Contents

- Assumptions.......................................................................................... 1
- Organization of the report 2
1.Introduction......................................................................................... 3
1.1 Definitions, Types and layers of pavement.................................. 3
1.2 Objectives of the Project.......................................... 14
2. Stresses, strain and Deflection in Pavement... 15
3. Performance and Failure Criteria in Pavement. ................................... 16
4. Structural Design.................................................................................. 18
4.1 Design Factors...................................................................................... 18
4.2 Quantification of Traffic (ESAL)............................................................ 19
4.3 Design Methods.................................................................................... 20
5. Mix Design.............................................................................................. 28
5.1 Selections of pavement materials.. 28
5.2 MARSHALL METHOD OF ASPHALT CONCRETE MIX DESIG....................... 28
5.3 SUPERPAVE METHOD OF ASPHALT CONCRETE MIX DESIGN................. 30
6. Case study .............................................................................................. 31
7. Cost Estimate.......................................................................................... 57
8. Summary of Findings.............................................................................. 58
conclusion/References................................................................................ 59

1
Organization Of The Report
The report is divided into eight main chapters:

Chapter 1: Gives an Introduction about Pavement and State the

Objective of the study.

Chapter 2: Provides the Analysis of Stresses, Strain and Deflection in

Pavement and the analysis systems (one and two layer systems)

Chapter 3: Gives an Overview about Failure Criteria in Pavement and

the Types of Failure.

Chapter 4: a comprehensive review about Structural Design, Design

Factors and Methods of Design.

Chapter 5: Presents Mix Design Methods (Marshal and Superpave).

Chapter 6: Discusses the Different Methods of Design and Design

Calculations.

Chapter 7: offers approximate prices and cost estimate elements.

Chapter 8: present the main conclusion of the report.

2
3
1. Introduction

1.1 Definitions , Types and layers of pavement

- A highway pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of

processed materials above the natural soil (subgrade), whose primary
function is to distribute the applied vehicle loads to the subgrade. The
pavement structure should be impervious and be able to provide a
surface of acceptable riding quality, and adequate skid resistance. The
ultimate aim is to ensure that the transmitted stresses due to wheel
load are sufficiently reduced, so that they will not exceed bearing
capacity of the subgrade.

- An ideal pavement should meet the following requirements:

1- Sufficient thickness to distribute the wheel load stresses to a safe

value on the sub-grade soil.
2- Structurally strong to withstand all types of stresses imposed upon it.
3- Adequate coefficient of friction to prevent skidding of vehicles.
4- Impervious surface, so that subgrade soil is well protected.

Types of pavement :

- Pavements can be divided into three major types:

1- Flexible pavements (upper layers of asphalt).

2- Rigid pavements (upper layers of concrete).
3- Composite pavements.

4
 Flexible pavement: [ Hot Mix Asphalt ]

flexible pavement can be defined as the pavement consisting of a mixture

of asphaltic or bituminous material and aggregates placed on a bed of
compacted granular material of appropriate quality in layers over the
subgrade. Flexible Pavement is so named as the pavement surface reflects
the total deflection of all subsequent layers due to the traffic load acting
upon it.

Figure 1: Structure of flexible pavement

Flexible pavements can be classified into five types:

1- Conventional Flexible Pavement.

2- Full Depth Asphalt Concrete Pavement.
3- Thin Asphalt Concrete Pavement.
4- Contained rock asphalt mat.
5- Surface treatment.

5
 Conventional Flexible Pavement :

Conventional flexible pavements are layered systems with better materials

on top where the intensity of stress is high and inferior materials at the
bottom where the intensity is low.

Typical layers of a conventional flexible pavement includes seal coat,

surface course, tack coat, binder course, prime coat, base course, subbase
course, compacted subgrade, and natural subgrade .

Seal Coat: Seal coat is a thin asphalt surface treatment used to waterproof
the surface or to provide skid resistance where the aggregates in the
surface course could be polished by traffic and become slippery.

Surface Course: The surface course is the top course of an asphalt

pavement, sometimes called the wearing course. It is usually constructed of
dense graded HMA. It must be tough to resist distortion under traffic and
provide a smooth and skid-resistant riding surface. It must be waterproof to
protect the entire pavement and subgrade from the weakening effect of
water. If the above requirements cannot be met, the use of a seal coat is
recommended.

Binder Course: The binder course is the asphalt layer below the surface
course. There are two reasons that a binder course is used in addition to
the surface course. First, the HMA is too thick to be compacted in one layer,
so it must be placed in two layers. Second, the binder course generally
consists of larger aggregates and less asphalt and does not require as high a
quality as the surface course, so replacing a part of the surface course by
the binder course results in a more economical design.

Tack Coat: Tack coat is a very light application of asphalt, usually asphalt
emulsion diluted with water. It provides proper bonding between two
layers of binder course and must be thin, uniformly cover the entire
surface, and set very fast.

6
 Base course: The base course is the layer of material immediately beneath
the surface or binder course. It can be composed of crushed stone, crushed
slag, or other untreated or stabilized materials.

Prime Coat: Prime coat is an application of low viscous cutback bitumen to

an absorbent surface like granular bases on which binder layer is placed. It
provides bonding between two layers. Unlike tack coat, prime coat
penetrates into the layer below, plugs the voids, and forms a water surface.
Subbase course: The subbase course is the layer of material beneath the
base course. The reason that two different granular materials are used is
for economy. Instead of using the more expensive base course material for
the entire layer, local and cheaper materials can be used as a subbase
course on top of the subgrade.

Subgrade: The top soil or subgrade is a layer of natural soil prepared to

receive the stresses from the layers above. It is essential that at no time soil
sub-grade is overstressed. It should be compacted to the desirable density,
near the optimum moisture content.

Figure2: Typical cross section of flexible pavement

Full depth asphalt pavement :

Full-depth asphalt pavements are constructed by placing one or more

layers of HMA directly on the subgrade or improved subgrade. Full-depth
asphalt pavement considered the most cost-effective and dependable type
of asphalt pavement for heavy traffic. This type of construction is quite
popular in areas where local materials are not available.

7
 Advantages of full depth asphalt pavement:

1- They have no permeable granular layers to entrap water and

impair performance.
2- Time required for construction is reduced, because the
construction is only for one layer.
3- They are less affected by moisture or frost.

Thin Asphalt Pavement:

Thin Asphalt Pavement is used for lot traffic load or parking lots.

Contained rock asphalt mat:

Contained rock asphalt mat are constructed by placing dense/open graded

aggregate layers in between two asphalt layers. Modified dense graded
asphalt concrete is placed above the sub-grade will significantly reduce the
vertical compressive strain on soil sub-grade and protect from surface
water.

Surface treatment:

Surface Treatment is the application of an asphalt emulsion on either an

existing asphalt road or a fresh, compacted granular surface immediately
followed by the application of a cover aggregate.

8
 Rigid Pavement: [ Portland cement concrete ]

A rigid pavement is constructed from cement concrete or reinforced

concrete slabs. The rigid pavement has rigidity and high modulus of
elasticity to distribute the load over a relatively wide area of soil. Minor
variations in subgrade strength have little influence on the structural
capacity of a rigid pavement. In the design of a rigid pavement, the flexural
strength of concrete is the major factor and not the strength of subgrade.
Due to this property of pavement, when the subgrade deflects beneath the
rigid pavement, the concrete slab is able to bridge over the localized
failures and areas of inadequate support from subgrade because of slab
action.

Figure3: Cross section of rigid pavement

Rigid pavements can be classified into four types:

1- Jointed plain concrete pavement (JPCP).

2- Jointed reinforced concrete pavement (JRCP).
3- Continuous reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP).
4- Pre-stressed concrete pavement (PCP).

Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement:

They are plain cement concrete pavements constructed with closely spaced
contraction joints. Dowel bars are normally used for load transfer across
joints. Depending on the type of aggregate, climate, and prior experience,
joint spacings between 15 and 30 ft.

9
 Jointed reinforced concrete pavement:

Steel reinforcements in the form of wire mesh or deformed bars do not

increase the structural capacity of pavements but allow the use of longer
joint spacings. Because of the longer panel length, dowels are required for
load transfer across the joints. Reinforcement help to keep the slab
together even after cracks. Joint spacings between 30 and 100 ft.

Continuous Reinforced Concrete Pavement:

Complete elimination of joints is achieved by reinforcement.

Figure4: four types of rigid pavement

Joints:
- Control the location, width, and appearance of expected cracks.
- Accommodate normal slab movements.
- Reduce stress build up.
- Provide load transfer where needed.
- Minimize performance implications of any random (unexpected) cracks.

Details of Joints:

- Spacing
- Dowel bar details
- Groove width
- Depth of seal

10
 Types Of Joints :

There are various types of joints in rigid pavement:

1- Longitudinal joints.
2- Transverse joints.
2.1 Contraction joints.
2.2 Expansion joints.
2.3 Warping joints.
3- Construction joints.

Function Of Joints:

Contraction joints:
The primary purpose of transverse contraction joints is to control the
cracking that results from the tensile and bending stresses in concrete
slabs caused by the cement hydration process, traffic loadings, and the
environment.

Expansion joint: transverse joint to relief compressive stress.

Construction joint: use in case of emergence or machine breakdown.

Longitudinal joint: a joint between two slabs which allows slab warping
without appreciable separation or cracking of the slabs and used to
relief curling.

Warping Joints:
- Warping occurs when the upper slab surface is cool down.
- Warping resisted by the slab own weight.
- Warping is relief by warping joints.

11
 Comparison of Flexible and Rigid Pavement

Flexible pavement Rigid Pavement

1. Deformation in the sub grade is 1- Deformation in the subgrade is not
transferred to the upper layers. transferred to subsequent layers.

1. Design is based on load distributing 2- Design is based on flexural strength

characteristics of the component or slab action.
layers.
2. Load is transferred by grain to grain 3- No such phenomenon of grain to
contact. grain load transfer exists.

3. No thermal stresses are induced as the 4- Thermal stresses are more

pavement has the ability to contract vulnerable to be induced as the
and expand freely, thats why ability to contract and expand is very
expansion joints are not needed. less in concrete, thats why
expansion joints are needed.

4. Strength of the road is highly 5- Strength of the road is less

dependent on the strength of the sub dependent on the strength of the
grade. sub grade.

The main difference between the flexible and rigid pavement:

Flexible pavement: it is pavement in which the transmitted

pressure is distributed through lateral action.

Rigid pavement: it is pavement in which the transmitted

pressure is distributed through slab action.

12
Flexible Pavement Layers cross sections:

British Terminology :

Figure5: Cross section of flexible pavement in British system.

American Terminology :

Figure6: Cross section of flexible pavement in American system.

13
 Rigid Pavement Layers cross sections:
- British Terminology:

Figure7: Cross section of rigid pavement in British system.

- American Terminology:

Figure8: Cross section of rigid pavement in American system.

14
 Composite Pavement
A composite pavement is composed of both HMA and PCC. The use of PCC
as a bottom layer and HMA as a top layer results in an ideal pavement with
the most desirable characteristics. The PCC provides a strong base and the
HMA provides a smooth and non-reflective surface. However, this type of
pavement is very expensive and is rarely used as a new construction.

- Note that this is the American Terminology, Composite pavement in

British terminology where is the roadbase is laid in two different
materials.

Fig9: Cross Section of composite pavement

15
 1.2 Objective Of the project
This project is to make an alternative design in flexible and rigid pavements
for a proposed major rural highway and preparing a complete structural
design for it by some design methods, then estimating the cost calculations.

Objectives :

- Prepare complete structural design for the pavement.

- Decide upon the type of materials for each layer with justification.
- Determine and give details of all joints.
- Prepare and give details of all mix design.
- Estimate the total cost of the project and of each element showing the
basis of cost calculations.
- Draw sketches of the final designs (x- sections).

16
 2. Stress and strain in Flexible pavement

1- One layer system Boussinesq

Assumed:
- If, one-layer system is assumed as a homogeneous half space,
Boussinesq equations can be applied.
- Half space is an infinite large area with infinite depth with a top plane on
which loads are applied.
- Boussinesq equations are developed for computing stresses in a
homogeneous, isotropic and elastic media due to a point load at the
surface.
- Stress is independent of the properties of the transmitting medium.
- Maximum stress occurs on the vertical plane passing through the point
of load application, on a particular horizontal plane.
- Pressure is maximum at shallow depths, theoretically becoming zero at
infinite depth.

2- Two layer system Burmister

Assumed:

Two layers have different modulus of elasticity.

The effect of layers above subgrade is to reduce the stress and deflections
in the subgrade.

17
 3.Performance and failure criteria of pavement:

A brand-new pavement at the start of its design life is expected to be one

without undesirable features. Such features, which include rutting,
cracking, patching, or roughness, are undesirable from the point of view
of performance of the pavementthe more distress, the shorter the
pavements life.

The following sections explain the possible distresses and their

relationship to the performance of a pavement:

Distress In Flexible Pavements:

There are different forms of distresses in asphalt pavements, each tied to a

specific reason (such as poor mix design, construction, or environmental
conditions) or a combination thereof, and most happening as a result of
traffic.

1. Fatigue Cracks

The major flexible pavement failures are fatigue cracking, rutting, and
thermal cracking. The fatigue cracking of flexible pavement is due to
horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of the asphaltic concrete. The failure
criterion relates allowable number of load repetitions to tensile strain.

Rutting occurs only on flexible pavements as indicated by permanent

deformation or rut depth along wheel load path.

Thermal cracking includes both low-temperature cracking and thermal

fatigue cracking.

2. Bleeding

Bleeding is the appearance of asphalt binder on the surface of the

pavement. This is a surface defect caused by excessive asphalt binder in the
surface asphalt mix layer.

18
3. Raveling

Raveling refers to wearing away of the pavement surface by loss of asphalt

binder and displacement of aggregates. Raveling is caused by the action of
water that finds its way through the surface of the pavement because of
poor compaction and hence low density and relatively high voids.

Distress In Rigid Pavements:

Traditionally, fatigue cracking has been considered as the major, or only

criterion for rigid pavement design. The allowable number of load
repetitions to cause fatigue cracking depends on the stress ratio between
flexural tensile stress and concrete modulus of rupture. Of late, pumping is
identified as an important failure criterion. Pumping is the ejection of soil
slurry through the joints and cracks of cement concrete pavement, caused
during the downward movement of slab. Under the heavy wheel loads.
Other major types of distress in rigid pavements include faulting, spilling,
and deterioration.

19
 4. Structural Design:

- Involves determination of structural composition of pavement

- Looks at entire pavement system, full depth of soil, base material and its
resistance to settling and material failure.
- Factors affecting location, climate, soil conditions, etc.

4.1 Design Factors:

The main factors control the structural designs for pavement are:

1. Applied wheel load (described generally by number of vehicles using the

road).
2. Strength of subgrade and materials to be used in pavement.
3. Climatic variations.
4. Design life (give us an indication about the repetition of the load).

20
 4.2 Quantification Of Traffic (ESAL) :

ESAL : Equivalent Single Axle Load

- Traffic loads applied on the pavement surface range from light

passenger cars to heavy trucks. To design a pavement section the
damage caused by all axle loads that will be applied on the pavement
during its designed life has to be considered.

- Different magnitudes and different numbers of repetitions are

converted to an equivalent number of repetitions of a standard axle
load that causes the same damage to the pavement. A standard axle
load was selected as 18000 Ib (80 kN) applied on a single axle with a
dual wheel at each end.

- ESAL is the equivalent number of repetitions of the 18-kip (80 kN)

standard axle load that causes the same damage to the pavement.

- Factors that affect the ESAL:

Fd=design lane factor.

Gjt = growth factor.
AADT = average annual daily traffic (in both direction) at first year .
Ni = number of axles on each vehicle.
Fei = load equivalency factor.

21
 4.3 Design Methods

Pavements form the basic supporting structure in highway

transportation. Each layer of pavement has a multitude of functions to
perform which has to be duty considered during the design process.
Different types of pavements can be adapted depending upon the traffic
requirements. Improper design of pavements leads to early failure of
pavements affecting the riding quality also.

- The following table consider as an indicator to the major three categories of design
methods with examples for each :

The Empirical methods Semi-Empirical Theoretical methods

Category Semi-Theoretical
Methods based mainly on Methods based on Methods based on
experience physical and stress- strain function theoretical analysis and
strength properties - and And modified by mathematical
there are no theoretical experience. computations.
backgrounds.

Examples Group index Tri-axial method Burmister Design

CBR Sear strength method.
British method. method.

The methods used for structural designs in this project are:

- Group index method

- The California Bearing Ratio Method
- British Method for design of Flexible pavement
- British Method for design of Rigid pavement
- AASHTO Method for design of Flexible pavement

22
 Basis of Design:

The prime factor influencing the structural design of a pavement is

the load-carrying capacity required.

The thickness of pavement necessary to provide the desired load-

carrying capacity is a function of the following five principal variables:

1. Vehicle wheel load or axle load.

2. Configuration of vehicle wheels or tracks.
3. Volume of traffic during the design life of pavement.
4. Soil strength.

For checking purposes:

Frost susceptibility: Thickness of the pavement is to be larger than

450 mm .

Depth of water table: given that the Water table is unlikely to rise to
a level less than 1.5 m below the finished formation level, and it also
should be at least 600 mm depth from the formation level, thus the
pavement thickness shouldnt exceed 900 mm.

The total thickness for the pavement should be between 450 and
900 mm.

These will be used to check the acceptability of all designs proposed

in this project.

23
 Group index method :

This method developed on 1945 by US Engineer, GI method of flexible

pavement design is an empirical method.

Group index criticisms

- Not applicable for heavy traffic > 1500 CV/Day in Both Directions.
- Does not consider the strength characteristic of the sub grade soil.
- Does not consider the quality material used on each layer.
- Based on initial traffic.

Group index based on

- liquid limit
- % fines
- plasticity index

Data Given :
- fines=60%
- liquid limit=50%
- plastic limit=30%
- number of vehicle =2000*2 C.V/D>1500

Note that this method is not applicable in this state ,

unless that we will design based on assumptions

24
 The California Bearing Ratio Method

First published in 1942, the CBR Design Method uses correlations between
soil CBR results and observed performance. Its original is based upon
correlation of CBR against pavement thicknesses.

This method taking into consideration:

1. CBR value for material (to be used in pavement or the natural soil).
2. Initial Traffic flow described by: commercial vehicle/day in both
directions.

Note that the higher CBR value the weaker the material

CBR method recommended by California State of highways:

Data required for flexible pavement design:

3. CBR value of soil subgrade

4. CBR value of sub base course
5. CBR value of base course
6. Wheel load

Wheel load is classified into three groups based on traffic conditions

7. Light traffic
8. Medium traffic
9. Heavy traffic

25
 British Method to design Flexible pavement:

1- Decide upon the design life (20 year usually or 40 year motorways)
2- Decide upon the traffic growth rate (g)(assume 4% if data is
unavailable )
3- Determine the number of commercial vehicles / day in each
direction
(of commercial vehicle /d/dir) initial traffic (from traffic census)
4- Determine the cumulative number of commercial vehicle on slow
lane over the design life.
5- Convert the value obtained from step 3 into equivalent cumulative
number of standard axles defined as equivalent single axle load
(ESAL).
6- determine / estimate CBR value for the subgrade soil (laboratory )
7- Determine the subbase thickness using the results from step 4 and
step 5 as follows:
Note: Round up all thicknesses to the next 10 mm intercept.

8- Decide upon the type of roadbase material.

9- Determine the thickness of roadbase and surfacing.
Note: For cemented roadbase beware of the limitation of each type.

26
 10 - Check for frost susceptibility as the total thickness of the pavement
should be > 450 mm. if <450 mm increase the subbase thickness to
reach a total thickness of 450 mm.
11 - Decide upon the recommended type of surfacing material.
12 - Check the need for lowering water table level below 600 mm from
the formation level (by subsoil drainage or raising the formation level
by embankment).

Explanatory notes:

1- Design is applicable to the right hand (slow) traffic lanes but will normally
be used over the whole carriageway width with however some reduction in
thickness may be made if engineering wish.

2- The traffic information will normally be available from census data to give:

a- Estimates at traffic at the time at time constriction (initial).

b- Expressed in commercial vehicles per day (in one or both direction).
c- A growth rate

Note: for design (b) should be in each direction (if given in both -> divide by
2).
If (c) not given assume 4% (unlikely to be exceeded).

3- the max initial traffic at 2500 cv/d/direction unlikely to be exceeded

4- For residential roads, assume initial traffic, 4% growth rate unless more
accurate assessments are available.
5- The design curves give the minimum thickness for each layer. It is
recommended that the derived thickness should be rounded up to the next
10 mm.
6- Check for frost susceptibility FS: no material within 450 mm of the road
surface should be susceptible to frost action.
If the case exists increase the subbase to give a total thickness >450 mm
7- Subbase:
a. The min. required is 30% for traffic > 0.5 million standard axle
b. The min. required is 20% for traffic 0.5 million standard axles.

27
 British Method to design Rigid pavement:
1- Decide upon the design life (usually 40 years), the growth rate (4% if
unavailable.
2- Apply steps 2, 3 and 4 as given in the flexible pavement design
procedure.
3- Determine the CBR value of the subgrade and classify it .
4- Determine the subbase thickness.
5- Decide upon the suitable type of subbase material to be use among
type 1 (angular stones that consist of graded crashed rock), type 2
(naturally occurring rounded stones), lean concrete, cement bound
granular material or soil cement).
Note: do not use type 2 in upper 150 mm of subbase if it is required to
carry heavy traffic.
6- Determine the slab thickness after deciding to reinforced or
unreinforced concrete.
7- Determine the weight of reinforced required in terms of:
- WT long mesh reinforcement .
- Area of steel / unit pavement Width

- Note: The reinforced should have 60 mm of cover from surface for

150 mm thick or 50 mm for < 150mm.
- Note: the reinforced should terminate at least 40 mm and not more
than 80 mm from the edge of slab and joints except longitudinal joints
8- Decide upon the joint spacings:
a. Longitudinal joints: slaps not more than 4.5 m wide
b. Transverse joints:
Unreinforced:
slap thickness >= 200mm (expansion 60m and contraction 5m)
Slap thickness < 200 mm (expansion 40m and contraction 5m)
Reinforced: (fig 19.16) : for expansion (Se) , For contraction = .333 *
Se.
Note : (Increase 20 % with limestone).
9- Specify all the details of joints in the concrete slap for example :
a) provide joint filler 25 mm thick for expansion joints.
b) Provide all joints with a groove to accommodate the sealing material
feel the groove with sealing compound to 5 mm below the surface.

28
 AASHTO DESIGN METHOD:

The design procedure recommended by the American Association of State

Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) is based on the results of
the extensive AASHO Road Test conducted in Ottawa, Illinois, in the late
1950s and early 1960s.

- The following factors are considered in the pavement thickness

design:
- Pavement performance
- Traffic
- Roadbed soils (subgrade material)
- Materials of construction
- Environment
- Drainage
- Reliability
- Structural Number: Structural number is a function of layer
thicknesses, layer coefficients, and drainage coefficient

29
 5 Mix Design

5.1 Selection of pavement materials

The basic concepts of the Marshall Mix design method were originally
developed by Bruce Marshall of the Mississippi Highway Department
around 1939 and then refined by the U.S. Army. The Marshall method
seeks to select the asphalt binder content at a desired density that
satisfies minimum stability and range of flow values.

5.2 Marshall design method

- Performance Requirements:

1- Workability to facilitate easy placement of bituminous materials without

experiencing segregation.
2- Sufficient stabilities.
3- Durability.
4- Sufficient air voids.
5- Skid resistance.
6- Low noise and good drainage properties.

- Selection of Optimum Asphalt Binder Content :

The optimum asphalt binder content is finally selected based on the

combined results of Marshall Stability and flow, density analysis and void
analysis.

- Optimum asphalt binder content can be arrived at in the following

procedure:

1- Plot the following graphs:

- Asphalt binder content vs. density

Note that:

30
 - Density will generally increase with increasing asphalt content,
reach a maximum, then decrease.
- Peak density usually occurs at higher asphalt binder content than
peak stability.
- Asphalt binder content vs. Marshall stability

This should follow one of two trends:

- Stability increases with increasing asphalt binder content,
reaches a peak, then decreases.

- Stability decreases with increasing asphalt binder content and does not
show a peak. This curve is common for some recycled HMA mixtures.

- Asphalt binder content vs. flow.

- Asphalt binder content vs. total voids in mix

Percent air voids should decrease with increasing asphalt binder content

- Asphalt binder content vs. Voids filled with binder .

Percent VFB increases with increasing asphalt binder content.

2- Assume an optimum asphalt binder content.

3- Determine properties at this optimum asphalt binder content by referring

to the plots. Compare each of these values against specification values and
if all are within specification, then the preceding optimum asphalt binder
content is satisfactory. Otherwise, if any of these properties is outside the
specification range the mixture should be redesigned.

31
 5.3 Superpave

One of the principal results from the Strategic Highway Research Program
(SHRP) was the Superpave mix design method. The Superpave mix design
method was designed to replace the Hveem and Marshall methods. The
volumetric analysis common to the Hveem and Marshall methods provides
the basis for the Superpave mix design method. The Superpave system ties
asphalt binder and aggregate selection into the mix design process, and
considers traffic and climate as well. The compaction devices from the
Hveem and Marshall procedures have been replaced by a gyratory
compactor and the compaction effort in mix design is tied to expected
traffic.

Superpave History

Under the Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP), an initiative was

undertaken to improve materials selection and mixture design by
developing:

1- A new mix design method that accounts for traffic loading and
environmental conditions.
2- A new method of asphalt binder evaluation.
3- New methods of mixture analysis.

When SHRP was completed in 1993 it introduced these three

developments and called them the Superior Performing Asphalt
Pavement System (Superpave). Although the new methods of mixture
performance testing have not yet been established, the mix design
method is well-established.

32
 6. Case Study

Group Index Method

Plasticity index = liquid limit - plastic limit

P.I = 50-30 =20

a = %fines - 35
= 60 - 35 = 25

b = fines - 15
= 60 -15 = 45 > 40 (not allowed)
Then use b = 40 (in the range)

c = liquid limit - 40
=50 - 40 =10

d = P.I - 10
= 20 - 10

GI By Equation :
G.I = 0.2*a+.005*a*c+.01*b*d
=.2*25+.05*25*10+.01*10*40
=10.25
Use GI = 11 (Because we design on worst case)

33
 GI By Charts :

Figure 10: Relates %fines passing Figure 11: Relates % Fines passing
sieve #200 with PI sieve #200 with L.L

Chart 1 vertical reading = 4

Chart 2 vertical reading = 6.2
GI = Sum of two vertical readings = 10.2
Use GI = 11

Now, we can give two alternatives of design F.P. using [Design curves for U.S.
Highway Engineer Group index method], as follows

Fig12: design curves for GI method

34
As we can see, the total thickness of the pavement using curve D [ since the traffic
volume is 4000 C.V./dis greater than 300 C.V./d which has been classified as a
heavy traffic volume]is almost 535mm since greater than 450mm it can resist
frost action-, the thickness of subbase using curve A is 235mm, and assume the
thickness of the surfacing is 50mm. The following Figure shows the first
alternative:

Fig13: Cross section of the designed curve

In some cases where there is no suitable subbase material, you could add some
thickness to the roadbase using curve E, which gives the thickness of additional
material of the roadbase material. The thickness of the additional material is 115
mm.

The final design would be like 535 -235= 300mm [300mm represents the
thickness of the roadbase + surfacing], 300+115mm = 415mm.

Since it less than 450mm, it could need to 35mm additional thickness of subbase
which is equivalent to 17mm from roadbase materials. The following figure
represent the 2nd alternative using GI design methods:

Fig14: Cross section of the designed curve

35
 California Bearing Ratio Method

Steps of design :

1- Given that the Initial traffic on the design lane is 2000 C.V/day/dir, it equals
4000 C.V/day in both directions.
2- Therefore, we will use curve F from fig 12 to obtain the depth of construction
of each layer and of the sub-grade.
3- Given that CBR value for sub-grade is 3% , for sub-base is 22% and for road
base is 70%
4- After reading from figure 12 , we obtain these results :
5- Depth of construction above sub-grade = total thickness of the pavement = 64
cm = 460 mm ( from curve F )
6- Depth of construction above subbase = 20 cm
7- Depth of construction above road base = Depth of construction of the surface
= 10 cm
8- Depth of construction of road base = 20 10 = 10 cm
9- Depth of construction of sub base = 64 20 = 44 cm

Figure 15: CBR Design Chart

36
 Fig16: Cross section of the designed pavement

Checking :
450 Total Thickness 900 mm
The design is acceptable.

Material to be used:
Subbase material: any available granular material or stabilized soil but
with a minimum CBR value of 22%.
Roadbase material: any available suitable material but with minimum
CBR value of 70% (for example: lean concrete or rolled asphalt).
Surfacing material: No proposed material and no specifications.

37
 British Method to design Flexible pavement :
Steps Of Design:

1. First, we estimate the cumulative number of commercial vehicles from

the initial traffic on the design lane, growth rate & design life.
Here , given that the initial traffic on the design lane = 2000 C.V/day/dir ,
Growth rate of 4% and assume design life of flexible pavement 20 years
.Therefore ; using fig 14 we estimate the cumulative number of
commercial vehicles on the design lane using interpolation as shown :

Cumulative num. of sta. axles for 2500 C.V/day/dir and 40 years design
life is approximately =60 million commercial vehicles on the design lane.
Cumulative num. of sta. axles for 1500 C.V/day/dir and 40 years design
life is approximately = 45 million commercial vehicles on the design lane.
Therefore; the cumulative number of commercial vehicles
corresponding to 2000 C.V/day/dir initial traffic and 40 years design life
is approximately = 52.5 million commercial vehicles on the design lane.

Fig17: Relationship between cumulative No. of commercial vehicle carried by each left-hand
slow lane and design life. (Growth rate 4%)
38
 2. Converting the cumulative number of commercial vehicles to
cumulative number of standard axles.

- Since the Road is to be major rural highway and the expected

initial traffic is 2000 C.V/day/dir (over than 1000 C.V/day/dir), we
will use 1.08 as a conversion factor from cumulative number of
commercial vehicles to cumulative number of standard axles (see
table 19.2). thus:

- Cumulative number of standard axles = 52.5 million * 1.08 = 56.7

million standard axle

3. Determining the thickness of sub-base:

- Depending on the result of the previous step and CBR value of S.G
, we estimate from fig. 15 the thickness of sub-base layer taking
into consideration that :

- Cumulative number of standard axles is larger than 0.5 million

standard axles.

39
 - CBR value for S.G is less than 30%, thus, the minimum thickness of
subbase should be 150 mm.
- Therefore, the thickness of the sub-base layer is 470mm and the
material to be used should have a minimum CBR value of 30%.

Fig18: Thickness of subbase

4. Determining type and thickness of Road base material :

First, determine the type of road base material, then determine the
thickness of road base layer depending on its type and the cumulative
number of standard axles from figures 16 to 21
For roadbase material , we can use :
1. Rolled asphalt with 180 mm thickness

Fig19: Rolled Asphalt Roadbase: minimum thickness of surfacing and roadbase.

40
 According to fig16 surfacing depth = 100 mm

Fig19.1: Cross section of the designed pavement.

2. Dense macadam with 240 mm thickness

Fig20: Dense macadam Roadbase: minimum thickness of surfacing and roadbase.

According to fig17 surfacing depth = 100 mm

Fig20.1: Cross section of the designed pavement.

41
 3. Lean concrete with 220 mm thickness

Fig21: lean concrete Roadbase: minimum thickness of surfacing and roadbase.

According to fig18 surfacing depth = 180 mm

Fig21.1: Cross section of the designed pavement.

4. Wet mix an Dry-bound macadam with 260 mm thickness

Fig22: Wet mix an Dry-bound macadam: minimum thickness of surfacing and roadbase.
42
 According to fig19 surfacing depth = 170 mm

Fig22.1: Cross section of flexible pavement which designed.

5. Determining material to be used in surfacing :

Since the cumulative number of standard axles 56.7 million and it is larger
than 11 million ; then the British Method recommend that surfacing
should be divided in two layers
(See table 19.4):

Base course :
- 60 mm thickness and the materials could be used in this layer
are:
- Rolled asphalt
- Dense bitumen or dense tarmacadam taking into consideration
that crushed rock or slag only to be used in dense bitumen
macadam or in dense tarmacadam.

43
 Wearing course :

- 40 thickness and the materials could be used in this layer are:

- Rolled asphalt (crushed rock or slag-coarse aggregate to be used
in this layer only).
- Pitch bitumen.

Checking :
450 Total thickness 900 mm
This design is acceptable

British Method to design Rigid pavement:

Steps of design :

1. In the previous methods of design, we estimated the cumulative number of

standard axles of 56.7 million, and given that the CBR value for the sub-
grade is 3%.
2. Classifying the sub-grade as a Normal sub-grade since its CBR value is
between
2% - 15%. (See table 19.5)

44
3. Determining the sub-base thickness (see table 19.6 ) : since CBR value for
the sub-grade is 3% ; the recommended thickness for the sub-base layer is
180 mm

4. Deciding upon the suitable material to be used in subbase layer :

- we can use :
Type 1 subbase :(Angular stones consists of graded crushed rock)
Type 2: (Naturally occurring rounded stone).
Lean concrete.
Cement-bound granular material.
Soil cement.

Note that we shouldnt use type 2 subbase in the upper 150 mm of the sub-
base (if subbase is required to carry heavy construction traffic, particularly
during winter months)

5. Design of Concrete slab :

- Concrete slab could be Reinforced or Unreinforced, in our case we
- Slab thickness depends on the cumulative number of standard axle,
CBR and is determined according to fig 20.

Fig23: Concrete: minimum thickness of slab

45
5.1 Design of Jointed Reinforced Slab :
Type and Thickness of the slab :
- The material to be used in this slab is Portland concrete cement with
Reinforcement.
- This Reinforcement could be bars or mesh.
- The recommended slab thickness (as determined from fig 20) is mm
270 mm.
5.2 Reinforcement:
Bars Reinforcement :
- Amount of reinforcement :
Described by the Weight of reinforcement; Therefore, the recommended
weight for 56.7 million cumulative numbers of standard axles is:
5.55 kg/m2 = 600 mm2/m width of slab (from fig 21)

Fig24: Reinforcement: minimum weight for concrete slab

Mesh reinforcement :
Amount of reinforcement:
Use standard long mesh of 5.55 kg/m2

46
 Details of joints :
- Spacing of joints :

- Expansion joints spacing :

Maximum expansion spacing for 5.55 kg/m2 Reinforcement weight is: for
standard long mesh. (from fig 22)

Fig25: maximum spacing of joints for reinforced concrete slab

- Contraction joints spacing :

Contraction spacing for 35 m expansion spacing is recommended to be
11.67 m. (Note that every third joint there is and expansion joint).

- Spacing between the longitudinal joints is 4.5 m. (Recommended)

- Note that if Limestone aggregate is to be used in the mix design of

concrete, we Should increase these Recommended spacings by 20%
To be:
Spacing of expansion joints is 42 m
Spacing of contraction joints is 14 m

47
 Filler :
- Used for expansion joint, in the groove and between the dowel bar and the
water-proof cap.
- Material to be used as Filler: any suitable compressible material, which will
compress enough to relieve the compression stresses in the concrete slab
without any significant deflections in concrete slabs. (For example: Cork).
- Thickness of filler: the recommended value is 25 mm.

Width of the groove and Depth of seal :

Those are determined according to the type of joint and the spacing
between two successive joints in the case of contraction joints.

- The Recommended Groove width for contraction joints is 15 mm and the

recommended depth of seal is 20-25 mm. (use 23 mm) since the spacing of
contraction joints is 11.67 m. The recommended width for expansion joints
is 30 mm and the recommended depth of seal is 25-30 mm. (use 27 mm).
(See table 19.7)

Dowel and Tie bars :

- Dowels :
The Size (diameter) and the length of the dowels depend on the slab
thickness and the type of joint.

48
 By British:
- The recommended size and length of dowel bars for 270 mm slab thickness
crossing Expansion joints are : 32 mm diameter and 750 mm length
- And for the same slab thickness but crossing contraction joints are 25 mm
diameter and 600 mm length.
(See table 19.8)

By American:
- The recommended size and length of dowel bars for 270 mm slab thickness
crossing Expansion joints are 25 mm diameter and 406.4 mm length
(See table 4.4)

49
 Longitudinal Joint : (Tie bars)
- Recommended length of 1 m
- Recommended diameter of 12 mm
- Recommended spacing of 600 mm if the cumulative number of standard
axles is larger than 0.5 million, otherwise, Recommended spacing of 700
mm.

Checking:
total thickness = 270+180= 450 mm

450 Total thickness 900 mm

This design is acceptable

Fig26: Cross section of the designed pavement

50
 AASHTO Method for design of Flexible pavement:
- The factors used in this design method are :

1- ESAL : equivalent single axle load , approximately = cumulative number of

standard axles but obtained by different way
2- Strength of subgrade : described by either Mr ( Resilient modulus ) or
R (relative bearing capacity with respect to surfacing material )
3- Strength of materials to be used in surfacing , base and subbase
4- Loss in serviceability Index
5- Reliability level
6- Overall / Combined standard error

Steps for design :

1- Determining ESAL:

- in this case, we have no information that can be used to obtain ESAL, so we

will consider ESAL to be equal to the cumulative number of standard axles =
56.7*2=113.4 million.

2- Describing the Strength of subgrade :

- Mr for subgrade isnt given, but we can obtain it from equation:

Mr = 1500*CBR
( Since CBR for subgrade is 3% < 10% , we can use this equation ) .
Thus ,for subgrade : Mr = 45000 lb/in

3- Describing the Strength of materials to be used in pavement :

- For surfacing : Mr = 450000 lb/in
- For base : Mr = 28000 lb/in
- For subbase : Mr = 13500 lb/in

51
4- Loss in serviceability index :

It equals to the Terminal serviceability Index (given 2.5) subtracted from the
Initial serviceability index (given 4.2) = 4.2 2.5 = 1.7

5- Reliability level : its value is given = 0.95

6- Overall standard deviation : its value is given = 0.45
7- Determining Structural number for surface , sub base and base
( from the monograph see fig24 )
As read from the Nomograph: SN1 = 3.1, SN2 =3.9, SN3 = 5.5
(Depending on the factors mentioned above)

Fig27: Design chart for flexible pavement based on

using mean values for each input

8- Determining Layer Coefficients: ( a1 , a2 , a3 ) for surfacing , base and

subbase respectively .
- Layer coefficient a1 for surfacing is obtained from fig25 and it is : 0.44

52
- a2 = 0.249(log28000) - 0.977 = 0.13
- a3 = 0.227(log13500) - 0.839= 0.1

9- Determining the drainage coefficient (m ) for each layer :

- The value of this coefficient depends on the quality of drainage

(obtained from table B. 4 ) and on the percent of time pavement structure
is exposed to moisture levels approaching Saturation.
from table 6-1 , the quality of drainage is Poor since the water is removed
within 4 weeks (given) . the percent of time pavement structure is
exposed to moisture levels approaching Saturation is 20% (given), thus :

- For surfacing : m1 = 1 ( since no drainage )

- For base : m2 = 0.6
- For subbase: m3 = 0.6
Note that m2 = m3 since one set of condition is given.

53
10- Determining the thickness of each layer :

- SN for each layer = ai * Di * mi where ( Di : thickness of layer I )

- Finding D1 by D1=SN1/a1 = 791=3.1/0.44 to be 7.045 in

( we will use D1 = 7.5 in and the new SN1=7.5*0.44 will be 3.3)

- SN2 = SN1new + a2m2D2 , thus D2 = 7.69 in

( use D2 = 8 in and the new SN2 will be 3.924 )

- SN3 = SN2new + a3m3D3 , thus D3 = 26.27 in

( use D3= 26.5 in and the new SN3 will be 5.514 )

SN3 > SN
Total thickness = 42 in

11- Materials to be used in each layer :

- Surfacing material : Asphalt with Mr value of 450000 lb/in
( we could use alternative material but with the same Mr value )

- Subbase material : any available granular material or stabilized soil but

with a minimum Mr value of 13500 lb/in

- Base material: any available suitable material but with minimum Mr Value
of 28000 lb/in (for example: lean concrete or rolled asphalt).

Fig29: Cross section of the designed pavement

54
 AASHTO Method to design Rigid pavement :

Assumptions:

Subbase thickness=10
Subbase modulus=30,000 psi
Subgrade MR=10,000 psi
Concrete elastic modulus = 5*10^6 psi
Modulus of rapture = 650 Psi

- From Fig27: The modulus of subgrade reaction (K) = 600 pci

Fig30: Chart for estimating composite modulus of subgrade reaction assuming a semi-infinite depth

- From table B.14 the load transfer coefficient (j) = 3

(plain jointed and jointed reinforced with tied P.C.C)

55
- Drainage coefficient (table B.13 ) = 0.85

- psi = 1.7
- Reliability = 95%
- Combined standard error = 0.45
- W18 = 113.4 *10^6
- From Nomograph ( Fig28,29) = Depth Of Slab = 14 inch

Fig31: Design Chart for rigid Fig32: Design Chart for rigid
pavement on using mean values pavement on using mean values
for each input variable (segment 1) for each input variable (segment 2)

56
 Mix design (Marshall Mix Design)
The table below shows Marshall test data :

Binder Content% density Av% VFA% Flow Stability

4.31 6.52 15.56 12.02 681.33

4.76 2.12 5.28 647.93 12.97 984.32

5.21 2.14 4.04 15.13 13.89 1,021.11

5.66 2.13 3.51 15.57 15.08 907.09

6.10 2.12 2.95 15.95

Plot Graphs

57
- To find the optimum binder content :

1- (BC1)Maximum stability : binder content = 5 %

2- (BC2) Maximum unit weight : binder content = 5.25%
3- (BC3)Voids in total mixture take 4% : binder content =5.2%
4- (BC4) Aggregate voids filled take 80 % : binder content = 5.6 %
OBC = (5+5.25+5.2+5.6)/4 = 5.26 %

- Check that the optimum binder content gives a mixture which will still meet
the wearing course criteria in the table above . thus reinterring the curves
shown above with the OBC the following values are determined :

So the optimum binder content is within the limits so it is ok

58
 7. Cost Estimation

Road Descriptions
Width 10 m ( Assumption )
Length 500 m ( Assumption )

Surfacing
a) Wearing course
5 cm Thickness = 6jd/m2
1 cm = 1.2jd/m2
Thickness = 40 mm
Cost = 4*10*500*1.2 = 24000 JD

b) Binder course
5 cm Thickness = 8jd/m2
1 cm = 1.6jd/m2
Thickness = 60 mm
Cost =6*10*500*1.6 = 48000 JD

Basecourse
Assuming we picked Granit Material, and thickness of 215 mm
Granit = 3.5jd/m3
Cost = 3.5*0.215*500*10 = 3672.5 JD

Subbase
Assuming we picked Domint limestone, and thickness of 330 mm
Domint Limestone =2.6jd/m3
Cost = 2.6*0.33*10*500= 4290 JD

Prime Coat
Prime coat = 0.6jd/m2
Cost = 0.6*10*500 = 12,000 JD

Tack Coat
Tack coat = 0.4jd/m2 Cost = 0.4*10*500 = 2000

59
 8. Summary Of Findings :

CBR method:
- Total thickness of the pavement is = 640 mm
- The thickness of the base and surfacing is = 200 mm
- The thickness of the surfacing is = 100 mm
- So the thickness of the roadbase = 100 mm

British Method

- In our case we take the worst case that is Dry-bound macadam road base with
pavement thickness of 900 mm.

B- Rigid Pavement:
- Thickness of subbase for normal subgrade = 180 mm.
- Thickness of the concrete slab = 270 mm
- We used joints, dowel bars, and tie bars as mentioned earlier in the case
study.

AASHTO Method :

A- Flexible pavement
- Thickness of surfacing = 7.5
- Thickness of basecourse = 8
- Thickness of subbase = 22.5
B- Rigid pavement :
- thickness of subbase = 10 - Slab thickness = 14

60
 conclusion and Recommendations: :

We have prepared four different designs for the proposed road , including
thicknesses proposed materials to be used . it is necessary to recommend that :

1- The designs included in this project are recommended to American or

British use, may or not be suitable for Jordanian use. Thus, engineer can
modulate these designs to be more satisfactorily useable in Jordan.
2- The thicknesses calculated or proposed for each design are not accurate
because of errors in calculating, estimating or reading from graphs.
3- Alternatives materials are proposed.
4- You can use the available materials instead of proposed in this project, but
it should have a same performance and a close strength.
5- If an engineer modify the design proposed in this project, he should pay
attention to check the design for frost and water table depth, especially in
the cold-climate areas.
6- The proposed thicknesses are the minimum values.
7- In rigid pavements, the proposed spacings are the maximum values and
the proposed amounts of reinforcement are the minimum amounts.
8- Take into consideration the specifications in each method.
9- The CBR method of design isnt recommended to be used because it isnt
accurate.

Choose the most suitable, economical and logical design from your view

References

- Lecture notes of Prof. Khair Jadaan

- Pavement analysis and design by Yang H. Huang
- Asphalt Institute. (2001[2]). Superpave Mix Design. Superpave Series No. 2
(SP-02). Asphalt Institute. Lexington, KY.

61