available. Also some
recent computations of linear stability with
variable properties seem to indicate a most
unstable wave length to flame thickness ratio
(for H z - a i r systems) of 13 for constant proper-
ties and 30 for variable properties [1]. These
seem to be in a range similar to the values you
are reporting from your experiments. 2. In the
comparison of your data with the theory of
Matalon, it appears most data belong to the
572
unstable category: could you not find any sta-
ble points in the extreme right region to verify
the theory better?
REFERENCE
1. Mukunda, H. S., and Drummond, J. P., Applied Scien-
tific Research, 51:687-711 (1993), or NASA TP3131.
Author's Reply The requirements for the rele-
D. BRADLEY AND C. M. HARPER
vant stability tests are a large Markstein num-
ber but not such a high value of laminar burn-
ing velocity as to generate hydrodynamic insta-
bilities. Examination of Fig. 5 for the curve
with the highest Markstein number of 5.4 sug-
gests that the crack propagation velocity might
become negative at a value of Peclet number
of about 1000, not too far from the theoretical
curve.