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DIMENSIONING CTS FOR SMALL GENERATOR DIFFERENTIAL
PROTECTION
Rich Hunt
Senior Member, IEEE
GE Digital Energy
903 Haddon Hall Drive
Apex, NC 27502, USA
Richard.hunt@GE.com

Abstract Protection of small generators that provide backup
or standby power for critical facilities is no different than that of
large generators. The challenge is that the CTs and CT
secondary circuits for generator protection are not properly
designed for the installation. This paper discusses these issues,
and makes recommendations for proper design of CT circuits for
small generator differential protection.
Index Termsprotective relays, generators, instrument tfmrs
I. INTRODUCTION
Small generators are commonly installed to provide
backup or standby power for critical facilities such as
hospitals, data centers, communications centers, and the like.
These generators are typically diesel generators 1 to 3 MVA
in size, and are normally intended for use in applications for
facilities at the 4kV to 15kV level.
High-speed detection of internal electrical faults is
typically provided by stator differential protection.
Undesirable operation of the stator differential element due to
unequal CT saturation during transformer energization or out-
of-zone faults is well known. Protection engineers typically
follow the guidelines outlined in ANSI C37.110 IEEE Guide
of the Application of Current Transformers Used For
Protective Relaying Purposes to dimension CTs for stator
differential protection. The maximum accuracy class and
turns ratio of the CT is typically limited by the physical
dimensions of the switchgear and generator set.
However, beyond the recommendations in C37.110, the
protection engineer must understand, and be able to model,
the performance of the entire stator differential system,
including the differential relay, CTs, and CT secondary leads.
This paper discusses methods to model the stator differential
performance, based on the IEEE Power System Relaying
Committee CT Saturation Calculator tool. The paper then
goes on to suggest methods to use this tool in dimensioning
CTs and CT secondary leads.
II. DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION
Differential protection is nothing more than a practical
application of Kirchhoffs Current Law. The sum of the
currents entering a zone of protection should equal the sum of
the currents exiting the zone of protection. If these currents do
978-1-61284-127-4/11/$26.00 2011 IEEE
Suhag Patel
Member, IEEE
GE Digital Energy
CA, USA
Suhag.patel@GE.com
not equal, then a fault condition is declared in the zone of
protection. Differential protection can therefore be very
sensitive, very selective, very dependable, and operate at high
speed. The challenge for differential protection is security,
because the function is dependent on the performance of the
CTs.
INeut ITerm
52
iNeut iTerm
IDiff = iNeut + iTerm
Fig. 1. Differential protection concept
For the generator stator differential protection of Figure
1, the differential current IDiff is simply the sum of the
terminal and neutral currents. During normal operations, or
during external fault events, IDiff should be 0. This is
dependent on both CTs accurately replicating the primary
current, with a minimum of error. However, if during external
fault events, one of the CTs has significant replication error,
or both CTs have different replication errors, IDiff will be
greater than 0, as in Figure 2. The likelihood that CT errors
will occur increases as currents increase.
Differential Current No CT Error With CT Error
iNeut iTerm iTerm iTerm
iNeut IDiff
iNeut
IDiff = ITerm + I Neut IDiff = 0
Fig. 2 Differential current
Percentage differential restraint protection relays, the
type of relay most commonly applied for stator differential
protection, use the concept of a restraint current to provide
security against CT error. There are many different methods
in use to calculate the restraint current, including the sum of
the terminal and neutral current magnitudes, the average of
these magnitudes, or the maximum of these magnitudes. The
differential element declares a trip when the differential
current IDiff is greater than some percentage of the restraint
current IRest, as in Figure 3. Restraint current increases as the
overall magnitude of current flowing through the generator

increases. The percentage differential therefore decreases
sensitivity as current increases, to provide security against the
expected increase in CT replication error. This function
provides good security during AC saturation of CTs for high
current magnitude external events. However, CTs may
saturate for low-level external faults or local transformer
inrush due to the high DC time constant at the generator.
Since these events occur at low levels of current, the level of
restraint current is very low, the differential element is very
sensitive, and is at risk of operating for the CT error that can
occur.
Differential
Current
IDiff = ITerm + I Neut TRIP
Trip if IDiff > Slope 1 * IRest
or
Trip if IDiff > Slope 2 * IRest
RESTRAIN
significant CT error
IRest = | ITerm | + | I Neut |
some CT error
IRest = ( | ITerm | + | INeut | ) / 2
IRest = max( | ITerm |, | I Neut | )
Slope 1
perfect CTs
Fig. 3. Percentage differential characteristic
A. Stator Differential Protection
Generator faults require high-speed protection to clear
the fault. Fault currents continue to flow even after the prime
mover is tripped and the field removed, both due to inertia,
and to flux trapped within the machine. Tripping faster
obviously limits damage to the generator. This high-speed
protection is normally stator differential protection that
operates with no intentional time delay. However, other forms
of protection, including basic overcurrent short circuit
protection, may be applied. If external resistance is used to
limit fault currents, high-speed protection may not be
necessary.
Differential protection can protect against high
magnitude faults in the generator zone of protection.
However, due to the practical limits of sensitivity for setting
the protection, differential protection will not see faults within
the last 5% to 10% of the generator neutral. Also differential
protection may not be able to detect many phase-ground faults
if the generator uses high-impedance grounding to limit fault
currents. [1]
It is obvious on large generators, or on critical
generators, that differential protection is appropriate and
required. However, on small generators, differential
protection is not absolutely necessary. Before microprocessor
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relays became available, differential protection was not
routinely applied on small generators. This was due in part to
cost, as differential protection required another set of CTs,
and required an additional set of relays. This was also due in
part to the limited benefits of differential protection for these
machines. Many small generators are essentially disposable,
as they wont be repaired for significant short circuits. The
major goal of high-speed differential protection is to limit
damage, and if a failed generator is to be replaced, there is
less incentive to limit damage.
However, with microprocessor relays, stator differential
is commonly applied on generators of all sizes. This is
because generator protection relays include stator differential
elements, so improved protection of the generator is gained
with no additional cost. However, additional effort is
Slope 2
necessary. When applying differential protection, there is still
the requirement that good engineering be performed to design
the protection and control system. This engineering includes
understanding how the stator differential element operates,
where the element may not operate as desired, selecting
appropriate CTs and CT secondary leads for the element, and
or calculating appropriate differential settings. Many stator
differential elements operate undesirably because good
or
engineering practices have not been followed, especially
Restraint during the design of the CT circuits.
Current
III. CT PERFORMANCE
To practice good engineering for differential protection, it
is necessary to understand the basics of CT performance. A
current transformer is simply a transformer designed for the
specific application of converting primary current to a
secondary level for measurement purposes. The actual
performance of a CT, and the equivalent model used for
analysis purposes, are identical to that of any other
transformer, as shown in Fig. 4. The concern for the relay
engineer is the actual current at the secondary terminals of the
CT. This current, ISEC, is the total secondary current as
transformed by the CT, ISEC Total, minus the current
necessary to supply the magnetizing branch IE.
RS XS
ISEC Total ISEC
IPRI
IE
Xm Rm
VSEC Magnetizing
Current
VBURDEN ZB
Fig. 4. CT equivalent circuit
A. CT Saturation
During normal load conditions, the flux requirement for a
CT is very small, and therefore the exciting current is very
small, and the secondary current is almost a faithful
reproduction of the primary current. Now consider what
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happens with the CT during a short circuit on the primary
circuit. The increase in primary current results in an increased
secondary current. The increased secondary current results in
a higher voltage drop across the CT winding resistance and
connected burden of the CT, and results in a higher excitation
voltage. This higher excitation voltage creates more flux. The
flux characteristic is still sinusoidal in shape, but may be high
enough to cause saturation of the transformer core. The
hysteresis loop becomes negligible for this high level of
excitation, as shown in Fig. 5. The resulting exciting current
needed to supply the flux is very high in magnitude, and may
t
approach the magnitude of the primary fault currents.
Remembering that the ISEC = ISEC Total - IE, then the
current output of the secondary winding is reduced
significantly by the higher exciting current. The core goes
into and out of saturation as the voltage varies over the power
system cycle. As a result, the output of the CT is normal while
the core is unsaturated, and reduced when the core saturates.
i
e Fig. 6. Asymmetrical fault current and DC time constant
saturation knee
pont
Time
Fig. 5. Flux and exciting current hysteresis during core saturation
As described, the excitation voltage induces flux in the CT
core, and the flux is supplied by the excitation current. CT
manufacturers supply the secondary excitation characteristic
to relate excitation voltage and excitation current for a
specific model of CT. This characteristic is used to estimate
CT performance for protective relaying applications. This
characteristic, for example, can be used to determine the
excitation voltage at which the CT will saturate.
This saturation voltage VX is the symmetrical voltage
across the secondary winding of the current transformer for
which the peak induction just exceeds the saturation flux
density. It is found graphically by locating the intersection of
the straight portions of the excitation curve on log-log axes.
[2] When the excitation voltage of the transformer exceeds
this level, the transformer core is in saturation. The saturation
voltage is important for predicting CT performance during
fault conditions.
B. DC Offset
In the highly inductive network of the power system, the
current wave must be near maximum when the voltage wave
is at zero. Therefore, when a short circuit occurs with the
instantaneous voltage at zero, the current at the time of the
fault must be at a maximum. To supply this maximum current,
a countercurrent, the DC component, is produced. After
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providing this initial current requirement, the DC component
is no longer required, and decays based on the X/R ratio of
the power system. The practical result is during short circuits
the primary current, and therefore the secondary current, may
be asymmetrical with respect to the current axis. This
asymmetrical current results in the peak current that will be
seen for a specific fault, and is known as the DC offset of the
fault current. [3] A typical offset fault current is shown in Fig.
6.
I e TS
time
mag
This DC component is a problem for transformers, as the
DC component tends to create more flux in the core that adds
i
to the flux driven by the AC voltage. So essentially, the total
flux in the CT is dependent on the area under the curve in Fig.
6. Therefore, the longer the system time constant, the more
likely the CT is to saturate. The highest DC time constants on
the power system are found at generators, due to the reactance
of the generator. X/R ratios of between 25 and 90 (or 66ms to
240ms at 60Hz) are typical. Therefore, CTs located at
generators are at higher risk of saturating, even at low current
magnitudes, than CTs located elsewhere on the system.
C. Basic Relations of CTs
From the CT equivalent circuit of Figure 2, and the
saturation factor and time to saturation, it is simple to derive
some basic relationships of the CT to X/R ratio, connected
burden, and fault current. The voltage VSEC, which is the
secondary excitation voltage, is determined from the voltage
drops across the CT secondary circuit:
VSEC  I SEC  RS  Z B 
where RS = secondary winding resistance of the CT
ZB= total burden (including wiring leads) connected
to the CT secondary.
For ANSI C-Class CTs, the leakage reactance ZS is
negligible, and may be ignored.
As described previously, the flux in the core can
approach 1+X/R during a fully offset fault. Therefore, a
second relation is that the CT will not saturate if the
saturation voltage VX meets the following condition:

V X  I SEC  Z S  1  X
R

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assuming a resistive burden.
Based on this last equation, it is simple to see that
increasing fault currents, increasing connected burden, and
increasing X/R ratio requires a higher saturation voltage to
prevent CT saturation. In practice, it is rarely possible to
completely prevent CT saturation from occurring for all fault
events. The best methods to reduce the likelihood of CT
saturation is to use a higher accuracy class CT (increasing the
saturation voltage), a higher connected turns ratio (reducing
the secondary current), and limiting the connected burden.
IV. SMALL GENERATOR STATOR DIFFERENTIAL
PERFORMANCE
There is no difference in stator differential relaying
between small generators (typically 3MVA and below) and
large generators. The same protective relays, using the same
stator differential algorithms can, and are, applied to 500kW,
480V generators, and 500MW, 13.8kV generators. The
difference is in the application of the complete protection
system, including the CTs and CT secondary circuits. Large
generators typically use C800 class CTs, with large turns
ratios such as 20,000:5. Small generators use switchgear CTs,
and common applications see the use of C20 class CTs and a
150:5 turns ratio. However, both large and small generators
drive the system time constant (X/R ratio) at the location of
the generator, resulting in a local X/R ratio of 25 to 90. This
bus, and energizes the transformer, the generator relay trips
on a stator differential operation. The stator differential
operation doesnt happen every time, but does happen often.
Fig. 7 illustrates the system arrangement, and provides
some details from the event. The current waveforms from the
terminal and neutral side both show an inrush event. The
currents from both sides are correctly 180 opposite to each
other, and appear to have the same magnitude. However, the
stator differential element tripped on B-Phase approximately
2.5 cycles after the generator connected to the bus and picked
up the transformer. This obviously requires further analysis.
Fig. 8 looks at the B-Phase waveforms. (The terminal
side waveform is reflected 180 to allow for easy
comparison). It is obvious that the neutral side CT starts to
saturate about 2.5 cycles after picking up the bus, and CTs
from both sides experience DC saturation after 3 cycles. This
unequal CT performance resulted in the undesirable operation
of the stator differential element.
Neutral CT Waveforms Terminal CT Waveforms
4.16kV
C20 C20
300:5
52
300:5

5'
long DC time constant means CTs used for generator 1.875MW
#10 AWG

differential protection are likely to saturate for external faults

and transformer inrush events due to the DC component of 100' - #10 AWG

the system. Small generators, using low accuracy class CTs B-Phase Differential
Current

and a low connected turns ratio, are more susceptible to this Relay trips on
differential 2.5 cycles
kind of saturation. The best way to illustrate this phenomena after startup

is to look at a couple of examples of stator differential

performance for small generators.
A. Case 1: 1.875MW stator differential operation
This case involves a 1.875MW, 4160V diesel generator Fig. 7. 1.875MW stator differential operation
used as emergency power for a hospital facility. This
generator is one of set of generators tied to the same 4160 bus
that may start in parallel to serve hospital loads. Each
generator is connected to the bus through a circuit breaker as
part of a metal-clad switchgear lineup. The 4160 bus is
connected to a transformer used to connect to the hospital
distribution system.
This specific generator is the closest generator to the
4160 bus. The terminal side CTs are located in the
switchgear. The neutral side CTs are approximately 100 feet
from the switchgear breaker. The generator protection relay is
located in the switchgear breaker low voltage compartment.
CT secondary leads are #10 AWG copper wire. The CTs are
C20 class, 300:5 CTs. The CTs are identical models provided
by one manufacturer. Fig. 8. 1.875MW, B-Phase currents
A typical differential event starts when the generator is
brought up to speed. When the generator connects to the 4160 The performance of these CTs can be modeled using the
IEEE PSRC CT Saturation Calculator. [4] This tool is a

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Page 5 of 8

spreadsheet tool that allows the modeling of a specific CT Neutral CT Waveforms Terminal CT Waveforms

application. Parameters include the system X/R ratio, the

connected burden, amount of DC offset, and remanence in the
CT. Using this tool, it possible to show the performance of
typical CTs for varying system conditions, including low
magnitude faults with high X/R ratios. 4.16kV

60 C20 C20
50 200:5 200:5
40 52
30
5'
20
10
#10 AWG
750kW
0
-10
-20
-30
125' - #10 AWG
-40
-0.017 0.000 0.017 0.033 0.050 0.067 0.083 0.100 0.117 0.133 0.150
A-Phase Differential
60
50
40
30
20 Relay trips on
10 differential 1.5 cycles
0 after startup
-10
-20
-30
-0.017 0.000 0.017 0.033 0.050 0.067 0.083 0.100 0.117 0.133 0.150

Fig. 9. 1.875MW, modeled CT performance

Fig. 11. 750kW, stator differential operation
The data from the CT Saturation Calculator can be used in
a spreadsheet to perform a simple differential calculation.
This calculation provides results (as in Fig. 10) very similar to
the results determined from the relay itself. Obviously, then,
this stator differential operated due to unequal performance of
the terminal side and neutral side CTs.

Fig. 12. 750kW, A-Phase waveforms

V. METHODS TO IMPROVE STATOR DIFFERENTIAL

Fig. 10. 1.875MW, modeled differential performance
PERFORMANCE

B. Case No. 2: 750kW stator differential operation It is clear that these two cases show stator differential
elements that dont achieve the main goal of a protection
This case involves a 750kW, 4160V generator used as
system: to be reliable. The challenge for differential
standby power for airport operations, as in Fig. 11. This
protection is to be secure, as unequal CT performance may
generator is also connected to a 4160V bus through metal
result in operation of the differential for out-of-zone faults, as
clad switchgears. CTs are C20 class, 200:5 CTs. The neutral
illustrated by these examples. It is necessary to understand
side CT secondary lead is approximately 125 feet of #10
how the performance of the stator differential can be
AWG copper wire. In this case, the stator differential element
improved to prevent these types of undesirable operations.
tripped approximately 1.5 cycles after the generator picked up
Essentially, microprocessor relays can use algorithm design to
the bus and transformer, and did this consistently for all starts.
try to detect and compensate for unequal CT performance.
In this case, the stator differential tripped on A-phase
Relay engineers can use good engineering judgment during
first. The A-phase current waveforms are shown in Fig. 12.
system design to minimize the likelihood of unequal CT
The difference in this case is that the neutral side CT saturates
performance. Both relay design and system design are critical
in the first third to half-cycle of the event. Modeling the CTs
for the security of differential protection.
using the CT Saturation Calculator verifies that the saturation
is to due to DC saturation, and that the stator differential A. Relay Solutions
operated due to this unequal CT performance. Before a protection engineer can apply good engineering

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judgment during system design, they must understand how the
relays they choose react to, and attempt to account for,
unequal CT performance.
B. Second harmonic restraint
The simplest solution applied by relay manufacturers,
and the one most commonly applied, is to use second
harmonic restraint of the differential element. The most likely
event to cause unequal CT performance is when the generator
energizes a local transformer before picking up load. The
element. When CT saturation is suspected, the relay compares
the direction of the terminal side currents to the neutral side
currents. If the currents flow in opposite directions, (as
measured by the differential relay), then an external fault is
declared and the differential is blocked. If the currents flow in
the same direction, as measured by the relay, then an internal
fault is declared, and differential tripping is permitted.
External Fault - Restrain Internal Fault - Trip

generator sees only the transformer inrush current. This

transformer inrush current can take seconds or minutes to
decay, increasing the possibility that CTs will saturate due to
the DC component of the current. The transformer inrush 90.00

current normally results in a very high level of second

harmonics. Second harmonic restraint will detect the high
level of second harmonic, and block the differential element.
There are two risks to using second harmonic restraint
for stator differential protection. The first risk is for an out-of-
zone fault. The differential CTs may saturate for this fault, but Fig. 14. Differential directional supervision
the CT performance may be good enough that the level of
The same direction is when the terminal and neutral
second harmonic is below the restraint threshold of the
currents are within 90 of each other. The internal and
differential element. This is a low risk event, as it takes some
external fault directions of Fig. 14 are dependent upon CT
time for the CT output to degrade, and other protection
polarity and connection to the relay terminals. For some
should clear the fault before the stator differential is likely to
models of relays, the trip and restraint directions may be
operate. During transformer inrush events, the differential
reversed. To ensure high-speed operation, the differential
current will probably be in the restraint zone by the time the
element is only supervised by the directional element when
second harmonic content drops below the restraint threshold.
CT saturation is suspected. DC saturation is suspected when
The bigger risk is improper restraint during a fault in the
there are high levels of DC present in either of the current
generator protection zone. The use of low accuracy class, low
waveforms. AC saturation is suspected when the restraint
turns ratio CTs means that the CTs are likely to saturate for
current exceeds a specific value; typically a breakpoint
high magnitude fault events. Consider an event where a
between the lower slope and upper slope, and the differential
6,000A phase-to-phase fault on the feeder cable between the
current is less than the lower slope. [5]
switchgear and the generator itself. Modeling the CTs using
For an external fault, or for an internal fault, the
the CT Saturation Calculator shows the terminal-side CTs
directional element provides excellent supervision. The phase
will saturate severely. The second harmonic content of the
angle of the current from a severely saturated CT rarely varies
current as seen by the relay can be calculated from this same
more than 90. Therefore, the directional element proves to
data. Plotting the ratio of the second harmonic current to the
be very secure. Fig. 15 shows the phase angle of the CT
fundamental current provides the plot of Fig. 13. This plot
current for the 6,000A fault of Figure 14. The blue line is the
also shows the two common restraint settings: 20% and 35%.
ideal current phase angle, and the black line is the phase angle
At these levels, second harmonic restraint will block tripping
calculated from the CT model.
of the differential element for 7 cycles or longer. While other 100

relaying will clear this fault, a slow clearing time defeats the 50

purpose of using differential protection. 0

-50
120%

100% -100

80% -150
60% -0.017 0.000 0.017 0.033 0.050 0.067 0.083 0.100 0.117 0.133 0.150

40%
Fig. 15. CT phase angle
20%

0%
-0.017 0.000 0.017 0.033 0.050 0.067 0.083 0.100 0.117 0.133 0.150 The one challenge to the use of the directional element is
Fig. 13. Percentage of second harmonic during internal fault. the performance of the CT. There must be a minimum time of
saturation-free output of the CT to allow the DC and AC
C. Directional supervision saturation detection algorithms to operate. For relays with a
A different method developed by relay manufacturers is high sampling rate, and that perform protection calculation
to supervise the differential element with a directional passes at a high rate, this time may be as little as 2 3 ms of
saturation-free output. For relays operating at a lower

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Page 7 of 8

sampling rate, and that perform protection calculation passes
at a lower rate, this time may be as much as 1 cycle.
D. Engineering Solutions
For both the second harmonic restraint method and the
directional supervision method, the security and dependability
of the differential element is still dependent on adequate CT
performance. These two methods merely broaden the
definition of adequate CT performance to some degree. It is
still the responsibility of the protection engineer to ensure the
stator differential element will perform reliably. Therefore,
the protection engineer must ensure the selected CTs, and CT
secondary leads, result in reliable performance of the relay.
The first step in the engineering process is to ensure the
CTs meet the guidelines for generator differential protection
as described in ANSI C37.110, the IEEE Guide for the
Application of Current Transformers Used for Protective
Relaying Purposes. The Guide makes the following
recommendations:
 The CT primary current rating equal to 120% to 150% of
the continuous generator current rating shall be selected.
 Full-winding ratio shall be utilized.
 CTs that have fully distributed secondary windings shall
be used.
 CTs with the highest practical secondary voltage
capability shall be used.
 CTs dedicated to the differential protection in order to
minimize the burden shall be used. However, this may
not be necessary if low burden digital generator
protection relays are used for generator protection.
 For very high ratio CTs, 20,000/5, 4,000/5, or higher,
CTs with compensation windings to minimize the
proximity effect shall be specified.
 The differential CTs on both sides of a generator should
be of the same ratio, rating, connected burden, and
preferably have the same manufacturer so that the
excitation characteristics are well matched. [2]
performance of the stator differential relay selected. It is also
important to model CT performance for internal faults, to
ensure stator differential protection will operate dependably
for these events. The CT Saturation Calculator is a valuable
tool in modeling CT performance. An extension of the CT
Saturation Calculator is to use the output as part of another
spreadsheet tool that models the performance of the stator
differential element for a specific relay.
The final step in the engineering process, after design
and model, is to adjust the design based on the results of the
model. If the CTs arent going to perform adequately, then
changes are required. These changes may mean increasing the
accuracy class of the CT, using a higher turns ratio on the CT,
or matching the secondary burden on the CTs. Each one of
these conditions must be modeled.
E. Example for Case #2
For an example of modeling performance of CTs,
consider the system of Fig. 11. It is reasonable to expect that
a CT for generator protection take at least one cycle before
DC saturation starts to occur. The system as installed uses
C20, 200:5 CTs. The neutral side CTs use 125 feet of #10
AWG for the CT secondary lead. Modeling CT performance
in the CT Saturation Calculator gives the result of Fig. 16,
where the CT clearly saturates in the first half-cycle.
The 125 of #10 AWG results in a burden of 0.13375W,
which is a fairly reasonable burden. The 200:5 ratio is
appropriate for the output of the generator full load current of
104A. Therefore, the first consideration should be to increase
the accuracy class of the CT at the generator neutral side. Fig.
17 and Fig. 18 show the use of a C50 and C100 class CTs,
respectively. It is clear that even with a C100 CT, the CT will
still saturate in the first cycle after an event occurs. It is
difficult to find a 200:5 switchgear CT with an accuracy class
greater than C100, so other measures must be taken.
100
80
60
40
20
0

The last requirement is one that is consistently -20

-40

misinterpreted. The assumption is that adequate stator -60

-0.017 0.000 0.017 0.033 0.050 0.067 0.083 0.100 0.117 0.133 0.150

differential performance is ensured if terminal side and Fig. 16. CT performance, C20, 200:5, #10 AWG
neutral side CTs of the same ratio, rating, and from the same 100
80

manufacturer. The requirements for highest practical 60

40

secondary voltage capability and same connected burden are 20

0

routinely overlooked or ignored. The two case studies in this -20

-40
-60
paper prove that it is not enough to simply match the terminal -0.017 0.000 0.017 0.033 0.050 0.067 0.083 0.100 0.117 0.133 0.150

side and neutral side CTs. Poor differential performance may Fig. 17. CT performance, C50, 200:5, #10 AWG
still result. The goal, as clearly described in the Guide, is to
100
match the excitation performance of the CT circuits to ensure 80
60

differential performance. 40
20

If the first step in the engineering process is to size CTs, 0

-20
-40
and design CT circuits, to meet the requirements of the Guide, -60
-0.017 0.000 0.017 0.033 0.050 0.067 0.083 0.100 0.117 0.133 0.150
the second step is to model this design to see if the stator
differential will truly perform. The goal is, as much as Fig. 18. CT performance, C100, 200:5, #10 AWG
possible, to ensure that CT saturation for DC will not limit the The next solution to try is to decrease the burden on the

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neutral-side CTs by using a larger secondary wire. The not be possible to have reliable stator differential
simplest method is to simply run a parallel set of #10 AWG performance. Adding a time delay to the differential element
wire, to halve the connected burden. Fig. 19 shows the results is not appropriate. The differential element is intended to be
with the original C20 class CT. Further analysis shows that high-speed protection. Adding a time delay essentially defeats
even with parallel #10 AWG secondary leads, a C100 class the purpose of differential protection.
CT is still required before reasonable CT performance can be
expected. The results in Fig. 20 show the CT doesnt saturate VI. SUMMARY
until the second cycle after the event begins when using this This paper highlights the issues around stator differential
combination. protection for small generators. Stator differential protection
100
80
60
is used for high-speed detection of faults in the generator zone
40
20
of protection. Due to the dependence on the accuracy of CT
0
-20
replication, the challenge for differential protection is security
-40
-60 during external faults or when energizing a transformer.
-0.017 0.000 0.017 0.033 0.050 0.067 0.083 0.100 0.117 0.133 0.150
Generators are at higher risk for CT saturation due to the high
Fig. 19. CT performance, C20, 200:5, Parallel #10 AWG
system X/R ratio at the generator, which leads to DC
100
80
saturation of the CTs. For small generators, this concern is
60
40 increased because these generators tend to use CTs with a low
20
0 accuracy class, low connected turns ratio, and relatively large
-20
-40
-60
burden. Every one of these factors increases the likelihood of
-0.017 0.000 0.017 0.033 0.050 0.067 0.083 0.100 0.117 0.133 0.150
CT saturation. The selection of low accuracy class CTs and
Fig. 20. CT performance, C100, 200:5, Parallel #10 AWG large burden is normally based on economics, with little
Fig. 21 compares the terminal-side and neutral side CT consideration of the successful operation of the differential
waveforms using the C100, parallel #10 conductor element.
cominbation. The neutral side CT still saturates due to the DC This poor CT performance and the impact on stator
content. However, the relay should successfully declare DC differential relaying is a well-known phenomenon. Relay
saturation, and the directional element will successfully block manufacturers have taken steps in algorithm design to
tripping. improve the security of stator differential protection in
90 regards to DC saturation of the CTs. However, from an
80
engineering perspective, it is reasonable to expect at least one
70

60
cycle of saturation free time out of the CTs for low magnitude
50
fault events resulting in DC saturation. It is the responsibility
40

30
CT1 of the engineer designing the protection system to ensure
CT2
20 DIFF appropriate CTs are selected for the application, appropriate
DIR
10

0
CTSAT
OPERATE
CT secondary leads are used, and the stator differential will
-10
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14
SAT AC
SAT DC
perform reliably.
-20

-30

-40 REFERENCES
-50

-60
[1] IEEE Recommended Practice for Protection and Coordination of
-70
Industrial and Commercial Power Systems, IEEE Std 242-2001, 2001.
[2] IEEE Guide for the Application of Current Transformers Used for
Fig. 21. CT performance with improved neutral side CTs
Protective Relaying Purposes, ANSI/ IEEE C37.110-1996, 1996.
During a high-magnitude internal fault, the CTs may [3] J. L. Blackburn, Protective Relaying Principles and Applications, 2nd
edition, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, NY, 1998.
saturate and AC saturation may be declared. However, the [4] IEEE PSRC CT Saturation Calculator, IEEE Power Engineering
directional element will correctly declare an internal fault, Society Protective Relaying Subcommittee, www.pes-psrc.org.
and permit tripping. [5] B. Kasztenny, D. Finney, Generator Protection and CT Saturation,
Texas A&M Protective Relay Conference, April 5, 2005.
This exercise is for a specific model of relay. For a stator [6] A. E. Fitzgerald, C. Kingsley, Jr., S. D. Umans, Electric Machinery, 4th
differential relay that uses second harmonic restraint, the edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, NY, 1983, pp. 4-24.
exercise is somewhat different. There the concern is the
dependability of protection during an internal fault. With poor
CTs, the stator differential should be secure for DC saturation
due to external events. However, with low accuracy class
CTs, and a high connected burden, the second harmonic
restraint may over-restrain for an internal fault.
For some configurations of generators and CTs, it may

978-1-61284-127-4/11/$26.00 2011 IEEE