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Designation: A 340 03a

Standard Terminology of
Symbols and Definitions Relating to Magnetic Testing1
This standard is issued under the fixed designation A 340; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (e) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.

INTRODUCTION

In preparing this glossary of terms, an attempt has been made to avoid, where possible, vector
analysis and differential equations so as to make the definitions more intelligible to the average worker
in the field of magnetic testing. In some cases, rigorous treatment has been sacrificed to secure
simplicity, but it is believed that none of the definitions will prove to be misleading.
It is the intent of this glossary to be consistent in the use of symbols and units with those found in
ANSI/IEEE 260-1978 and USA Standard Y 10.5-1968.

Part 1Symbols Used in Magnetic Testing

Symbol Term Hb biasing magnetic field strength


Hc coercive field strength
a cross-sectional area of B coil Hci intrinsic coercive field strength
A cross-sectional area of specimen Hcs coercivity
A8 solid area Hd demagnetizing field strength

B H magnetic induction
magnetic flux density
HD
Hg
HL
incremental magnetic field strength
air gap magnetic field strength
ac magnetic field strength (from an assumed
DB excursion range of induction
peak value of magnetizing current
Bb biased induction
Hm maximum magnetic field strength in a hyster-
Bd remanent induction
esis loop
Bdm remanence
Hmax maximum magnetic field strength in a flux-
BdHd energy product
current loop
(BdHd)m maximum energy product
Hp ac magnetic field strength (from a measured
BD incremental induction
peak value of exciting current)
Bi intrinsic induction
Ht instantaneous magnetic field strength (coinci-
Bm maximum induction in a hysteresis loop
dent with Bmax)
Bmax maximum induction in a flux current loop
Hz ac magnetic field strength force (from an as-
Br residual induction
sumed peak value of exciting current)
Brs retentivity
I ac exciting current (rms value)
Bs saturation induction
Ic ac core loss current (rms value)
cf crest factor
Idc constant current
CM cyclically magnetized condition
Im ac magnetizing current (rms value)
d lamination thickness
J magnetic polarization
DB demagnetizing coefficient
k8 coupling coefficient
df distortion factor
, flux path length
Dm magnetic dissipation factor
,1 effective flux path length
E exciting voltage
,g gap length
E1 induced primary voltage
+ (also f N) flux linkage
E2 induced secondary voltage
+m mutual flux linkage
Ef flux volts
L self inductance
f cyclic frequency in hertz
L1 core inductance
^ magnetomotive force
LD incremental inductance
ff form factor
Li intrinsic inductance
H magnetic field strength
Lm mutual inductance
DH excursion range of magnetic field strength
L0 initial inductance
Ls series inductance
Lw winding inductance
m magnetic moment
1
This terminology is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee A06 on M magnetization
Magnetic Properties and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee A06.92 on m total mass of a specimen
Terminology and Definitions. m1 active mass of a specimen
Current edition approved June 10, 2003. Published July 2003. Originally ND demagnetizing factor
approved in 1949. Last previous edition approved in 2003 as A 340 03. N1 turns in a primary winding

Copyright ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959, United States.

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A 340 03a
N2 turns in a secondary winding Gm magnetic constant
N1I/,1 ac excitation d density
p magnetic pole strength k susceptibility
3 permeance ac Permeabilities:
P active (real) power a ideal permeability
Pa apparent power L inductance permeability
Pa (B;f) specific apparent power DL incremental inductance permeability
0d initial dynamic permeability
Pc total core loss p peak permeability
Pc (B;f) specific core loss Dp incremental peak permeability
i instantaneous permeability
P cD incremental core loss z impedance permeability
Pe normal eddy current core loss Dz incremental impedance permeability
PD e incremental eddy current core loss dc Permeabilities:
Ph normal hysteresis core loss normal permeability
PD h incremental hysteresis core loss abs absolute permeability
Pq reactive (quadrature) power d differential permeability
Pr residual core loss D incremental permeability
Pw winding loss (copper loss) eff effective circuit permeability
Pz exciting power i intrinsic permeability
Pz (B;f) specific exciting power Di incremental intrinsic permeability
m maximum permeability
Qm magnetic storage factor 0 initial permeability
5 reluctance r relative permeability
R1 core resistance v (also Gm) space permeability
Rw winding resistance rev reversible permeability
S lamination factor (stacking factor) 8/cot g figure of merit
SCM symmetrically cyclically magnetized condition n reluctivity
Tc Curie temperature p the numeric 3.1416
w lamination width r resistivity
Wh hysteresis loop loss f magnetic flux
a linear expansion, coefficient (average) fN flux linkage (see +)
Dx incremental tolerance x mass susceptibility
b hysteretic angle x0 initial susceptibility
g loss angle v angular frequency in radians per second
cos g magnetic power factor
gp proton gyromagnetic ratio

Part 2Definition of Terms Used in Magnetic Testing

ac excitation, N1I/1the ratio of the rms ampere-turns of point in a nonmagnetic gap in a magnetic circuit.
exciting current in the primary winding of an inductor to the
effective flux path length of the inductor. NOTE 4In the cgs-emu system of units, Hg is numerically equal to the
induction existing at such a point and exceeds the magnetic field strength
active (real) power, Pthe product of the rms current, I, in an in the magnetic material.
electrical circuit, the rms voltage, E, across the circuit, and
the cosine of the angular phase difference, u between the amorphous alloya semiprocessed alloy produced by a rapid
current and the voltage. quenching, direct casting process resulting in metals with
P 5 EI cosu noncrystalline structure.
ampere (turn), Athe unit of magnetomotive force in the SI
NOTE 1The portion of the active power that is expended in a system of units. The symbol A represents the unit of electric
magnetic core is the total core loss, Pc. current, ampere, in the SI system of units.
aging coefficientthe percentage change in a specific mag- ampere per metre, A/mthe unit of magnetic field strength in
netic property resulting from a specific aging treatment. the SI system of units.
anisotropic materiala material in which the magnetic prop-
NOTE 2The aging treatments usually specified are:
erties differ in various directions.
(a) 100 h at 150C or
(b) 600 h at 100C. anisotropy of lossthe ratio of the specific core loss measured
with flux parallel to the rolling direction to the specific core
aging, magneticthe change in the magnetic properties of a loss with flux perpendicular to the rolling direction.
material resulting from metallurgic change due to a normal
Pc ~B;f! l
or specified aging condition. anisotropy of loss 5 P
c ~B;f! t
NOTE 3This term implies a deterioration of the magnetic properties of
magnetic materials for electronic and electrical applications, unless
otherwise specified. where:
air-gap magnetic field strength, Hgthe magnetic field Pc (B;f) l = specific core loss value with flux parallel to the
strength required to produce the induction existing at some rolling direction, W/lb [W/kg], and

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A 340 03a

Pc (B;f) t = specific core loss value with flux perpendicular to zero after the material has been symmetrically cyclically
to the rolling direction, W/lb [W/kg]. magnetized.
coercivity, Hcsthe maximum value of coercive field strength
NOTE 5This definition of anisotropy normally applies to electrical that can be attained when the magnetic material is symmetri-
steels with measurements made in an Epstein frame at a flux density of 15
kG [1.5 T] and a frequency of 60 Hz (see Test Method A 343).
cally cyclically magnetized to saturation induction, BS.
core, laminateda magnetic component constructed by
anisotropy of permeabilitythe ratio of relative peak perme- stacking suitably thin pieces of magnetic material which are
ability measured with flux parallel to the rolling direction to stamped, sheared, or milled from sheet or strip material.
the relative peak permeability measured with flux perpen- Individual pieces usually have an insulating surface coating
dicular to the rolling direction. to minimize eddy current losses in the assembled core.
prl core, matedtwo or more magnetic core segments assembled
anisotropy of permeability 5 with the magnetic flux path perpendicular to the mating
prt
surface.
core, powder (dust)a magnetic core comprised of small
where: particles of electrically insulated metallic ferromagnetic
prl = relative peak permeability value with flux parallel to material. These cores are characterized by low hysteresis and
the rolling direction, and eddy current losses.
prt = relative peak permeability value with flux perpen- core, tape-wounda magnetic component constructed by the
dicular to the rolling direction. spiral winding of strip material onto a suitable mandrel. The
NOTE 6This definition of anisotropy normally applies to electrical strip material usually has an insulating surface coating which
steels with measurements made in an Epstein frame at a flux density of 15 reduces interlaminar eddy current losses in the finished core.
kG [1.5 T] and a frequency of 60 Hz (see Test Method A 343). core loss, ac eddy current, incremental, PDethe power loss
caused by eddy currents in a magnetic material that is
antiferromagnetic materiala feebly magnetic material in
cyclically magnetized.
which almost equal magnetic moments are lined up antipar-
core loss, ac eddy current, normal, Pethe power losses as
allel to each other. Its susceptibility increases as the tem-
a result of eddy currents in a magnetic material that is
perature is raised until a critical (Nel) temperature is
symetrically cyclically magnetized.
reached; above this temperature the material becomes para-
magnetic. NOTE 7The voltage is generally assumed to be across the parallel
apparent power, Pathe product (volt-amperes) of the rms combination of core inductance, L1, and core resistance, R1.
exciting current and the applied rms terminal voltage in an core loss, ac, incremental, PcDthe core loss in a magnetic
electric circuit containing inductive impedance. The compo- material when the material is subjected simultaneously to a
nents of this impedance as a result of the winding will be dc biasing magnetizing force and an alternating magnetizing
linear, while the components as a result of the magnetic core force.
will be nonlinear. The unit of apparent power is the volt- core loss, residual, Prthe portion of the core loss power, Pc,
ampere, VA. which is not attributed to hysteresis or eddy current losses
apparent power, specific, Pa(B;f)the value of the apparent from classical assumptions.
power divided by the active mass of the specimen, that is, core loss, ac, specific, Pc(B;f)the active power (watts) ex-
volt-amperes per unit mass. The values of voltage and pended per unit mass of magnetic material in which there is
current are those developed at a maximum value of cycli- a cyclically varying induction of a specified maximum value,
cally varying induction B and specified frequency f. B, at a specified frequency, f.
area, Athe geometric cross-sectional area of a magnetic path core loss, ac, (total), Pcthe active power (watts) expended in
which is perpendicular to the direction of the induction. a magnetic circuit in which there is a cyclically alternating
Bloch walla domain wall in which the magnetic moment at induction.
any point is substantially parallel to the wall surface. See NOTE 8Measurements of core loss are normally made with sinusoi-
also domain wall. dally alternating induction, or the results are corrected for deviations from
Bohr magnetona constant that is equal to the magnetic the sinusoidal condition.
moment of an electron because of its spin. The value of the
core loss densitythe active power (watts) expended in a
constant is (9 274 078 3 10 21 erg/gauss or
magnetic core in which there is a cyclically varying induc-
9 274 078 3 1024 J/T).
tion of a specified maximum value, B, at a specified
cgs-emu system of unitsthe system for measuring physical frequency, f, divided by the effective volume of the core.
quantities in which the base units are the centimetre, gram,
and second, and the numerical value of the magnetic NOTE 9This parameter is normally used only for non-laminated cores
constant, Gm, is unity. such as ferrite and powdered cores.
coercive field strength, Hcthe (dc) magnetic field strength core platea generic term for any insulating material, formed
required to restore the magnetic induction to zero after the metallurigically or applied externally as a thin surface
material has been symmetrically cyclically magnetized. coating, on sheet or strip stock used in the construction of
coercive field strength, intrinsic, Hcithe (dc) magnetic field laminated and tape wound cores.
strength required to restore the instrinsic magnetic induction coupling coefficient, k8the ratio of the mutual inductance

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A 340 03a
between two windings and the geometric mean of the demagnetizing factor, NDdefined as 4p times the demag-
individual self-inductances of the windings. netizing coefficient, DB.
crest factor, cfthe ratio of the maximum value of a periodi- demagnetizing field strength, Hda magnetic field strength
cally alternating quantity to its rms value. applied in such a direction as to reduce the induction in a
magnetized body. See demagnetization curve.
NOTE 10For a sinusoidal variation the crest factor is =2 .
density, dthe ratio of mass to volume of a material. In the
Curie temperature, Tcthe temperature above which a fer- cgs-emu system of units, g/cm3. In SI units, kg/m3.
romagnetic material becomes paramagnetic. diamagnetic materiala material whose relative permeabil-
current, ac core loss, Icthe rms value of the in-phase ity is less than unity.
component (with respect to the induced voltage) of the
NOTE 14The intrinsic induction, Bi, is oppositely directly to the
exciting current supplied to a coil which is linked with a applied magnetizing force H.
ferromagnetic core.
current, ac exciting, Ithe rms value of the total current dissipation factor, magnetic, Dmthe tangent of the hyster-
supplied to a coil that is linked with a ferromagnetic core. etic angle that is equal to the ratio of the core loss current, Ic,
to the magnetizing current, Im. Thus:
NOTE 11Exciting current is measured under the condition that any
other coil linking the same core carries no current. Dm 5 tan b 5 cot g 5 Ic/Im 5 vL1/R1 5 I/Qm

current, ac, magnetizing, Imthe rms value of the magnetiz-


NOTE 15This dissipation factor is also given by the ratio of the energy
ing component (lagging with respect to applied voltage) of dissipated in the core per cycle of a periodic SCM excitation (hysteresis
the exciting current supplied to a coil that is linked with a and eddy current heat loss) to 2p times the maximum energy stored in the
ferromagnetic core. core.
current, dc, Idca steady-state dc current. A dc current
flowing in an inductor winding will produce a unidirectional distortion, harmonicthe departure of any periodically vary-
magnetic field in the magnetic material. ing waveform from a pure sinusoidal waveform.
customary unitsa set of industry-unique units from the NOTE 16The distorted waveform that is symmetrical about the zero
cgs-emu system of units and U.S. inch-pound systems and amplitude axis and is most frequently encountered in magnetic testing
units derived from the two systems. contains only the odd harmonic components, that is fundamental, 3rd
harmonic, 5th harmonic, and so forth. Nonsymmetrical distorted wave-
NOTE 12Examples of customary units used in ASTM A06 standards forms must contain some even harmonic components, in addition to the
include: fundamental and, perhaps, some odd harmonic components.
Quantity
Quantity Name Symbol Unit Name Unit Symbol distortion factor, dfa numerical measure of the distortion in
any ac nonsinusoidal waveform. For example, if by Fourier
Magnetic field strength H oersted Oe
Magnetic induction (magnetic B gauss G
analysis or direct measurement E1, E2, E3, and so forth are
flux density) the effective values of the pure sinusoidal harmonic compo-
Specific core loss Pc(b;f) watt/pound W/lb nents of a distorted voltage waveform, then the distortion
cyclically magnetized condition, CMa magnetic material is factor is the ratio of the root mean square of the second and
in a cyclically magnetized condition when, after having been all higher harmonic components to the fundamental compo-
subjected to a sufficient number of identical cycles of nent.
magnetizing field, it follows identical hysteresis or flux- df 5 @E22 1 E32 1 E42 1 # 1/2 E1
current loops on successive cycles which are not symmetri-
cal with respect to the origin of the axes. NOTE 17There are no dc components (E0) in the distortion factor.
demagnetization curvethe portion of a flux versus dc
current plot (dc hysteresis loop) that lies in the second or domains, ferromagneticmagnetized regions, either macro-
fourth quadrant, that is, between the residual induction point, scopic or microscopic in size, within ferromagnetic materi-
Br, and the coercive force point, Hc. Points on this curve are als. Each domain, in itself, is magnetized to intrinsic
designated by the coordinates, Bd and Hd. saturation at all times, and this saturation induction is
demagnetizing coefficient, DBis defined by the equation: unidirectional within the domain.
DB 5 @Gm~Ha 2 H!#/Bi
domain walla boundary region between two adjacent do-
mains within which the orientation of the magnetic moment
of one domain changes into a different orientation of the
where: magnetic moment in the other domain.
Ha = applied magnetic field strength, eddy currentan electric current developed in a material as a
H = magnetic field strength actually existing in the mag- result of induced voltages developed in the material.
netic material, effective circuit permeability, effwhen a magnetic circuit
Bi = intrinsic induction, and consists of two or more components, each individually
Gm = 1 in the cgs system and 4p 3 107, henry/metre in homogeneous throughout but having different permeability
the SI system. values, the effective (overall) permeability of the circuit is
NOTE 13For a closed, uniform magnetic circuit, the demagnetizing that value computed in terms of the total magnetomotive
coefficient is zero. force, the total resulting flux, and the geometry of the circuit.

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A 340 03a
electrical steela term used commercially to designate strip of the magnetic core only. When the core has a secondary winding, the
or sheet used in electrical applications and historically has induced primary voltage is obtained from the measured open-circuit
referred to flat-rolled, low-carbon steels or alloyed steels secondary voltage multiplied by the appropriate turns ratio.
with silicon or aluminum, or both. Common types of exciting power, specific, Pz(B;f)the value of the ac rms
electrical steels used in the industry are grain-oriented exciting power divided by the active mass of the specimen
electrical steel, nonoriented electrical steel, and magnetic (volt-amperes/unit mass) taken at a specified maximum
lamination steel. value of cyclically varying induction B and at a specified
electrical steel, grain orienteda flat-rolled silicon-iron alloy frequency f.
usually containing approximately 3 % silicon, having en- exciting voltage, Ethe ac rms voltage across a winding
hanced magnetic properties in the direction of rolling and linking the flux of a magnetic core. The voltage across the
normally used in transformer cores. winding equals that across the assumed parallel combination
electrical steel, nonorienteda flat-rolled silicon-iron or of core inductance L1, and core resistance, R1.
silicon-aluminum-iron alloy containing 0.0 to 3.5 % silicon feebly magnetic materiala material generally classified as
and 0.0 to 1.0 % aluminum and having similar core loss in nonmagnetic, whose maximum normal permeability is
all directions. less than 4.
emuthe notation emu is an indicator of electromagnetic ferrimagnetic materiala material whose atomic magnetic
units. When used in conjunction with magnetic moment, m, moments are both ordered and anti-parallel but being un-
it denotes units of ergs per oersted, erg/Oe. A moment of 1 equal in magnitude produce a net magnetization in one
erg/Oe is produced by a current of 10 amperes (1 abampere) direction.
flowing in a loop of area 1 cm2. The work done to rotate a ferritea term referring to magnetic oxides in general, and
moment of 1 erg/Oe from parallel to perpendicular in a especially to material having the formula M O Fe2 O3, where
uniform field of 1 Oe is 1 erg. The conversion to the SI units M is a divalent metal ion or a combination of such ions.
of magnetic moment J/T (joule/tesla) or A m2 is given by Certain ferrites, magnetically soft in character, are useful
erg/Oe ~cgs2emu! 10 amperes cm2 ~cgs2emu! for core applications at radio and higher frequencies because
J/T ~SI! [ 5 1023 (1) of their advantageous magnetic properties and high volume
A m2 ~SI!
resistivity. Other ferrites, magnetically hard in character,
have desirable permanent magnet properties.
Magnetization, M, the magnetic moment per unit volume,
ferromagnetic materiala material whose magnetic mo-
has units erg/(Oe-cm3), often expresssed as emu/cm3.
ments are ordered and parallel producing magnetization in
energy product, BdHdthe product of the coordinate values
one direction.
of any point on a demagnetization curve.
figure of merit, magnetic, 8/cot gthe ratio of the real part
energy-product curve, magneticthe curve obtained by
of the complex relative permeability to the dissipation factor
plotting the product of the corresponding coordinates, Bd and
of a ferromagnetic material.
Hd, of points on the demagnetization curve as abscissa
against the induction, Bd, as ordinates. NOTE 21The figure of merit index of the magnetic efficiency of the
core in various ac electromagnetic devices.
NOTE 18The maximum value of the energy product, (BdHd)m, corre-
sponds to the maximum value of the external energy. flux-current loop, incremental (biased)the curve devel-
NOTE 19The demagnetization curve is plotted to the left of the oped by plotting magnetic induction, B, versus magnetic
vertical axis and usually the energy-product curve to the right. field strength, H, when the magnetic material is cyclically
energy product, maximum (BdHd)mfor a given demagneti- magnetized while under dc bias condition. This loop will not
zation curve, the maximum value of the energy product. be symmetrical about the B and H axes.
equipment test level accuracy(1) For a single test equip- flux-current loop, normalthe curve developed by plotting
ment, using a large group of test specimens, the average magnetic induction, B, versus magnetic field strength, H,
percentage of test deviation from the correct average value. when the magnetic material is symmetrically cyclically
magnetized.
(2) The average percentage deviation from the average NOTE 22The area of the loop is proportional to the sum of the static
value obtained from similar tests, on the same test specimen hysteresis loss and all dynamic losses.
or specimens, when measured with a number of other test
flux linkage, +the sum of all flux lines in a coil.
equipments that have previously been proven to have both
suitable reproducibility of measurement and test level, and
whose calibrations and quality have general acceptance for + 5 f 1 1 f2 1 f3 1 fN
standardization purposes and where better equipment for
establishing the absolute accuracy of test is not available. where:
exciting current, ac, ISee current, ac exciting. f1 = flux linking turn 1;
exciting power, rms, Pzthe product of the ac rms exciting f2 = flux linking turn 2, and so forth; and
current and the rms voltage induced in the exciting (primary) fN = flux linking the Nth turn.
winding on a magnetic core.
NOTE 23When the coupling coefficient, k8, is less than unity, the flux
NOTE 20This is the apparent volt-amperes required for the excitation linkage equals the product of the average flux linking the turns and the

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A 340 03a
total number of turns. When the coupling coefficient is equal to unity, the where:
flux linkage equals the product of the total flux linking the coil and the f = resonance frequency in cycles per second (hertz) and
total number of turns. g p = gyromagnetic ratio (the accepted value at present for water is
2.675 12 3 104 gauss1 s1).
flux linkage, mutual, +mthe flux linkage existing between
two windings on a magnetic circuit. Mutual linkage is henry (plural henries), Hthe unit of self- or mutual
maximum when the coupling coefficient is unity. inductance. The henry is the inductance of a circuit in which
flux path length, the distance along a flux loop. a voltage of 1 V is induced by a uniform rate of change 1 A/s
flux path length, effective, 1the calculated length of the in the circuit. Alternatively, it is the inductance of a circuit in
flux paths in a magnetic core, which is used in the calcula- which an electric current of 1 A/s produces a flux linkage of
tions of certain magnetic parameters. one weber turn (Wb turn) or 108 maxwell-turns. See induc-
flux volts, Efthe voltage induced in a winding of a magnetic tance, mutual, and inductance, self.
component when the magnetic material is subjected to hertz, Hzthe unit of cyclic frequency, f.
repeated magnetization under SCM or CM conditions. hysteresis loop, biasedan incremental hysteresis loop that
lies entirely in any one quadrant.
NOTE 27In this case, both of the limiting values of H and B are in the
Ef = 4.443 BmaxA8Nf 3 108 V (SCM excitation) same direction.
Ef = 2.221 D BA8 Nf 3 108 V (CM excitation)
Ef = 1.1107 Eavg hysteresis loop, incrementalthe hysteresis loop, nonsym-
metrical with respect to the B and H axes, exhibited by a
which ferromagnetic material in a CM condition.
A8 = solid cross-sectional area of the core in cm2,
N = number of winding turns, and NOTE 28In this case, both of the limiting values H may have opposite
f = the frequency in hertz. polarity, but definitely have different absolute values of Hm. An incremen-
tal loop may be initiated at either some point on a normal hysteresis loop
or at some point on the normal induction curve of the specimen.
form factor, ffthe ratio of the rms value of a periodically
alternating quantity to its average absolute value. hysteresis loop, intrinsica hysteresis loop obtained with a
ferromagnetic material by plotting (usually to rectangular
NOTE 24For a sinusoidal variation, the form factor is: coordinates) corresponding dc values of intrinsic induction,
p/ 2=2 5 1.1107 Bi, for ordinates and magnetic field strength H for abscissae.
hysteresis loop, normala closed curve obtained with a
ferromagnetic material by plotting (usually to rectangular
frequency, angular, vthe number of radians per second coordinates) corresponding dc values of magnetic induction
traversed by a rotating vector that represents any periodically (B) for ordinates and magnetic field strength (H) for abscissa
varying quantity. when the material is passing through a complete cycle
NOTE 25Angular frequency, v, is equal to 2p times the cyclic between equal definite limits of either magnetic field
frequency, f. strength, 6Hm, or magnetic induction, 6Bm. In general, the
normal hysteresis loop has mirror symmetry with respect to
frequency, cyclic, fthe number of hertz (cycles/second) of a the origin of the B and H axes, but this may not be true for
periodic quantity. special materials.
gap length, ,gthe distance that the flux transverses in the hysteresis loop loss, Whthe power expended in a single slow
central region of a gap in a core having an air (nonmag- excursion around a normal hysteresis loop. The energy is the
netic) gap in the flux path may be considered unity in the integrated area enclosed by the loop measured in gauss-
gap. oersteds. Using the cgs-emu system of units:
gauss (plural gausses), Gthe unit of magnetic induction in Wh 5 ~* HdB/4p! ergs
the cgs-emu system of units. The gauss is equal to 1 maxwell
per square centimetre of 104 tesla. See magnetic induction
(flux density). where the integrated area enclosed by the loop is measured
in gauss-oersteds.
gilbert, Gbthe unit of magnetomotive force in the cgs-emu
hysteresis loss, incremental, PDhthe power (watts) as a
system of units. The gilbert is a magnetomotive force of
result of hysteresis expended in a ferromagnetic material
4p/10 ampere-turns. See magnetomotive force.
while being driven through an incremental flux-current loop
gyromagnetic ratio, proton, gpthe ratio of the magnetic by a CM-type of excitation.
moment of a hydrogen nucleus to its angular momentum. hysteresis loss, normal, Ph(1) the power expended in a
NOTE 26The gyromagnetic ratio is used to calculate the magnetic ferromagnetic material, as a result of hysteresis, when the
field from a measured resonance frequency when using the nuclear material is subjected to a SCM excitation.
magnetic resonance technique.
The relationship is: (2) The energy loss/cycle in a magnetic material as a result
of magnetic hysteresis when the induction is cyclic (but not
B 5 ~2pf/gp! gausses 5 ~2pf/gp! 3 1024 teslas necessarily periodic).
hysteresis loss, rotationalthe hysteresis loss that occurs in a

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A 340 03a
body when subjected to a constant magnetizing force, the Lm 5 ~+2/I1! 3 1028
direction of which rotates with respect to the body, either in
a continuously cyclic or in a repeated oscillatory manner. NOTE 34If the linkage is proportional to the current (no ferromag-
hysteresis, magneticthe property of a ferromagnetic mate- netic material present), the inductance is constant and may be obtained
from the equation:
rial exhibited by the lack of correspondence between the
changes in induction resulting from increasing magnetic
field strength and from decreasing magnetic field strength. e2 5 Lm~di1/dt!
hysteretic angle, magnetic, bthe mean angle by which the
fundamental component of exciting current leads the funda- where:
mental component of magnetizing current, Im, in an inductor e2 = instantaneous induced emf in the secondary and
having a ferromagnetic core. di1/dt = time rate of change of the current in the primary.
NOTE 35If ferromagnetic materials or eddy currents are present, the
NOTE 29Because of hysteresis, the instantaneous value of the hyster- mutual inductance must be regarded as a function of the primary current,
etic angle will vary during the cycle of SCM excitation. However, b is its rate of change, and the magnetic history of the material. Thus:
taken to be the mean effective value of this angle.
e2 5 2~d~Lmi1!/dt! 5 2 @Lm~di1/dt! 1 i1~dLm/dt!#
inductance, core, L1the effective parallel circuit inductance
of a ferromagnetic core based upon a hypothetical nonresis-
inductance, self, Lthat property of an electric circuit that
tive path that is exclusively considered to carry the magne-
determines the flux linkage produced by a given current in
tizing current, Im.
the circuit. The self-inductance, L, is defined by the equa-
NOTE 30The product Im2vL1 equals the quadrature power delivered tion:
to the core.
L 5 +/I
inductance, incremental, LDthe self-inductance of an elec-
trical circuit when the ferromagnetic core has an ac cyclic where:
magnetization produced by specified values of both ac and + = flux linkage and
dc components of the exciting current. I = current.
inductance, initial, L0the limiting value of the core induc-
tance, L1 reached in a ferromagnetic core when, under ac NOTE 36If + is in maxwell-turns and I in amperes, then the
self-inductance in henries is defined by the equation:
symmetrical cyclic excitation, the magnetizing current has
been progressively and gradually reduced from a compara- L 5 ~+/I! 3 1028
tively high value to a zero value.
NOTE 37If the linkage is proportional to the current (no ferromag-
NOTE 31Initial inductance may be obtained by highly sensitive netic material present), the inductance is constant and may be obtained
ASTM bridge methods working in the range in which L is a linear from the equation:
function of H. A series of decreasing values of L is measured and plotted
versus corresponding values of magnetizing current, Im (or other suitable e2 5 2 Lm~di/dt!
excitation parameter), and the data extrapolated to zero excitation. See
permeability, initial dynamic.
where:
inductance, intrinsic (ferric), Lithat portion of the self- e = instantaneous induced emf and
di/dt = time rate of change of the current.
inductance which is due to the intrinsic induction in a
NOTE 38If ferromagnetic material or eddy currents are present, the
ferromagnetic core.
self-inductance must be regarded as a function of the circuit current, its
NOTE 32It is determined at a specified value of the magnetizing rate of change, and the magnetic history of the material. Thus:
current.

inductance, mutual, Lmthe common property of two elec- e 5 2~d~Li!/dt! 5 2 @L ~di/dt! 1 i~dL/dt!#
trical circuits that determines the flux linkage in one circuit
(the secondary) produced by a given current in the other inductance, series, Lsthe effective series ac self-inductance
circuit (the primary). The mutual inductance, Lm, is defined exhibited by an inductor having a ferromagnetic core and
by the equation: subjected to an SCM excitation after the core has been
demagnetized.
Lm 5 +2I1 NOTE 39The value of series inductance is a function of the level of
excitation.

where: inductance, winding, Lwthe linear inductance of the mag-


+2 = flux linkage in the secondary and netizing winding as a result of the flux caused by the ac
I1 = current in the primary, assuming no current in the symmetrical cyclic magnetization exciting current, I. The
secondary. flux linking the winding is that flux outside of the ferromag-
NOTE 33If +2 is in maxwell-turns and I1 is in amperes, then the netic core material.
mutual inductance in henries is defined by the equation: induction, BSee magnetic induction (flux density).
induction, biased, Bbthe value of the apparent dc magnetic

7
A 340 03a
induction around which the ac cyclic changes are occurring tion and corresponding ascending values of magnetic field
in a magnetic material resulting from the biasing magnetiz- strength. This curve starts at the origin of the B and H axes.
ing field. This value is a function of the incremental insulation resistancethe apparent resistance between adja-
magnetizing field and is not determined by the normal cent contacting laminations, calculated as a ratio of the
induction curve. applied voltage to conduction current. This parameter is
induction, incremental, BDone half the algebraic difference normally a function of the applied force and voltage.
of the extreme values of the magnetic induction during a International System of Units, SIa complete coherent
cycle in a magnetic material that is subjected simultaneously system of units whose base units are the metre, kilogram,
to a biasing magnetizing field and a symmetrically cyclically second, ampere, kelvin, mole, and candela. Other units are
varying magnetizing field. Twice the incremental induction derived as combinations of the base units or supplementary
is indicated by the symbol DB, thus: units.
iron-silicon alloysa material composition containing up to
BD 5 DB/2 5 % silicon with balance iron.
isotropic materialmaterial in which the magnetic properties
induction, intrinsic, Bithe vector difference between the dc are the same for all directions.
magnetic induction in a magnetic material and the magnetic Jordan diagrama graph showing the variation of some
induction that would exist in a vacuum under the influence of magnetic parameter versus frequency when the excitation is
the same magnetic field strength. This is expressed by the within the Rayleigh range.
equation: joule, Jthe unit of energy in the SI system of units. One joule
is one watt-second.
Bi 5 B 2 GmH
lamination factor, (space factor, stacking factor), Sa
numeric, less than unity and usually expressed as a percent-
NOTE 40In the cgs-emu system of units, Bi/4p is often called age, which is defined as the ratio of the uniform solid height
magnetic polarization. h of the magnetic material in a laminated core to the actual
height h8 (core buildup) when measured under a specified
induction, maximum:
pressure. S is thus equal to the ratio of the volume of
(1) Bmthe maximum value of induction, B, in a dc
magnetic material in a uniform laminated core to the overall
hysteresis loop. The tip of this loop has the magnetostatic
geometric volume of the core.
coordinates Hm, Bm, which exist simultaneously.
lamination stack resistancethe electrical resistance mea-
sured in the direction perpendicular to the plane of lamina-
(2) Bmaxthe maximum value of induction, B, in an ac
tion in a stack of laminations.
flux-current loop.
lamination surface insulationthe insulation between core
NOTE 41In a flux-current loop, the magneto-dynamic values Bmax and laminations produced by a surface condition or layer either
Hmax do not exist simultaneously; Bmax occurs later than Hmax. formed or applied for this purpose.
induction, normal, Bthe maximum induction, in a magnetic NOTE 43In commercial practice, this insulating layer is frequently
material that is in a symmetrically cyclically magnetized designated as core plate.
condition. lamination thickness, dthe active thickness of a single
induction, remanent, Bdthe magnetic induction that re- lamination cut from sheet stock, including any core plate
mains in a magnetic circuit after the removal of an applied material.
magnetic field. lamination width, wthe width of a core lamination perpen-
NOTE 42If there are no air gaps or other inhomogeneities in the dicular to the direction of the induction therein.
magnetic circuit, the remanent induction, Bd, will equal the residual leakage fluxthe flux outside the boundary of the practical
induction, Br; if air gaps or other inhomogeneities are present, Bd will be magnetic circuit.
less than Br. linear expansion, coefficient of, a the change in length per
unit length per degree change in temperature or
induction, residual, Brthe value of magnetic induction
corresponding to zero magnetizing field when the magnetic L1 2 L0
a 5 L DT
material is subjected to symmetrically cyclically magnetized 0

conditions. where:
induction, saturation, Bsthe maximum intrinsic induction L1 = length of specimen at the higher temperature,
possible in a material. L0 = length at lower temperature, and
induction curve, intrinsic (ferric)a curve of a previously DT = difference between temperatures.
demagnetized specimen depicting the relation between in- loss angle, magnetic, gthe mean angle by which the
trinsic induction and corresponding ascending values of fundamental component of core loss current leads the
magnetic field strength. This curve starts at the origin of the fundamental component of exciting current, I, in an inductor
Bi and H axes. having a ferromagnetic core.
induction curve, normala curve of a previously demagne- NOTE 44The loss angle, g, is the complement of the hysteretic angle,
tized specimen depicting the relation between normal induc- b.

8
A 340 03a
NOTE 45Because of hysteresis, the instantaneous value of the loss current and the geometry of certain magnetizing circuits. For example, in
angle will vary during the cycle of SCM excitation; however, g is taken to the center of a uniformly wound long solenoid.
be the mean effective value of this angle.

magneta body that produces a magnetic field external to H 5 C ~NI/I!


itself.
NOTE 46By convention, the north-seeking pole of a magnet is marked where:
with an N, + , or is colored red. H = magnetic field strength,
NOTE 47Natural magnets consist of certain ores such as magnetite H = constant whose value depends on the system of units,
(loadstone); artificial (permanent) magnets are made of magnetically hard N = number of turns,
materials; electromagnetics have cores made of magnetically soft materi- I = current, and
als which are energized by a current carrying winding. l = axial length of the coil.
If I is expressed in amperes and l is expressed in centimetres, then
magnetic circuita region at whose surface the magnetic C = 4p/10 to obtain H in the cgs-emu system of units, the oersted.
induction is tangential. If I is expressed in amperes and l is expressed in metres, then C = 1 to
obtain H in the SI units, ampere-turn per metre.
NOTE 48A practical magnetic circuit is the region containing the flux NOTE 53The magnetic field strength, H, at a point in air may be
of practical interest, such as the core of a transformer. It may consist of calculated from the measured value of induction at the point by dividing
ferromagnetic material with or without air gaps or other feebly magnetic this value by the magnetic constant Gm.
materials such as porcelain, brass, and so forth.
magnetic field strength, acthe value of one of three
magnetic constant (permeability of space), Gmthe dimen-
dynamic magnetic field strength parameters in common use.
sional scalar factor that relates the mechanical force between
They are:
two currents to their intensities and geometrical configura-
(a) HLan assumed peak value computed in terms of peak
tions. That is:
magnetizing current (considered to be sinusoidal).
dF 5 GmI1I2dl1 3 ~dl2 3 r1!/nr2 (b) Hzan assumed peak value computed in terms of
measured rms exciting current (considered to be sinusoidal).
where: (c) Hpcomputed in terms of a measured peak value of
Gm = magnetic constant when the element of force, dF, of exciting current, and thus equal to the value H8max.
a current element I1dl1 on another current element magnetic field strength, biasing, Hbthe algebraic mean
I2dl2 is at a distance r, value of the magnetic field strength in a magnetic material
r1 = unit vector in the direction from dl1 to dl2, and that is subjected simultaneously to a constant magnetizing
n = dimensionless factor. The symbol n is unity in field and a periodically varying magnetizing field.
unrationalized systems and 4p in rationalized sys- NOTE 54The biasing magnetizing field and the biased magnetic
tems. induction are corresponding coordinates of a single point on the B-H plane
but not necessarily on the normal induction curve.
NOTE 49The numerical values of Gm depend upon the system of units
used. In the cgs-emu system of units, Gm = 1, in the SI system, NOTE 55The biasing magnetic field strength, Hb, is equal to the
Gm = 4p 3 107 H/m. applied constant magnetizing field only when the applied periodically
NOTE 50The magnetic constant expresses the ratio of magnetic varying magnetizing field is symmetrical.
induction to the corresponding magnetizing force at any point in a vacuum
and therefore is sometimes called the permeability of space, v.
magnetic field strength, incremental, HDa value equal to
NOTE 51The magnetic constant times the relative permeability is
one half the algebraic difference of the maximum and
equal to the absolute permeability. minimum values of the magnetic field strength during a
cycle in a magnetic material that is subjected simultaneously
abs 5 Gmr
to a biasing magnetic field strength and a symmetrical
periodically varying magnetic field strength.
magnetic excursion range, DB, DHthe excursion ranges Twice the incremental magnetic field strength is indicated
equaling the algebraic differences between the upper and by the symbol DH.
lower values of B, and between the upper and lower values Thus:
of H, in a hysteresis or flux-current loop. HD 5 DH/2
magnetic field of inductionthe magnetic flux field induced
in a region such that a conductor carrying a current in the magnetic field strength, maximum(a) Hmthe maxi-
region would be subjected to a mechanical force, and an mum value of H in a dc hysteresis loop.
electromotive force would be induced in an elementary loop (b) Hmaxthe maximum value of H in an ac flux-current
rotated with respect to the field in such a manner as to loop.
change the flux linkage. magnetic flux, fthe product of the magnetic induction, B,
magnetic field strength, Hthe magnetic vector quantity at a and the area of a surface (or cross section), A, when the
point in a magnetic field which measures the ability of magnetic induction B is uniformly distributed and normal to
electric currents or magnetized bodies to produce magnetic the plane of the surface.
induction at the given point.
f 5 BA
NOTE 52The magnetic field strength, H, may be calculated from the

9
A 340 03a

where: of magnetic nonuniformity associated with the magnetic


f = magnetic flux, discontinuities or inhomogeneities.
B = magnetic induction, and
NOTE 64Magnetic particle inspection is an accepted method for the
A = area of the surface. detection of defects.
NOTE 56If the magnetic induction is not uniformly distributed over
the surface, the flux, f, is the surface integral of the normal component of magnetic polarization, Jin the cgs-emu system of units, the
B over the area. intrinsic induction divided by 4p is sometimes called mag-
netic polarization or magnetic dipole moment per unit
f5 ** B dA
s volume.
NOTE 57Magnetic flux is a scalar and has no direction. magnetic polethe magnetic poles of a magnet are those
magnetic flux density, Bthat magnetic vector quantity portions of the magnet toward which or from which the
which at any point in a magnetic field is measured either by external magnetic induction appears to converge or diverge,
the mechanical force experienced by an element of electric respectively.
current at the point, or by the electromotive force induced in NOTE 65In the hypothetical case of a uniformly magnetized body of
an elementary loop during any change in flux linkages with constant cross-sectional area, the poles would be located at its ends.
the loop at the point. NOTE 66By convention, the north-seeking pole is marked with an N,
or + , or is colored red.
NOTE 58If the total flux, f is uniformly distributed and normal to a
surface or cross section, then the magnetic induction is: magnetic pole strength, pthe magnetic moment divided by
B 5 f/ A the distance between the poles.
p 5 m/l
where:
B = magnetic induction,
f = total flux, and where:
A = area. p = pole strength,
NOTE 59Bin is the instantaneous value of the magnetic induction and m = magnetic moment, and
Bm is the maximum value of the magnetic induction. l = distance between the poles.
magnetics (magnetism)that branch of science which deals
magnetic induction, Ban alternate term for magnetic flux
with the laws of magnetic phenomena and their application
density.
to practice.
magnetic lamination steela flat-rolled, low-carbon (usually
below 0.06 %) steel containing 0.0 to 1.0 % silicon and up to magneticianone skilled in the theory and practice of mag-
0.4 % aluminum and having similar core loss in all direc- netics.
tions. magnetization, Mthe component of the total magnetizing
magnetic line of forcean imaginary line in a magnetic field force that produces the intrinsic induction in a magnetic
which at every point has the direction of magnetic induction material.
at that point. M 5 ~B 2 GmH!/Gmr 5 Bi/abs
NOTE 60Extended lines of force must always form nonintersecting
closed loops. where:
magnetic moment, ma measure of the magnetic field M = magnetization,
strength, H, produced at points in space by a plane current H = applied magnetizing force,
Gm = magnetic constant,
loop or a magnetized body.
B = total magnetic induction,
NOTE 61The magnetic moment of a plane current loop is a vector, the r = relative permeability,
magnitude of which is the product of the area of the loop and the current; abs = absolute permeability, and
the direction of the vector is normal to the plane of the loop in that Bi = intrinsic induction.
direction around which the current has a clockwise rotation when viewed
along the vector. NOTE 67The magnetization can be interpreted as the volume density
NOTE 62The magnetic moment of a magnetized body is the volume of magnetic moment.
integral of the magnetization, M.
NOTE 63In the cgs-emu system of units, magnetic moment is usually magnetizing current, ac, ImSee current, ac magnetizing.
defined as the pole strength multiplied by the distance between poles. This magnetizing force, Han alternate term for magnetic field
is sometimes called the magnetic dipole moment. strength.
magnetic ohmthe unit of reluctance sometimes used in the magnetodynamicthe magnetic condition when the values of
cgs-emu system of units. One magnetic ohm equals one magnetic field strength and induction vary, usually periodi-
gilbert/maxwell or 4p/109 ampere-turns/weber. cally and repetitively, between two extreme limits.
magnetic particle inspection methoda method for detect- magnetomotive force, ^the line integral of the magnetizing
ing magnetic discontinuities or inhomogeneities on or near field around any flux loop in space.
the surface in suitably magnetized materials that uses finely ^ 5 *Hdl
divided magnetic particles that tend to congregate in regions

10
A 340 03a

where: nonoriented electrical steela flat-rolled electrical steel


^ = magnetomotive force, which has approximately the same magnetic properties in all
H = magnetic field strength, and directions.
dl = unit length along the loop. oersted, Oethe unit of magnetic field strength in the cgs-
emu system of units. One oersted equals a magnetic field
NOTE 68The magnetomotive force is proportional to the net current
linked with any closed loop of flux or closed path. strength of 1 Gb/cm of flux path. One oersted equals
1000/4p or 79.58 ampere-turns per metre. See magnetic
^ 5 CNI field strength.
paramagnetic materiala material having a relative perme-
where: ability which is slightly greater than unity, and which is
^ = magnetomotive force, practically independent of the magnetizing force.
N = number of turns linked with the loop, permeability, ac, magnetica generic term used to represent
I = current in amperes, and a dynamic material property. It is expressed as the ratio of
C = constant whose value depends on the system of units. In the
cgs-emu system of units, C = 4p/10. In the SI system, C = 1.
the magnetic induction, B, to the magnetic field strength, H,
that produced the induction. The value of H may be
magnetostaticthe magnetic condition when the values of calculated from several different component values of the
magnetic field strength and induction are considered to exciting current. (See magnetic field strength, ac, and
remain invariant with time during the period of measure- various permeabilities.)
ment. This is often referred to as a dc (direct current) NOTE 71The numerical value for any permeability is meaningless
condition. unless the corresponding B or H excitation level is specified. For
magnetostrictionthe change in dimensions of a body result- incremental permeabilities not only the corresponding dc B or H excitation
ing from magnetization. level must be specified, but also the dynamic excursion limits of dynamic
mass, active, m1the effective value of mass, which may be excitation range (DB or DH).
used with values of ,1, and A8 to evaluate a magnetic core as permeability, ac, rms, impedance, zthe ratio of the
though it has an equivalent uniform flux path having the measured peak value of magnetic induction, B, to the
same induction at all points. apparent magnetic field strength, Hz, calculated from the rms
mass, total, mthe actual mass of a magnetic core. value of the total exciting current.
maxwell, fthe unit of magnetic flux in the cgs-emu system
NOTE 72The value of the current used to compute Hz is obtained by
of units. One maxwell equals 108 weber. See magnetic
multiplying the measured value of rms exciting current by 1.414. This
flux. assumes that the total exciting current is magnetizing current and is
NOTE 69 sinusoidal.

e 5 2Ndf/dt 3 1028 permeability, ac, inductance, Lthe value developed from


the measured inductive component of the electrical circuit
where: for a material in an SCM condition, the permeability is
e = induced instantaneous emf in volts, evaluated from the measured inductive component of the
df/dt = time rate of change of flux in maxwells per second, electrical circuit representing the magnetic specimen. This
and circuit is assumed to be composed of paralleled linear
N = number of turns surrounding the flux, assuming inductive and resistive elements, vL1 and R1.
each turn is linked with all the flux. permeability, ac, peak, pthe ratio of the measured peak
value of magnetic induction to the peak value of the
measurement accuracythe numerical or percentage devia- magnetic field strength, Hp, calculated from the measured
tion of a measured value (or a value computed from one or peak value of the exciting current.
more measurements) from its true value or from some permeability, ideal, athe ratio of the magnetic induction to
absolute or standardized value. This deviation may depend the corresponding magnetic field strength after the material
upon the procedures used and is caused chiefly by systematic has been simultaneously subjected to a value of ac magne-
errors in the calibrations of the equipment used, which tizing field approaching saturation superimposed on a given
errors, if known, may be removed from the measured data to dc magnetizing field, and the ac magnetizing field has
enhance the accuracy of the measured or computed value. thereafter been gradually reduced to zero. The resulting ideal
Nel wallin a thin magnetic film (less than about 106 cm permeability is thus a function of the incremental field and
thick for iron), a domain wall in which the magnetic moment residual strongly polarized domains that remain after the ac
at any point is substantially parallel to the film surface. See field is reduced to zero.
also domain wall. NOTE 73Ideal permeability, sometimes called anhysteretic permeabil-
nonmagnetica relative term describing a material which, for ity, is principally significant to feebly magnetic material and to the
practical purposes, may be considered to have a relative Rayleigh range of soft magnetic material.
permeability close to unity. permeability, ac, impedance, incremental, D zthe value of
NOTE 70Certain materials may be nonmagnetic only under limited impedance permeability obtained when ac excitation is
conditions. superimposed on a dc excitation.

11
A 340 03a
permeability, ac, inductance, incremental, DLthe value of change in magnetic field strength when the mean induction
inductance permeability, L, obtained when the ac excitation differs from zero.
is superimposed on a dc excitation. permeability, incremental, Dthe ratio of the change of
permeability, initial dynamic, 0dthe limiting value of each magnetic induction, B, to the corresponding change in
of the various ac permeabilities reached in a magnetic magnetic field strength, H, under dc biasing conditions and
material as the magnetizing current is first raised to a when B is not equal to zero. This value is also the slope of
moderate value then is progressively and gradually reduced a straight line joining the excursion limits of an incremental
to a zero value. See initial inductance. hysteresis loop.
NOTE 74This same value, 0d, is also equal to the initial values of NOTE 81When the change in H is reduced to zero, the incremental
both impedance permeability, z, and peak permeability, p. permeability, D, becomes the reversible permeability, rev.

permeability, instantaneous(Coincident with Bmax), t permeability, initial, 0the limiting value approached by
with SCM excitation, the ratio of the maximum induction the normal permeability as the applied magnetic field
Bmax to the instantaneous magnetic field strength, Ht, which strength, H, is reduced to zero. The permeability is equal to
is the value of apparent magnetic field strength, H8, deter- the slope of the normal induction curve at the origin of linear
mined at the instant when B reaches a maximum. B and H axes.
permeability, dc, a generic term used to represent a permeability, intrinsic, ithe ratio of the calculated value of
number of magnetostatic material properties. The value intrinsic induction Bi, to the corresponding magnetic field
represented is the ratio of the induction, B, to the dc strength, H.
magnetic field strength, H, producing magnetic flux under NOTE 82See definition of susceptibility.
the specific magnetizing conditions.
permeability, maximum, mthe highest value of permeabil-
NOTE 75The magnetic constant Gm is a scalar quantity differing in
value and uniquely determined by each electromagnetic system of units. ity achieved when the magnetic material is subjected to a
In the cgsemu system of units, Gm is 1 gauss/oersted, and in the SI symmetrically cyclically magnetized condition.
system, Gm = 4p 3 107 H/m. NOTE 83Under dc test conditions the maximum permeability, m, is
NOTE 76Relative permeability is a pure number which is the same in the highest value of normal permeability , developed by the magnetic
all unit systems. The value and dimension of absolute permeability material.
depends on the system of units used. NOTE 84Under ac test conditions, the maximum permeability is the
NOTE 77For any ferromagnetic material permeability is a function of highest value of ac permeability achieved under symmetrically cyclically
the degree of magnetization. However, initial permeability, 0, and magnetized conditions and with no biasing magnetic field in the magnetic
maximum permeability, m, are unique values for a given specimen under material.
specified conditions.
NOTE 78Except for initial permeability, 0, a numerical value for any permeability, normal, dc, the ratio of any magnetic
of the dc permeabilities is meaningless unless the corresponding B or H induction, B, to the corresponding dc magnetic field strength,
excitation level is specified. H, when the magnetic material has been subjected to SCM
NOTE 79For the incremental permeabilities, D and Di, a numerical
conditions.
value is meaningless unless both the corresponding values of mean
excitation level (B or H) and the excursion range (DB or DH) are specified. permeability, relative, rthe ratio of the absolute perme-
ability of a material to the magnetic constant Gm, giving a
permeability, dc, absolute, absthe ratio of the total induc- pure numeric parameter.
tion, DB, to the dc magnetic field strength, DH, which
NOTE 85In the cgs-em system of units, the relative permeability is
produced it. Also described as:
numerically the same as the absolute permeability.
abs 5 Gm 1 i 5 Gmr
permeability, dc, reversible, revthe ratio of magnetic
permeability, differential, dthe ratio of an increment of induction, DB, to the dc magnetic field strength increase,
induction, DB, to an increment of magnetic field strength, DH, when the magnetic field strength is first established at a
DH, for any point on a dc hysteresis loop. It is also the value, H, then reduced by a small increment H, and then
absolute slope (DB/DH) of the curve at any point on the reestablished to the value, H.
normal magnetizing curve. permeability, unoccupied space, vthe permeability of
space (vacuum), identical with the magnetic constant, Gm.
NOTE 80For a symmetrical series circuit in which each component
has the same cross-sectional area, reluctance values add directly giving:
permeance, 3the reciprocal of the reluctance of a magnetic
circuit.
,1 1 ,2 1 ,3 1 power factor, magnetic, cos g(a) the cosine of the angle
eff 5 , ,2 ,3
1 between vectors representing the rms values of the applied
1 1 1
1 2 3
voltage of a circuit and the current in circuit.
For a symmetrical parallel circuit in which each component has the
same flux path length, permeance values add directly giving: (b) the ratio of the active (real) power to the apparent
power in an ac circuit.
1A1 1 2A2 1 3A3 1
eff 5 power, reactive (quadrature), Pqthe product of the rms
A1 1 A2 1 A3 1
current in an electrical circuit, the rms voltage across the
permeability, incremental intrinsic, Dithe ratio of the circuit, and the sine of the angular phase difference between
change in the intrinsic induction Bi to the corresponding the current and the voltage.

12
A 340 03a
Pq 5 EI sin u resistance to the flow of an electric current, expressed by:
r 5 RA/,
where:
where:
Pq = reactive power in vars,
R = resistanceof the specimen, V;
E = voltage in volts,
A = cross sectional area, cm2; and
I = current in amperes, and
, = length of specimen, cm.
u = angular phase by which E leads I.
NOTE 86The reactive power supplied to a magnetic core having an Units of electrical resistivity are ohm-centimetre (cgs) and
SCM excitation is the product of the magnetizing current and the voltage ohm-metre (SI).
induced in the exciting winding.
NOTE 92This value is equivalent to the resistance between opposite
power, active (real), Pthe product of the rms current in a faces of a cube of unit dimensions, and is designated 88specific resistivity
circuit, the rms voltage across the circuit and the cosine of or, by usage, 88volume resistivity.
the angular phase difference between the current and volt-
age. resistivity, surface insulation (of a single-strip specimen)
relay steelsoft magnetic iron-based alloy used in the con- the effective resistivity of a single insulative layer tested
struction of electromechanical relays and solenoid switches. between applied bare metal contacts and the base metal of
High flux densities, low coercive fields, suitable mechanical the insulated test specimen.
hardness, and ease of fabrication are primary concerns. resistivity, surface insulation (of multi-strip specimens)
reluctance, 5that quantity which determined the magnetic the resistance of a unit area per test strip calculated from a
flux, f, resulting from a given magnetomotive force, ^, measurement of the electrical resistance of a stack of strips
around a magnetic circuit. with test current perpendicular to the strip surface.
resistivity, volume rSee resistivity.
5 5 ^/f
retentivity, Brs the property of a magnetic material which is
measured by its maximum value of the residual induction.
where: NOTE 93Retentivity is usually associated with saturation induction.
5 = magnetic reluctance,
^ = magnetomotive force, and SIan abbreviation for the International System of Units.
f = flux. skin effect, magneticthe nonuniform magnetodynamic term
applies to the nonuniform distribution of induction existing
The reluctance is measured in gilberts per maxwell (magnetic at various points in the cross section of a magnetic core. Skin
ohms) in the cgs-emu system and in ampere-turns per weber in effect is produced primarily by eddy current phenomena and
the SI system. it increases with the frequency of ac excitation. It can
reluctivity, vthe reciprocal of the permeability of a medium. ordinarily be neglected in testing at commercial power
remanence, Bdmthe maximum value of the remanent induc- frequencies.
tion for a given geometry of the magnetic circuit. solid area, A*the effective solid portion of the cross section
NOTE 87If there are no gaps or other inhomogeneities in the magnetic of a core (perpendicular to the induction) which is composed
circuit the remanence, Bdm, is equal to the retentivity, Brs; if air gaps or of magnetic material.
other inhomogeneities are present, Bdm will be less than Brs. stabilizationa treatment of magnetic material designed to
remanent induction, BdSee induction, remanent. increase the permanency of its magnetic properties or
residual induction, BrSee induction, residual. conditions.
resistance, core, R1the effective ac resistance of a hypotheti- storage factor, magnetic, Qmthe cotangent of the hysteretic
cal parallel resister that is considered to carry exclusively the angle that is equal to the ratio of the magnetizing current, Im,
core loss current, Ic, when a voltage is applied to the to the core loss current Ic.
terminals of a coil encircling a magnetic core. Qm 5 cot b 5 tan g 5 1/Dm 5 Im/Ic 5 R1/vL1

NOTE 88The product, Ic2R1, equals the total core loss, Pc.
NOTE 94The storage factor is also given by the ratio of 2p times the
resistance, winding, Rwthe effective ac series resistance of maximum energy stored in the core to the energy dissipated in the core
an inductor when no ferromagnetic materials are present. (hysteresis and eddy current heat loss) per cycle of a periodic SCM
excitation.
NOTE 89At low frequencies, Rw is only slightly greater than the dc
resistance of the winding. susceptibility, ka ratio of the intrinsic induction, Bi, as a
NOTE 90The product I2Rw equals the sum of the copper, eddy current, result of the magnetization of a material to the induction in
and dielectric losses in the winding. space because of the influence of the corresponding mag-
NOTE 91The total active power, P, delivered to an inductor having a
ferromagnetic core is:
netic field strength, H.
k 5 Bi/GmH 5 r2 1
P 5 Pc 1 I2Rw

where:
resistivity, rthat property of a material which determines its

13
A 340 03a

Gm = magnetic constant and 5X.


Xn 1 Dx . 5 Xn 2 Dx
r = relative permeability.
NOTE 95The preceding equations apply to an isotropic material if the (b) fractional tolerance, Txthis is defined by the
SI, an abbreviation for the international system of units, are used. following absolute ratio:
NOTE 96In the classical cgs-emu system of units:
Tx 5 |Dx/Xn|
k 5 Bi/4pGmH 5 ~r2 1!/4p

which is usually as a percentage, so that the allowed limits of


susceptibility, initial, k0the limiting value of susceptibility X becomes Xn| 1 6 Tx|. For a sum or difference function, the
when the intrinsic induction approaches zero. incremental tolerance, DF, equals the absolute sum of the
susceptibility, mass, xthe susceptibility divided by the component D values. For a product or ratio function, the
density of a body is called the susceptibility per unit mass, x, fractional tolerance, TF, equals the absolute sum of the com-
or simply the mass susceptibility. ponent T values. For any other function, using calculus as
x 5 k/d follows:

where d = density. S D S D S D
dF dF dF
DF ~x, y, x! 5 dx Dx 1 dy Dy 1 dz Dz
symmetrically cyclically magnetized condition, SCMa
NOTE 97The preceding tolerance limits are symmetrical limits, such
magnetic material is in a SCM condition when, under the
as 65 %. Occasionally, unsymmetrical limits may be specified such
influence of a magnetic field strength that varies cyclically as +5 %, 2 % or 0 %, 5 % or 10 %, 0 %, and so forth.
between two equal positive and negative limits, its succes-
sive hysteresis loops or flux-current loops are both identical varthe unit of reactive (quadrature) power. One var is the
and symmetrical with respect to the origin of the axes. product of one volt and one ampere in phase quadrature.
tesla, Tthe SI unit of magnetic induction. One tesla is equal voltage, induced secondary, E2the rms value of the open
to 1.0 Wb/m2 or 104 gausses. circuit voltage induced in the secondary winding N2 of an
tolerance limits, specification or calibration inductor as a result of cyclic variations of the flux linkages with
N 2.
(1) The permitted degree of departure of the value of some
volt-ampere, Pathe unit of apparent power.
parameter, X, from its nominal value Xn.
watt, Wthe unit of active power. One watt is energy, work,
(2) The guaranteed maximum error in the reading of some or quantity of heat expended at a rate of one joule per
instrument scale, or in the calibration of some circuit second.
component, or in the value of any parameter, from its correct weber, Wbthe unit of magnetic flux. The weber is the
value (which may be assumed to be a true value within the magnetic flux whose decrease to zero when linked with a
resolution of the calibration). Symmetrical tolerance limits, single turn induces in the turn a voltage whose time integral
which do not involve the measurement of any parameter, is one volt-second. One weber equals 108 maxwells. See
may be quoted in two ways: magnetic flux.
winding loss, (copper loss), Pwthe power expended, as heat,
(a) incremental tolerance, Dxthis is satisfied by the in the conductors of an inductor or resistor, or both, as a
following limits: result of the electric current in them.

APPENDIX

X1. SELECTED CONVERSION FACTORS USED IN MAGNETIC TESTING

Multiply By To Obtain
Sinusoidal Waveform
Peak current or voltage 0.707 11 rms current or voltage
Peak current or voltage 0.636 62 average current or voltage
Rms current or voltage 1.4142 peak current or voltage
Rms current or voltage 0.900 32 average current or voltage
Average current or voltage 1.5708 peak current or voltage
Average current or voltage 1.1107 rms current or voltage

Magnetic Flux Density, B


Gauss 6.4516 lines per square inch
Gauss 6.4516 3 108 weber per square inch

14
A 340 03a

Multiply By To Obtain
Gauss 104 weber per square metre
Gauss 104 tesla
Lines per square inch 0.155 00 gauss
Lines per square inch 1.5500 3 105 tesla (weber per square
metre)
Lines per square inch 108 weber per square inch
Weber per square inch 1.5500 3 107 gauss
Weber per square inch 108 lines per square inch
Weber per square inch 1550 tesla (weber per square
metre)

Field Strength, H
Oersted 2.0213 ampere-turn per inch
Oersted 0.795 77 ampere-turn per centime-
tre
Oersted 79.577 ampere-turn per metre
Ampere-turn per centime- 1.2566 oersted
tre
Ampere-turn per centime- 2.5400 ampere-turn per inch
tre
Ampere-turn per centime- 100.00 ampere-turn per metre
tre
Ampere-turn per inch 0.494 74 oersted
Ampere-turn per inch 0.393 70 ampere-turn per centime-
tre
Ampere-turn per inch 39.370 ampere-turn per metre
Ampere-turn per metre 0.012 566 oersted
Ampere-turn per metre 102 ampere-turn per centime-
tre
Ampere-turn per metre 0.025 400 ampere-turn per inch

Permeability,
Gauss per oersted 3.1918 lines per ampere-turn inch
Gauss per oersted 3.1918 3 108 weber per ampere-turn
inch
Gauss per oersted 1.2566 3 106 weber per ampere-turn
metre
Gauss per oersted 1.2566 3 106 henry per metre
Gauss per oersted 1.2566 3 106 tesla metre per ampere
Weber per ampere-turn 7.9577 3 105 gauss per oersted
metre
Weber per ampere-turn 2.5400 3 104 lines per ampere-turn inch
metre
Weber per ampere-turn 0.025 400 weber per ampere-turn
metre inch
Weber per ampere-turn 3.1330 3 105 gauss per oersted
inch
Weber per ampere-turn 106 lines per ampere-turn inch
inch
Weber per ampere-turn 39.370 weber per ampere-turn
inch metre
Lines per ampere-turn 0.313 30 gauss per oersted
inch
Lines per ampere-turn 39.370 3 108 weber per ampere-turn
inch metre
8
Lines per ampere-turn 10 weber per ampere-turn
inch inch

Miscellaneous Conversions
Magnetic flux (maxwell) 108 weber
Henry 1.0 weber per ampere
Watts per pound 2.205 watts per kilogram
Volt ampere per pound 2.205 volt ampere per kilogram
Volume resistivity (Vcm) 102 ohm metre
Energy product (allotted) 7.958 3 103 joule per cubic metre

15
A 340 03a

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16

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