Particle physics
For other uses of the word particle in physics and photons, neutrinos, and muons, as well as a wide range of
elsewhere, see particle (disambiguation).
Particle physics (also high energy physics) is the branch ity, displaying particle-like behaviour under certain ex-
of physics that studies the nature of the particles that con-
stitute matter and radiation. Although the word "particle" In more technical terms, they are described by quantum
can refer to various types of very small objects (e.g. state
protons, gas particles, or even household dust), parti-
cle physics usually investigates the irreducibly smallest
detectable particles and the fundamental forces neces-
sary to explain their behaviour. By our current under-
standing, these elementary particles are excitations of the
quantum elds that also govern their interactions. The
currently dominant theory explaining these fundamental
particles and elds, along with their dynamics, is called
the Standard Model. Thus, modern particle physics gen-
erally investigates the Standard Model and its various pos-
sible extensions, e.g. to the newest known particle,
the Higgs boson, or even to the oldest known force eld,
gravity.[1][2]
1 Subatomic particles
The particle content of the Standard Model of Physics
Modern particle physics research is focused on subatomic
particles, including atomic constituents such as electrons,
protons, and neutrons (protons and neutrons are com-
posite particles called baryons, made of quarks), pro-
duced by radioactive and scattering processes, such as
exotic particles. Dynamics of particles is also governed
by quantum mechanics; they exhibit waveparticle dual-
perimental conditions and wave-like behaviour in others.
vectors in a Hilbert space, which is also treated in
quantum eld theory. Following the convention of par-
ticle physicists, the term elementary particles is applied
to those particles that are, according to current under-
standing, presumed to be indivisible and not composed
[3]
of other particles.
All particles and their interactions observed to date can be
described almost entirely by a quantum eld theory called
the Standard Model.[4] The Standard Model, as currently
formulated, has 61 elementary particles.[3] Those ele-
mentary particles can combine to form composite par-
ticles, accounting for the hundreds of other species of
particles that have been discovered since the 1960s. The
Standard Model has been found to agree with almost all
the experimental tests conducted to date. However, most
particle physicists believe that it is an incomplete descrip-
tion of nature and that a more fundamental theory awaits
discovery (See Theory of Everything). In recent years,
measurements of neutrino mass have provided the rst
experimental deviations from the Standard Model.
2 History
Main article: History of subatomic physics
The idea that all matter is composed of elementary parti-
cles dates from at least the 6th century BC.[5] In the 19th
century, John Dalton, through his work on stoichiometry,
concluded that each element of nature was composed of
a single, unique type of particle.[6] The word atom, after
the Greek word atomos meaning indivisible, has since
then denoted the smallest particle of a chemical element,
but physicists soon discovered that atoms are not, in fact,
the fundamental particles of nature, but are conglomer-
ates of even smaller particles, such as the electron. The
early 20th century explorations of nuclear physics and
quantum physics led to proofs of nuclear ssion in 1939
by Lise Meitner (based on experiments by Otto Hahn),
and nuclear fusion by Hans Bethe in that same year;
both discoveries also led to the development of nuclear
weapons. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, a bewilder-
ing variety of particles were found in collisions of parti-
1
2 4 EXPERIMENTAL LABORATORIES

cles from increasingly high-energy beams. It was referred
to informally as the "particle zoo". That term was depre-
cated after the formulation of the Standard Model during
the 1970s, in which the large number of particles was ex-
plained as combinations of a (relatively) small number of
more fundamental particles.
3 Standard Model
Main article: Standard Model
The current state of the classication of all elementary
particles is explained by the Standard Model. It describes
the strong, weak, and electromagnetic fundamental inter-
actions, using mediating gauge bosons. The species of
gauge bosons are the gluons,
W (Batavia, United States). Its main facility until 2011
, was the Tevatron, which collided protons and an-
W+
and
Z passed it on 29 November 2009.[16]
bosons, and the photons.[4] The Standard Model also con-
tains 24 fundamental particles (12 particles and their as-
sociated anti-particles), which are the constituents of all
matter.[7] Finally, the Standard Model also predicted the
existence of a type of boson known as the Higgs bo-
son. Early in the morning on 4 July 2012, physicists with
the Large Hadron Collider at CERN announced they had
found a new particle that behaves similarly to what is ex-
pected from the Higgs boson.[8]
4 Experimental laboratories
main project is now the Large Hadron Collider
(LHC), which had its rst beam circulation on 10
September 2008, and is now the worlds most en-
ergetic collider of protons. It also became the
most energetic collider of heavy ions after it be-
gan colliding lead ions. Earlier facilities include the
Large ElectronPositron Collider (LEP), which was
stopped on 2 November 2000 and then dismantled
to give way for LHC; and the Super Proton Syn-
chrotron, which is being reused as a pre-accelerator
for the LHC.[14]
DESY (Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron)
(Hamburg, Germany). Its main facility is the
Hadron Elektron Ring Anlage (HERA), which
collides electrons and positrons with protons.[15]
Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (Fermilab)
tiprotons and was the highest-energy particle col-
lider on earth until the Large Hadron Collider sur-
Institute of High Energy Physics (IHEP) (Beijing,
China). IHEP manages a number of Chinas ma-
jor particle physics facilities, including the Bei-
jing Electron Positron Collider (BEPC), the Beijing
Spectrometer (BES), the Beijing Synchrotron Radi-
ation Facility (BSRF), the International Cosmic-Ray
Observatory at Yangbajing in Tibet, the Daya Bay
Reactor Neutrino Experiment, the China Spallation
Neutron Source, the Hard X-ray Modulation Tele-
scope (HXMT), and the Accelerator-driven Sub-
critical System (ADS) as well as the Jiangmen Un-
derground Neutrino Observatory (JUNO). [17]

The worlds major particle physics laboratories are: KEK (Tsukuba, Japan). It is the home of a num-
ber of experiments such as the K2K experiment, a
Brookhaven National Laboratory (Long Island, neutrino oscillation experiment and Belle, an exper-
United States). Its main facility is the Relativistic iment measuring the CP violation of B mesons.[18]
Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC), which collides heavy
ions such as gold ions and polarized protons. It is SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory (Menlo
the worlds rst heavy ion collider, and the worlds Park, United States). Its 2-mile-long linear parti-
only polarized proton collider.[9] cle accelerator began operating in 1962 and was the
basis for numerous electron and positron collision
Budker Institute of Nuclear Physics (Novosibirsk, experiments until 2008. Since then the linear ac-
Russia). Its main projects are now the electron- celerator is being used for the Linac Coherent Light
positron colliders VEPP-2000,[10] operated since Source X-ray laser as well as advanced accelerator
2006, and VEPP-4,[11] started experiments in 1994. design research. SLAC sta continue to participate
Earlier facilities include the rst electron-electron in developing and building many particle detectors
beam-beam collider VEP-1, which conducted ex- around the world.[19]
periments from 1964 to 1968; the electron-positron
colliders VEPP-2, operated from 1965 to 1974; and, Many other particle accelerators also exist.
its successor VEPP-2M,[12] performed experiments
from 1974 to 2000.[13] The techniques required for modern experimental parti-
cle physics are quite varied and complex, constituting a
CERN (European Organization for Nuclear Re- sub-specialty nearly completely distinct from the theoret-
search) (Franco-Swiss border, near Geneva). Its ical side of the eld.
 3

5 Theory pushed forward by their use in particle physics. The

Theoretical particle physics attempts to develop the
models, theoretical framework, and mathematical tools
to understand current experiments and make predictions
for future experiments. See also theoretical physics.
There are several major interrelated eorts being made
in theoretical particle physics today. One important
branch attempts to better understand the Standard Model
and its tests. By extracting the parameters of the Stan-
dard Model, from experiments with less uncertainty,
this work probes the limits of the Standard Model and
therefore expands our understanding of natures building
blocks. Those eorts are made challenging by the di-
culty of calculating quantities in quantum chromodynam-
ics. Some theorists working in this area refer to them-
selves as phenomenologists and they may use the tools
of quantum eld theory and eective eld theory. Others
make use of lattice eld theory and call themselves lattice
theorists.
Another major eort is in model building where model
builders develop ideas for what physics may lie beyond
the Standard Model (at higher energies or smaller dis-
tances). This work is often motivated by the hierarchy
problem and is constrained by existing experimental data.
It may involve work on supersymmetry, alternatives to the
Higgs mechanism, extra spatial dimensions (such as the
Randall-Sundrum models), Preon theory, combinations
of these, or other ideas.
World Wide Web and touchscreen technology were ini-
tially developed at CERN. Additional applications are
found in medicine, national security, industry, comput-
ing, science, and workforce development, illustrating a
long and growing list of benecial practical applications
with contributions from particle physics.[21]
7 Future
The primary goal, which is pursued in several distinct
ways, is to nd and understand what physics may lie
beyond the standard model. There are several power-
ful experimental reasons to expect new physics, including
dark matter and neutrino mass. There are also theoretical
hints that this new physics should be found at accessible
energy scales.
Much of the eort to nd this new physics are focused
on new collider experiments. The Large Hadron Col-
lider (LHC) was completed in 2008 to help continue the
search for the Higgs boson, supersymmetric particles, and
other new physics. An intermediate goal is the construc-
tion of the International Linear Collider (ILC), which will
complement the LHC by allowing more precise measure-
ments of the properties of newly found particles. In Au-
gust 2004, a decision for the technology of the ILC was
taken but the site has still to be agreed upon.

A third major eort in theoretical particle physics is In addition, there are important non-collider experiments
string theory. String theorists attempt to construct a uni- that also attempt to nd and understand physics beyond
ed description of quantum mechanics and general rel- the Standard Model. One important non-collider eort
ativity by building a theory based on small strings, and is the determination of the neutrino masses, since these
branes rather than particles. If the theory is successful, it masses may arise from neutrinos mixing with very heavy
may be considered a "Theory of Everything", or TOE. particles. In addition, cosmological observations provide
many useful constraints on the dark matter, although it
There are also other areas of work in theoretical particle may be impossible to determine the exact nature of the
physics ranging from particle cosmology to loop quantum dark matter without the colliders. Finally, lower bounds
gravity. on the very long lifetime of the proton put constraints on
This division of eorts in particle physics is reected Grand Unied Theories at energy scales much higher than
in the names of categories on the arXiv, a preprint collider experiments will be able to probe any time soon.
archive:[20] hep-th (theory), hep-ph (phenomenology), In May 2014, the Particle Physics Project Prioritization
hep-ex (experiments), hep-lat (lattice gauge theory). Panel released its report on particle physics funding pri-
orities for the United States over the next decade. This re-
port emphasized continued U.S. participation in the LHC
6 Practical applications and ILC, and expansion of the Long Baseline Neutrino
Experiment, among other recommendations.
In principle, all physics (and practical applications devel-
oped therefrom) can be derived from the study of funda-
mental particles. In practice, even if particle physics is 8 High energy physics compared to
taken to mean only high-energy atom smashers, many
technologies have been developed during these pioneer- low energy physics
ing investigations that later nd wide uses in society. Par-
ticle accelerators are used to produce medical isotopes The term high energy physics requires elaboration. In-
for research and treatment (for example, isotopes used in tuitively, it might seem incorrect to associate high en-
PET imaging), or used directly in external beam radio- ergy with the physics of very small, low mass objects,
therapy. The development of superconductors has been like subatomic particles. By comparison, an example of a
4 10
macroscopic system, one gram of hydrogen, has ~ 61023
times[22] the mass of a single proton. Even an entire beam
of protons circulated in the LHC contains ~ 3.231014
protons,[23] each with 6.51012 eV of energy, for a to-
tal beam energy of ~ 2.11027 eV or ~ 336.4 MJ, which
is still ~ 2.7105 times lower than the mass-energy of a
single gram of hydrogen. Yet, the macroscopic realm is
low energy physics, while that of quantum particles is
high energy physics.
The interactions studied in other elds of physics and
science have comparatively very low energy. For exam-
ple, the photon energy of visible light is about 1.8 to 3.1
eV. Similarly, the bond-dissociation energy of a carbon-
carbon bond is about 3.6 eV. Other chemical reactions
typically involve similar amounts of energy. Even pho-
tons with far higher energy, gamma rays of the kind pro-
duced in radioactive decay, mostly have photon energy
between 105 eV and 107 eV still two orders of mag-
nitude lower than the mass of a single proton. Radioac-
tive decay gamma rays are considered as part of nuclear
physics, rather than high energy physics.
8 Journal of Physics G: Nuclear and Particle Physics.
The proton has a mass of around 9.410 eV; some
other massive quantum particles, both elementary and
hadronic, have yet higher masses.
9 See also
Atomic physics
High pressure
International Conference on High Energy Physics
Introduction to quantum mechanics
List of accelerators in particle physics
List of particles
Magnetic monopole
Micro black hole
Number theory
Resonance (particle physics)
Self-consistency principle in high energy Physics
Non-extensive self-consistent thermodynamical the-
ory
Standard Model (mathematical formulation)
Stanford Physics Information Retrieval System
Timeline of particle physics
Unparticle physics
Tetraquark
International Conference on Photonic, Electronic
and Atomic Collisions
REFERENCES
10 References
[1] The Higgs boson - CERN.
[2] http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/
laureates/2013/advanced-physicsprize2013.pdf
[3] Braibant, S.; Giacomelli, G.; Spurio, M. (2009). Particles
and Fundamental Interactions: An Introduction to Parti-
cle Physics. Springer. pp. 313314. ISBN 978-94-007-
2463-1.
[4] Particle Physics and Astrophysics Research. The Hen-
ryk Niewodniczanski Institute of Nuclear Physics. Re-
trieved 31 May 2012.
[5] Fundamentals of Physics and Nuclear Physics (PDF).
Retrieved 21 July 2012.
[6] Scientic Explorer: Quasiparticles. Sciex-
plorer.blogspot.com. 22 May 2012. Retrieved 21
July 2012.
[7] Nakamura, K (1 July 2010). Review of Particle Physics.
37 (7A): 075021. Bibcode:2010JPhG...37g5021N.
doi:10.1088/0954-3899/37/7A/075021.
[8] Mann, Adam (28 March 2013). Newly Discovered Par-
ticle Appears to Be Long-Awaited Higgs Boson - Wired
Science. Wired.com. Retrieved 6 February 2014.
[9] Brookhaven National Laboratory A Passion for Dis-
covery. Bnl.gov. Retrieved 23 June 2012.
[10] index. Vepp2k.inp.nsk.su. Retrieved 21 July 2012.
[11] The VEPP-4 accelerating-storage complex.
V4.inp.nsk.su. Retrieved 21 July 2012.
[12] VEPP-2M collider complex (in Russian). Inp.nsk.su.
Retrieved 21 July 2012.
[13] The Budker Institute Of Nuclear Physics. English Rus-
sia. 21 January 2012. Retrieved 23 June 2012.
[14] Welcome to. Info.cern.ch. Retrieved 23 June 2012.
[15] Germanys largest accelerator centre Deutsches
Elektronen-Synchrotron DESY. Desy.de. Retrieved 23
June 2012.
[16] Fermilab | Home. Fnal.gov. Retrieved 23 June 2012.
[17] IHEP | Home. ihep.ac.cn. Retrieved 29 November
2015.
[18] Kek | High Energy Accelerator Research Organization.
Legacy.kek.jp. Retrieved 23 June 2012.
[19] SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory Home Page.
Retrieved 19 February 2015.
[20] arXiv.org e-Print archive.
[21] Fermilab | Science at Fermilab | Benets to Society.
Fnal.gov. Retrieved 23 June 2012.
 5

[22] CODATA Value: Avogadro constant. The NIST Refer- Boyarkin, Oleg (2011). Advanced Particle Physics
ence on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty. US National Two-Volume Set. CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4398-
Institute of Standards and Technology. June 2015. Re- 0412-4.
trieved 2016-12-10.

[23] Beam Requirements and Fundamental Choices (PDF).

CERN Engineering & Equipment Data Management Ser- 12 External links
vice (EDMS). Retrieved 10 December 2016.
Symmetry magazine

11 Further reading Fermilab

Particle physics it matters the Institute of Physics
Introductory reading
Nobes, Matthew (2002) Introduction to the Stan-
Close, Frank (2004). Particle Physics: A Very Short dard Model of Particle Physics on Kuro5hin: Part
Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19- 1, Part 2, Part 3a, Part 3b.
280434-0.
CERN European Organization for Nuclear Re-
Close, Frank; Marten, Michael; Sutton, Christine search
(2004). The Particle Odyssey: A Journey to the
The Particle Adventure educational project spon-
Heart of the Matter. Oxford University Press. ISBN
sored by the Particle Data Group of the Lawrence
9780198609438.
Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL)
Ford, Kenneth W. (2005). The Quantum World.
Harvard University Press.
Oerter, Robert (2006). The Theory of Almost Ev-
erything: The Standard Model, the Unsung Triumph
of Modern Physics. Plume.
Schumm, Bruce A. (2004). Deep Down Things: The
Breathtaking Beauty of Particle Physics. Johns Hop-
kins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-7971-X.
Close, Frank (2006). The New Cosmic Onion.
Taylor & Francis. ISBN 1-58488-798-2.

Advanced reading

Robinson, Matthew B.; Bland, Karen R.; Cleaver,

Gerald. B.; Dittmann, Jay R. (2008). A Simple
Introduction to Particle Physics. arXiv:0810.3328
[hep-th].
Robinson, Matthew B.; Ali, Tibra; Cleaver, Ger-
ald B. (2009). A Simple Introduction to Particle
Physics Part II. arXiv:0908.1395 [hep-th].
Griths, David J. (1987). Introduction to Elemen-
tary Particles. Wiley, John & Sons, Inc. ISBN 0-
471-60386-4.
Kane, Gordon L. (1987). Modern Elementary Par-
ticle Physics. Perseus Books. ISBN 0-201-11749-5.
Perkins, Donald H. (1999). Introduction to High En-
ergy Physics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-
521-62196-8.
Povh, Bogdan (1995). Particles and Nuclei: An In-
troduction to the Physical Concepts. Springer-Verlag.
ISBN 0-387-59439-6.
6 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

13 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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