Digital Computers

A digital computer is designed to process data in numerical form (see digital circuit); its
circuits perform directly the mathematical operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication,
and division. The numbers operated on by a digital computer are expressed in the binary
system; binary digits, or bits, are 0 and 1, so that 0, 1, 10, 11, 100, 101, etc., correspond to
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc. Binary digits are easily expressed in the computer circuitry by the
presence (1) or absence (0) of a current or voltage. A series of eight consecutive bits is
called a "byte"; the eight-bit byte permits 256 different "on-off" combinations. Each byte can
thus represent one of up to 256 alphanumeric characters, and such an arrangement is called
a "single-byte character set" (SBCS); the de facto standard for this representation is the
extended ASCII character set. Some languages, such as Japanese, Chinese, and Korean,
require more than 256 unique symbols. The use of two bytes, or 16 bits, for each symbol,
however, permits the representation of up to 65,536 characters or ideographs. Such an
arrangement is called a "double-byte character set" (DBCS); Unicode is the international
standard for such a character set. One or more bytes, depending on the computer's
architecture, is sometimes called a digital word; it may specify not only the magnitude of the
number in question, but also its sign (positive or negative), and may also contain redundant
bits that allow automatic detection, and in some cases correction, of certain errors
(see code; information theory). A digital computer can store the results of its calculations for
later use, can compare results with other data, and on the basis of such comparisons can
change the series of operations it performs. Digital computers are now used for a wide range
of personal, business, scientific, and government purposes, from electronic games, e-mail,
social networking, and data- and word-processing applications to desktop publishing, video
conferencing, weather forecasting, simulated nuclear weapons testing, cryptography, and
many other purposes.

Processing of Data
The operations of a digital computer are carried out by logic circuits, which are digital circuits
whose single output is determined by the conditions of the inputs, usually two or more. The
various circuits processing data in the computer's interior must operate in a highly
synchronized manner; this is accomplished by controlling them with a very stable oscillator,
which acts as the computer's "clock." Typical personal computer clock rates now range from
several hundred million cycles per second to several billion. Operating at these speeds,
digital computer circuits are capable of performing hundred of billions of of arithmetic or logic
operations per second, but supercomputers are capable of performing more than 1 million
times faster; such speeds permit the rapid solution of problems that would be impossible for
a human to solve by hand. In addition to the arithmetic and logic circuitry and a number of
registers (storage locations that can be accessed faster than main storage, or memory, and
are used to hold the intermediate results of calculations), the heart of the computercalled
the central processing unit, or CPUcontains the circuitry that decodes the set of
instructions, or program, and causes it to be executed.

Storage and Retrieval of Data

Associated with the CPU is the main storage, or memory, where results or other data are
stored for periods of time ranging from a small fraction of a second to days or weeks before
being retrieved for further processing. Once made up of vacuum tubes and later of small
doughnut-shaped ferromagnetic cores strung on a wire matrix, main storage now consists
of integrated circuits, each of may contain billions of semiconductor devices. Where each
vacuum tube or core represented one bit and the total memory of the computer was
measured in thousands of bytes (or kilobytes, KB), modern computer memory chips
represent hundreds of millions of bytes (or megabytes, MB) and the total memory of both
personal and mainframe computers is measured in billions of bytes (gigabytes, GB) or more.
Read-only memory (ROM), which cannot be written to, maintains its content at all times and
is used to store the computer's control information. Random-access memory (RAM), which
both can be read from and written to, is lost each time the computer is turned off. Modern
computers now include cache memory, which the CPU can access faster than RAM but
slower than the registers; data in cache memory also is lost when the computer is turned off.
Programs and data that are not currently being used in main storage can be saved on
auxiliary or secondary storage. Although punched paper tape and punched cards once
served this purpose, the major materials used today are magnetic tape and disks and flash
memory devices, all of which can be read from and written to, and two types of optical disks,
the compact disc (CD) and its successor the digital versatile disc (DVD). When compared to
RAM, these are less expensive (though flash memory is more expensive than the other two),
are not volatile (i.e., data is not lost when the power to the computer is shut off), and can
provide a convenient way to transfer data from one computer to another. Thus operating
instructions or data output from one computer can be stored and be used later either by the
same computer or another.
In a system using magnetic tape the information is stored by a specially designed tape
recorder somewhat similar to one used for recording sound. Magnetic tape is now largely
used for offsite storage of large volumes of data or major systems backups. In magnetic and
optical disk systems the principle is the same; the magnetic or optical medium lies in a path,
or track, on the surface of a disk. The disk drive also contains a motor to spin the disk and a
magnetic or optical head or heads to read and write the data to the disk. Drives take several
forms, the most significant difference being whether the disk can be removed from the drive
assembly. Flash memory devices, such as USB flash drives, flash memory cards, and solid-
state drives, use nonvolatile memory that can be erased and reprogrammed in blocks.

Removable magnetic disks made of mylar enclosed in a plastic holder (older versions had
paper holders) are now largely outdated. These floppy disks have varying capacities, with
very high density disks holding 250 MBmore than enough to contain a dozen books the
size of Tolstoy's Anna Karenina. Internal and external magnetic hard disks, or hard drives,
are made of metal and arranged in spaced layers. They can hold vastly more data than
floppies or optical disks, and can read and write data much faster than floppies. As hard
disks dropped in price, they became increasingly included as a component of personal
computers and replaced floppy disks as the standard media for the storage of operating
systems, programs, and data.

Compact discs can hold hundreds of megabytes, and have been used, for example, to store
the information contained in an entire multivolume encyclopedia or set of reference works.
DVD is an improved optical storage technology capable of storing as much as ten times the
data that CD technology can store. CDRead-Only Memory (CD-ROM) and DVDRead-
Only Memory (DVD-ROM) disks can only be readthe disks are impressed with data at the
factory but once written cannot be erased and rewritten with new data. The latter part of the
1990s saw the introduction of new optical storage technologies: CD-Recordable (CD-R) and
DVD-Recordable (DVD-R, DVD+R), optical disks that can be written to by the computer to
create a CD-ROM or DVD-ROM, but can be written to only once; and CD-ReWritable (CD-
 RW), DVD-ReWritable (DVD-RW and DVD+RW), and DVDRandom Access Memory (DVD-
RAM), disks that can be written to multiple times.

Flash memory devices, a still more recent development, are an outgrowth of electrically
erasible programmable read-only memory. Although more expensive than magnetic and
optical storage technologies, flash memory can be read and written to much faster,
permitting shorter boot times and quicker data access and storage. Because flash memory
also is resistant to mechanical shock and has become increasingly compact, a USB flash
drive allows for the easy, portable external storage of large quantities of data. Solid-state
drives are more easily accessed and written to than magnetic hard drives and use less
power, and have become common in high-end, lightweight notebook computers and in high-
performance computers. Flash memory is also used in computer tablets and smartphones.
Hybrid drives, which combine a smaller amount of flash memory with a large magnetic hard
drive, permit the economical storage of large amounts of data while benefitting from a more
responsive access to frequently used but only occasionally changed operating system and
program files.

Data are entered into the computer and the processed data made available via input/output
devices, also called peripherals. All auxiliary storage devices are used as input/output
devices. For many years, the most popular input/output medium was the punched card. The
most popular input devices are the computer terminal and internal magnetic hard drives, and
the most popular output devices are the computer display screen associated with a terminal
(typically displaying output that has been processed by a graphics processing unit) and
the printer. Human beings can directly communicate with the computer through computer
terminals, entering instructions and data by means of keyboards much like the ones on
typewriters, by using a pointing device such as a mouse, trackball, or touchpad, or by
speaking into a microphone that is connected to computer running voice-recognition
software. The result of the input may be displayed on a liquid-crystal, light-emitting diode,
or cathode-ray tube screen or on printer output. Another important input/output device in
modern computers is the network card, which allows the computer to connect to a computer
network and the Internet using a wired or radio (wireless) connection. The CPU, main
storage, auxiliary storage, and input/output devices collectively make up a cumputer system.

FIRST GENERATION OF COMPUTER

The beginning of commercial computer age is from UNIVAC (Universal Automatic
Computer). It was developed by two scientists Mauchly and Echert at the Census
Department of United States in 1947. The first generation computers were used during
1942-1955. They were based on vacuum tubes. Examples of first generation computers
are ENIVAC and UNIVAC-1.

Advantages
Vacuum tubes were the only electronic component available during those days.
Vacuum tube technology made possible to make electronic digital computers.
These computers could calculate data in millisecond.

Disadvantages
The computers were very large in size.
 They consumed a large amount of energy.
They heated very soon due to thousands of vacuum tubes.
They were not very reliable.
Air conditioning was required.
Constant maintenance was required.
Non-portable.
Costly commercial production.
Limited commercial use.
Very slow speed.
Limited programming capabilities.
Used machine language only.
Used magnetic drums which provide very less data storage.
Used punch cards for input.
Not versatile and very faulty.

SECOND GENERATION OF COMPUTERS

The second generation computers used transistors. The scientists at Bell laboratories
developed transistor in 1947. These scientists include John Barden, William Brattain and
William Shockley. The size of the computers was decreased by replacing vacuum tubes with
transistors. The examples of second generation computers are IBM 7094 series, IBM 1400
series and CDC 164etc.

Advantages

Smaller in size as compared to the first generation computers.

The 2nd generation Computers were more reliable
Used less energy and were not heated.
Wider commercial use
Better portability as compared to the first generation computers.
Better speed and could calculate data in microseconds
Used faster peripherals like tape drives, magnetic disks, printer etc.
Used Assembly language instead of Machine language.
Accuracy improved.

Disadvantages

Cooling system was required

Constant maintenance was required
Commercial production was difficult
Only used for specific purposes
Costly and not versatile
Puch cards were used for input.

THE THIRD GENERATION

The Third generation computers used the integrated circuits (IC). Jack Kilby developed
the concept of integrated circuit in 1958. It was an important invention in the computer field.
The first IC was invented and used in 1961. The size of an IC is about square inch. A
 single IC chip may contain thousands of transistors. The computer became smaller in size,
faster, more reliable and less expensive. The examples of third generation computers
are IBM 370, IBM System/360, UNIVAC 1108 and UNIVAC AC 9000 etc.

Advantages

Smaller in size as compared to previous generations.

More reliable.
Used less energy
Produced less heat as compared to the previous two generations of computers.
Better speed and could calculate data in nanoseconds.
Used fan for heat discharge to prevent damage.
Maintenance cost was low because hardware failure is reare.
Totally general purpose
Could be used for high-level languages.
Good storage
Versatile to an extent
Less expensive
Better accuracy
Commercial production increased.
Used mouse and keyboard for input.

Disadvantages

Air conditioning was required.

Highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacturing of IC chips.

THE FOURTH GENERATION

The fourth generation computers started with the invention of Microprocessor. The
Microprocessor contains thousands of ICs. Ted Hoff produced the first microprocessor in
1971 for Intel. It was known as Intel 4004. The technology of integrated circuits improved
rapidly. The LSI (Large Scale Integration) circuit and VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration)
circuit was designed. It greatly reduced the size of computer. The size of modern
Microprocessors is usually one square inch. It can contain millions of electronic circuits. The
examples of fourth generation computers are Apple Macintosh & IBM PC.

Advantages

More powerful and reliable than previous generations.

Small in size
Fast processing power with less power consumption
Fan for heat discharging and thus to keep cold.
No air conditioning required.
Totally general purpose
Commercial production
Less need of repair.
 Cheapest among all generations
All types of High level languages can be used in this type of computers

Disadvantages

The latest technology is required for manufacturing of Microprocessors.

Fifth Generation Computers (Present & Beyond)

Scientists are working hard on the 5th generation computers with quite a few
breakthroughs. It is based on the technique of Artificial Intelligence (AI). Computers can
understand spoken words & imitate human reasoning. Can respond to its surroundings using
different types of sensors. Scientists are constantly working to increase the processing
power of computers. They are trying to create a computer with real IQ with the help of
advanced programming and technologies. IBM Watson computer is one example that
outsmarts Harvard University Students. The advancement in modern technologies will
revolutionize the computer in future.

Since the advent of the first computer different types and sizes of computers are offering
different services. Computers can be as big as occupying a large building and as small as a
laptop or a microcontroller in mobile & embedded systems. The four basic types of
computers are.

1. Super computer
2. Mainframe Computer
3. Minicomputer
4. Microcomputer

Supercomputer

The most powerful computers in terms of performance and data processing are the
supercomputers. These are specialized and task specific computers used by large
organizations. These computers are used for research and exploration purposes,
like NASA uses supercomputers for launching space shuttles, controlling them and for
space exploration purpose.

The supercomputers are very expensive and very large in size. It can be accommodated in
large air-conditioned rooms; some super computers can span an entire building.

In 1964, Seymour cray designed the first supercomptuer CDC 6600.

 Uses of Supercomputer

In Pakistan and other countries Supercomputers are used by Educational Institutes like
NUST (Pakistan) for research purposes. Pakistan Atomic Energy commission & Heavy
Industry Taxila uses supercomputers for Research purposes.

Space Exploration

Supercomputers are used to study the origin of the universe, the dark-matters. For these
studies scientist use IBMs powerful supercomputer Roadrunner at National Laboratory Los
Alamos.

Earthquake studies

Supercomputers are used to study the Earthquakes phenomenon. Besides that

supercomputers are used for natural resources exploration, like natural gas, petroleum, coal,
etc.

Weather Forecasting

Supercomputers are used for weather forecasting, and to study the nature and extent of
Hurricanes, Rainfalls, windstorms, etc.

Nuclear weapons testing

Supercomputers are used to run weapon simulation that can test the Range, accuracy &
impact of Nuclear weapons.

Popular Supercomputers
IBMs Sequoia, in United States
Fujitsus K Computer in Japan
IBMs Mira in United States
IBMs SuperMUC in Germany
NUDT Tianhe-1A in China

Mainframe computer

Although Mainframes are not as powerful as supercomputers, but certainly they are quite
expensive nonetheless, and many large firms & government organizations uses Mainframes
to run their business operations. The Mainframe computers can be accommodated in large
air-conditioned rooms because of its size. Super-computers are the fastest computers with
large data storage capacity, Mainframes can also process & store large amount of data.
Banks educational institutions & insurance companies use mainframe computers to store
data about their customers, students & insurance policy holders.
 Popular Mainframe computers
Fujitsus ICL VME
Hitachis Z800

Minicomputer

Minicomputers are used by small businesses & firms. Minicomputers are also called
as Midrange Computers. These are small machines and can be accommodated on a
disk with not as processing and data storage capabilities as super-computers &
Mainframes. These computers are not designed for a single user. Individual departments of
a large company or organizations use Mini-computers for specific purposes. For example, a
production department can use Mini-computers for monitoring certain production process.

Popular Minicomputers
K-202
Texas Instrument TI-990
SDS-92
IBM Midrange computers

Microcomputer

Desktop computers, laptops, personal digital assistant (PDA), tablets & smartphones are
all types of microcomputers. The micro-computers are widely used & the fastest growing
computers. These computers are the cheapest among the other three types of computers.
The Micro-computers are specially designed for general usage like entertainment, education
and work purposes. Well known manufacturers of Micro-computer are Dell, Apple, Samsung,
Sony & Toshiba.

Desktop computers, Gaming consoles, Sound & Navigation system of a car, Netbooks,
Notebooks, PDAs, Tablet PCs, Smartphones, Calculators are all type of Microcomputers.

Analog Computers

Analog computers are used to process analog data. Analog data is of continuous nature and
which is not discrete or separate. Such type of data includes temperature, pressure, speed
weight, voltage, depth etc. These quantities are continuous and having an infinite variety of
values. It measures continuous changes in some physical quantity e.g. The Speedometer of
a car measures speed, the change of temperature is measured by a Thermometer, the
weight is measured by Weights machine. These computers are ideal in situations where
data can be accepted directly from measuring instrument without having to convert it into
numbers or codes. Analog computers are the first computers being developed and provided
the basis for the development of the modern digital computers. Analog computers are widely
used for certain specialized engineering and scientific applications, for calculation and
measurement of analog quantities. They are frequently used to control process such as
those found in oil refinery where flow and temperature measurements are important. They
are used for example in paper making and in chemical industry. Analog computers do not
require any storage capability because they measure and compare quantities in a single
operation. Output from an analog computer is generally in the form of readings on a series of
dial (Speedometer of a car) or a graph on strip chart.

Digital Computers

A Digital Computer, as its name implies, works with digits to represent numerals, letters or
other special symbols. Digital Computers operate on inputs which are ON-OFF type and its
output is also in the form of ON-OFF signal. Normally, an ON is represented by a 1 and an
OFF is represented by a 0. So we can say that digital computers process information which
is based on the presence or the absence of an electrical charge or we prefer to say a binary
1 or 0.
A digital computer can be used to process numeric as well as non-numeric data. It can
perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division and also
logical operations. Most of the computers available today are digital computers. The most
common examples of digital computers are accounting machines and calculators.
The results of digital computers are more accurate than the results of analog computers.
Analog computers are faster than digital. Analog computers lack memory whereas digital
computers store information. We can say that digital computers count and analog computers
measures.

Hybrid Computers

A hybrid is a combination of digital and analog computers. It combines the best features of
both types of computers, i-e. It has the speed of analog computer and the memory and
accuracy of digital computer. Hybrid computers are used mainly in specialized applications
where both kinds of data need to be processed. Therefore, they help the user, to process
both continuous and discrete data. For example a petrol pump contains a processor that
converts fuel flow measurements into quantity and price values. In hospital Intensive Care
Unit (ICU), an analog device is used which measures patient's blood pressure and
temperature etc, which are then converted and displayed in the form of digits. Hybrid
computers for example are used for scientific calculations, in defense and radar systems.

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

Central processing unit controls all the operations that is being done inside the
computer like temporarily storing data, executing program instructions, and
perform arithmetic and logic operations.

The main function of CPU is to execute program instructions. All the arithmetic
and logic operations, controlling the flow of signals are being controlled by CPU.
It is also called the Processor. In a microcomputer, CPU is a single chip located
inside the system unit. Except processor, the system unit also includes the circuit
board (Mother Board), slots and other components.
The CPU is made up of three major parts.
a) Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
b) Control Unit and
c) Memory Unit

a) Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

Arithmetic and Logic Unit is the part of CPU where all the processing tasks are
performed. ALU performed arithmetic operation and logical operation on data
under the direction of the control unit. As required, data that need to be
processed are transferred from the memory unit to ALU. During the processing,
data may move many times from memory unit to ALU and back to memory unit
till the processing is completed. After the completion of processing, the final
outputs, that are stored in the memory unit are directed to an output device or
secondary storage device.

The ALU does all the arithmetic computations and logical operations. The
arithmetic operations involve performing addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division operations while logical operations involve comparisons. The computer
might make a comparison and then use the result of comparison operations
include or another comparison.
Various possible comparison operations include EQUAL TO (==), NOT EQUAL TO
(! =), GREATER THAN (>), LESS THAN (<), GREATER THAN EQUAL TO (>=), LESS
THAN EQUAL TO (<=) etc. The data and instructions stored in primary memory
(RAM) prior to processing are transferred when needed to the ALU where they are
processed. Intermediate results are transferred back to the primary storage unit
until needed at later times. Data may thus move back again to storage many
times before the processing is over. After completion of processing, the final
results, which are stored in storage unit, are released to the output device. The
ALU performs the following tasks.
i. It performs arithmetic operation on data.
ii. It performs logical operations on data.

b) Control Unit (CU)

The control unit is the part of CPU that works with operating system to control
and coordinate the entire computer system. The control unit receives instructions
from the program, decodes them and generates signals to inform the ALU about
the operation that has been requested. Control unit sends signals to input and
output devices to perform tasks as instructions. Control unit also receives signals
from the peripheral devices for further actions. The control unit coordinates the
flow of data in and of the ALU, primary memory, secondary storage and various
input/ output devices.

Control Unit acts like a Traffic Police which interprets program instructions
received from memory and directs the sequence of events necessary to execute
instructions. control unit controls the flow of data and information through CPU to
and from other devices like input/output, memory and storage. It sends control
signals i.e. electronic signals to various units like I/O, ALU, memory etc. until the
required operations are carried out.

Program execution is the important function of CU. The CU gets program

instructions from memory and executes them one after another. Before
executing, each instruction is fetched, decoded and interpreted to carry out
desired operation. After executing one instruction, the CU sends signal to
memory to send the next instruction in sequence to CU. Then the similar process
is repeated.

c) The Memory Unit

The memory unit or primary memory (RAM) is the part of the computer where
instructions (program) and data to be used by the computer are stored
temporarily. The data and instructions entered through the input device are
transmitted to the computer memory. Data and program of the secondary
storage are also transferred to the primary memory whenever they are needed
to be used. From the primary memory data are forwarded to the ALU for the
further processing and the processed data (information) is sent back to the
memory unit. From the memory unit these processed data are passed to the
output unit or secondary storage unit. So, the primary memory is the working
space where unprocessed data, instructions or programs currently running and
processed data are temporarily stored.

The functions of the primary memory unit are as follows.

i. Primary memory stores all the data to be processed and the instructions
required for processing.
ii. Primary memory stores intermediate results of processing.
iii. Primary memory stores final result of processing before these results are
transferred to an output unit or secondary storage.
iv. Primary memory stores currently running programs.

Memory Registers

These are high speed memory locations built into CPU. The memory registers
temporarily hold the program instructions for the program to be executed, the
input data to be processed and the intermediate results of any calculations when
the processing is being done. They are capable of storing specified amount of
data such as 1 word (=4 Bytes). There are different types of registers available
within CPU like Accumulator, Program Counter, Shift Resisters, Instruction
Registers, Status Registers, Stack Pointer etc.
An accumulator is a special kind of 8-bit or 16 bit register that is used to hold the
intermediate results of arithmetic and logic operations. The program counter
registers hold the address of the next executable instruction during program
execution. Shift registers allows bits to be shifted to the left or right during
multiplication or division.

Viva - Voce: Youngs Modulus - Uniform & Non Uniform

Bending:
Q. What is stress? Give its unit.
Ans. The force applied on a body per unit area is known as stress. Its unit is N/m2.

Q. What is strain? Give its unit.

Ans. The ratio of change in dimension to original dimension is called strain. It is a ratio,
hence it has no unit.

Q. What is elasticity?
Ans. The property of the body to regain its original shape and size, after the removal of the
applied stress.

Q. What are the factors affecting the elasticity of a material?

Ans. Effect of stress Effect of change in temperature Effect of Impurities Effect of
hammering, rolling and annealing Effect of crystalline nature.

Q. What is uniform bending?

Ans. The beam is loaded uniformly on its both ends, the bent forms an arc of a circle and
elevation is made on the beam. This bending is called uniform bending.

Q. What are the elastic bodies?

Ans. The bodies which regains its original shape or size after removal of the deforming force
are called elastic bodies.

Define the term Youngs modulus.

Youngs modulus is defined as the ration of longitudinal stress to the longitudinal strain.

State Hooks law?

It states that within the elastic limit, the stress generated within the body is proportional to
the strains. Stress/strain = constant.

What is modulus of elasticity?

The ratio of stress to strain is a constant and is known as modulus of elasticity.

What is Youngs modulus?

Youngs modulus is defined as the ratio of the longitudinal stress to the longitudinal strain.

What is a beam?
When the length of the rod of uniform cross-section is very large compared to its breadth
such that the shearing stress over any section of the rod can be neglected, the rod is called
a beam.

How the longitudinal strain and stress produces?

Due to depression, the upper or concave side of the beam becomes smaller than the lower
or convex side of the beam, As a result longitudinal strain is produced. The change in length
will be due to forces acting along the length of the beams. These forces will give rises to
longitudinal stress.

How do you ensure that in your experiment your elastic limit is not exceeded?
The consistency in the readings of depression both for increasing and decreasing the loads
indicates that in the elastic limit is not exceeded.

What do you mean by neutral layer of bend beam?

When a beam is bent, its top surface becomes concave while the bottom surface becomes
convex. Between the two surfaces of the bent beam there is a layer, whose length remains
unaltered. This is called neural layer.

What is the change produced in depression when the thickness of the bar is doubled?
If thickness is doubled, then the depression is reduced to 1/8 of its previous value.

What is the change produced in depression when the breadth of the bar is doubled?
If breadth is doubled, then the depression is reduced to l/2 of its previous value.

Which dimension breadth, thickness, or length of the bar should be measured very carefully
and why?
The thickness of the bar should be measured very carefully since its magnitude is small and
it occurs in the expression in the power of three. An inaccuracy in the measurement of the
thickness will produce the greatest proportional error in Youngs modulus.

What is the SI unit of the youngs modulus?

Newton/m^2