Floor Vibrations

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Floor vibrations
In recent years, there has been an increase in demand for buildings that are fast to construct, have large uninterrupted
floor areas and are flexible in their intended final use. Modern design and construction techniques enable steel
construction to satisfy these demands and deliver structures which are competitive in terms of overall cost.
For most multi-storey commercial buildings, straightforward steel construction will meet the required vibration
performance criteria without modification. For more vibration-sensitive applications, such as hospital operating theatre
floors, steel’s advantages can be utilised, although stiffer solutions may be necessary. Even if a stiffer floor is required,
steel remains the most cost-effective and lightweight solution.
Long-span applications, for which steel is the only option, have been found to offer very good vibration damping,
despite common preconceptions that damping in composite floors is lower than that of concrete structures. This is
because of the large mass of the long-span sections which participate in any motion reduces the magnitude of the
vibration response. The steel sector has extensive experience in designing steel structures to ensure compliance with
even the strictest vibration performance criteria.
The subject of floor vibrations is complex. This article describes the basic theory of floor vibrations, human perception
and acceptability levels and provides practical methods for assessing the likely vibrational behaviour of floors in steel
framed buildings.
Floor vibration
Introduction to floor vibrations
Vibrations
The term ‘vibrations’ when applied to floors refers to the oscillatory motion experienced by the building and its
occupants during the course of normal day-to-day activities. This motion is normally vertical (up and down), but
horizontal vibrations are also possible. In either case, the consequences of vibrations range from being a nuisance to
the building users to causing damage to the fixtures and fittings or even (in very extreme cases) to the building
structure. The severity of the consequences will depend on the source of the motion, its duration and the design and
layout of the building.
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http://www.steelconstruction.info/Floor_vibrations - 14th February 2017
SteelConstruction.info
Sensitive process/equipment such as nano-technologies, microscopes or lasers may be sensitive to a level of vibration
which is often below human perception. In such special cases, malfunctioning of the equipment is avoided by limiting
the level of vibration to the specific requirement of the equipment.
Severe vibration events due to earthquakes and explosions are outside the scope of this article.
Once constructed, it is very difficult to modify an existing floor to reduce its susceptibility to vibration, as only major
changes to the mass, stiffness or damping of the floor system will produce any perceptible reduction in vibration
amplitudes. It is important therefore that the levels of acceptable vibration be established at the concept design stage,
paying particular attention to the anticipated usage of the floors. The client must be involved in this decision, as the
specified acceptance criteria may have a significant impact on the design of the floor and the cost of construction.
Sources of vibration
Floor vibrations are generally caused by dynamic loads applied either directly to the floor by people or machinery or
indirectly by moving floor supports after transmission through the building structure or through the ground. The
principal sources of vibration in buildings are:
Plymouth Derriford hospital – multi-storey, steel-framed construction
Human activity, e.g. walking, dancing, jumping, etc.

Vibrating machinery
External forces, e.g. traffic at ground level or underground, or wind buffeting.
The most common source of vibration that can cause nuisance in building applications is human activity, usually
walking. Although small in magnitude, walking-induced vibrations can cause a nuisance to people working or living in
the building, especially to the use of sensitive equipment or to those engaged in motion-sensitive activities, e.g.
surgery. Naturally, the problem is more acute for more vigorous types of human activity such as dancing and jumping
and therefore designers of buildings featuring a gymnasium or dance studio should take extra care to limit the
vibrations in the rest of the building.
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Machinery-induced vibrations are best dealt with at source through the provision of isolating mounts or motion
arresting pads. Machines installed in factories tend to produce the most severe vibrations due to their size and the
nature of their operation. However, floor vibration is rarely a problem in most factories, since it is accepted by the
workforce as part of the industrial environment.
Wind induced vibrations are generally not an issue for normal building construction, such as low to medium rise
commercial or residential buildings. Where they need to be considered, building designers should consult the
appropriate wind loading code of practice, e.g. BS EN 1991-1-4[1] in the UK.
Ground-borne vibrations can be problematic, but are best dealt with at source, e.g. repairing the pot-hole in the road.
However, where problems are anticipated, such as when a building is adjacent to a busy road, steps should be taken
to minimise the transmission into and through the building structure. Careful detailing of the structure and foundations
plays a key role in this respect.
Consequences of vibrations
For the building designer, there are three principal effects of floor vibrations that may need to be considered,
depending on the frequency of occurrence and the magnitude of the vibration. These are:
Nuisance – Human occupants of a building can perceive very low amplitudes of vibration and, depending on
the circumstances, even modest doses of floor vibration can cause discomfort or alarm. Certain items of
precision equipment are also extremely sensitive to vibration.
Strength – The structure must be strong enough to resist the peak dynamic forces acting on it. Depending on
the relative frequencies of the applied force and the building structure, together with the duration of dynamic
event, the dynamic response can be significantly greater than the response due to equivalent static load. In
such cases, it will be necessary to design the structural members and their connections to resist these higher
loads.
Fatigue – Fatigue cracks can initiate and propagate when a structural component, usually a connection, is
subjected to repeated cyclic loading, such as in bridges. For steel, there is a limiting stress below which fatigue
will not occur irrespective of the number of cycles. Fatigue may therefore be avoided by designing connections
such that this stress limit is not exceeded.
Of these three potential consequences, nuisance caused by the perception of vibrations is the most common issue for
most building applications. It is, therefore, the focus of this article. Strength and fatigue issues are sometimes
encountered in buildings used for rhythmic activities such as gymnasia, dance studios and nightclubs.
Theory of vibrations
Vibrations are characterised by a regular cyclic motion of a given frequency and amplitude. In practice, vibrating floors
are complex dynamic systems with infinite modes of vibration, each with its own frequency. Fortunately, even the most
complex vibrating system may be represented as a series of simple mass and spring models with a single degree of
freedom. Such models are easy to understand in terms of their theoretical behaviour and are a useful means of
introducing the fundamental principles that govern the motion of all vibrating systems.
Single degree of freedom systems
The simplest vibrating system is one with only a single degree of freedom (SDOF), such as the mass and spring model
shown below.
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Model of a SDOF system
In this system, if the mass M were displaced from its equilibrium (rest) position and then released, its displacement y
plotted against time t would represent a sine wave. In the absence of damping, this motion would continue indefinitely,
with the peak displacement corresponding to the initial release position. The time taken to complete each cycle would
depend only on mass M and spring stiffness k of the system. In practice, all vibrating systems encounter a degree of
damping. This is represented in the SDOF model by the dashpot damper. As an alternative to displacing and then
releasing the mass, the vibrations could be initiated by subjecting the mass to a dynamic (time varying) load. This is
represented in the model by the external force p(t). The motion of the SDOF system can be defined in terms of three
parameters:
Frequency
Amplitude
Damping.
The frequency of a system, or of an applied force, is a measure of the rate at which the system vibrates. The frequency
is normally quoted in Hertz (cycles per second) or alternatively in radians per second and is proportional to the square
root of the stiffness k divided by the mass M. The inverse of the frequency f is the period T, defined as the time taken
for the system to complete one whole cycle.
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Frequency and period
The amplitude of a system is a measure of the peak response relative to the mean. Since the motion is sinusoidal in
nature, the term amplitude applies equally to the displacement, velocity or acceleration. In the case of floor vibrations,
the amplitude usually refers to the peak acceleration, since acceleration is generally used to determine the
acceptability of the floor.
Amplitude
Damping refers to the loss of mechanical energy in a system. There are many sources of damping in a building,
including friction at the connections, furniture and fit-out and energy dissipations through non-structural components
such as partitions. As energy is taken out of the system through the damping, the amplitude of the response reduces
until the motion eventually ceases. The amount of damping will determine the duration of the response and can be
critical in situations involving resonance.
Damping
For the SDOF system shown above, subjected to a load p(t), the motion of the system is governed by dynamic
equilibrium, which may be expressed as:
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Continuous systems
A beam may be thought of as a series of mass/spring models joined together to form a continuous system. Unlike the
SDOF system, which has a single natural frequency and corresponding mode of vibration, a continuous system
theoretically has an infinite number of natural frequencies and associated modes. When the beam vibrates, these
modes are superimposed on one another to give the overall response of the system. Fortunately it is generally
sufficient to consider only the first 3 or 4 modes, since the higher modes are quickly extinguished by damping.
The different responses of a system may be represented by ‘mode shapes’, which show the deflections of the
deformed shapes of the system. The fundamental (or first mode) frequency always corresponds to the mode shape
with the lowest frequency. The first three mode shapes of a uniform simply supported beam are shown in the figure.
Mode shapes of a simply supported beam
For design purposes, the fundamental frequency of a simply supported beam may be estimated using the following
expression:
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where δ is the deflection due to the self weight and any other loads that may be considered to be permanent. To
complicate matters further, real structures comprise a framework of beams, connected together directly or via
columns. This results in vibration modes involving several beams moving simultaneously, together with an area of floor
slab. In this case, the fundamental frequency of the system will depend on the motion of the primary and secondary
beams and concrete slab. The fundamental frequency of the whole system will be lower than those of the individual
components and may be obtained using:
where δmax is the total deflection of the primary beam, secondary beam and slab expressed in millimetres.
Alternatively, the fundamental frequency of the floor system may be obtained using Dunkerly’s approximation as
follows:
where fs, fb and fp are the fundamental frequencies of the slab, secondary beam and primary beam respectively.
Types of response
The response of a floor may be classed as either:
Resonant or
Impulsive.
Resonant response
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Resonant response
When a continuous (sinusoidal or cosinusoidal) force is applied to a system with the same frequency as that of the
system, each successive load cycle will add to the response, causing the amplitude to increase. In the absence of
damping, the amplitude will increase to a magnitude well in excess of the level of acceleration resulting from a single
load cycle. This is known as resonance and, if allowed to develop in a structure, can result in unacceptably high
responses and damage to the structure. Fortunately, in building structures, the energy in the vibrating system is
dissipated by damping over a number of cycles and resonance does not occur. Instead, the response settles down to
a steady state having a constant amplitude. In this state, each new cycle of load merely replenishes the energy lost to
damping. The build-up to a typical steady state response is shown.
It should be noted that, despite damping, the steady state amplitude is several times the initial amplitude, and this
response may still be problematic to the building designer. Increasing the level of damping will reduce the steady state
resonant response.
In addition to the level of damping, the amplitude of the response also depends on the amount of mass that is
mobilised, the magnitude of the applied force and the ratio of the forcing frequency to the natural frequency of the
system. On this last point, it is important to remember that floors possess many (in theory infinitely many) natural
frequencies, corresponding to the different modes of vibration. To avoid resonance, it is also important to ensure that
the frequency of the applied force does not match the frequency of the first few vibration modes of the floor.
Response to periodic impulses
If the natural frequency of the structure is significantly higher than the frequency of impulses, during each cycle of
periodic impulsive loading there will be several cycles of response. Damping in the system will reduce the amplitude of
the response, until the arrival of the next cycle of load. The resulting impulsive response is shown.
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Impulsive response
In this case, the peak amplitude corresponds to the arrival of each successive load and, therefore, is independent of
the degree of damping. The magnitude of the response is dependent only on the magnitude of the impulsive force and
the amount of mass that is mobilised.
Human induced vibration
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Typical force time plot for walking
The simple act of walking across a floor might not seem to be too onerous to the building designer, especially when the
structure has been designed for a much higher level of load. However, in environments such as hospitals or quiet
offices, a single person walking along a corridor can be a serious nuisance to other building occupants.
A person walking at a regular pace applies a periodically repeated forcing function to the floor at a frequency of
between 1.6 to 2.2Hz. This may cause a build-up of response, i.e. resonance. Although dominated by the pacing
frequency, the periodic loading caused by walking is made up of several frequencies superimposed on one another.
When considering the possibility of resonance, account must be taken of these higher excitation frequencies. A typical
force-time plot for walking is shown.
To establish the overall response, this forcing function can be broken down into a series of sine waves, each of which
has a frequency at an integer multiple (or harmonic) of the forcing frequency. Each harmonic will have an associated
amplitude and phase shift, and the set of harmonics are known as a Fourier series.
Although not immediately apparent from the image provided, the cyclic loading due to walking may be broken down
into a series of sine waves, each representing one of the constituent frequencies. Each component of the response
may be weighted by the appropriate factors (Fourier coefficient) and then summed to give a good approximation to the
actual loading. In the case shown, the pacing frequency is 2 Hz, with higher harmonic frequencies of 4 Hz, and 8 Hz.
The lowest frequency will always be the most significant and resonance at this frequency should always be avoided
(by ensuring that the natural frequency of the floor is sufficiently high). A similar treatment can also be applied to other
human activities such as running, jumping and dancing.
Recommended design frequencies and Fourier coefficients for common activities may be found in the relevant
Regulations and design rules.
Acceptability of vibrations
Generally, the vibration of floors is considered to be a serviceability issue, primarily related to the discomfort of building
occupants or damage to sensitive equipment. Where there is sensitive equipment, it is a relatively straightforward
matter to specify the maximum permissible acceleration. However, discomfort to humans cannot be directly quantified,
since perception and tolerance vary between individuals and are highly dependent on the circumstances.
The human perception of vibration
The following factors are known to influence the human perception of vibration:
Type of activity
Time of day when the activity is being undertaken
The type of environment where the activity is taking place
The direction of the vibration
The amplitude of the vibration
The frequency of the vibration
The source of the vibration
The level of damping
The duration of the exposure.
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Design criteria for vibrations
The subjective nature of vibrations means that it is not possible to prescribe an exact limit that will guarantee an
acceptable floor response. Instead, the design guidance aims to ensure that the building will attract ‘a low probability’
of adverse comment from its occupants.
Historically, designers have used the natural frequency of the floor as the sole measure of acceptable performance. By
specifying a sufficiently high natural frequency, the intention was that the floor would be effectively ‘tuned’ out of the
frequency range of the walking activity. However, while this might be true for the first harmonic, resonance could still
occur on the second, third and fourth harmonics of the walking activity.
Current Standards quantify the magnitude of floor vibrations in terms of the acceleration of the floor; defined in terms of
weighted, root-mean square (rms) acceleration. The acceptability of a floor is assessed by dividing the predicted
acceleration by a baseline value to obtain a response factor, and checking that the calculated response factor is less
than the appropriate multiplying factor given in the relevant Codes and other specialist guidance.
The baseline acceleration is dependent on the direction of the vibrations relative to the human body (the z-axis is
defined as head-to-toe, whether the person is standing or lying) and the frequency of the vibration.
Directions for Vibration defined in ISO 2631, BS 6472-1[2] and BS 6841[3]
The baseline acceleration for the z-axis, as specified in BS 6472[2], is shown below. The line represents a constant
level of human perception. The area above the line corresponds to an increasing level of human perception to
vibration; the area below the line represents vibration that is imperceptible to the majority of humans.
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z-axis base curve (BS 6472BS 6472[2])
The response factor is compared against the specified maximum allowable response factor for the application. The
allowable response factor should take account of the human perception factors listed above and may be obtained from
Standards, published guidance or may be specified by the client. Specialist guidance is available for hospitals.
The response factor approach assumes continuous vibration over a 16 hour day or 8 hour night. If the vibrations are
only intermittent in nature, the building designer may take advantage of the reduced duration by using the Vibration
Dose Value (VDV) approach. This alternative method may prove especially beneficial in buildings where the vibration
is caused by discrete and infrequent events, rather than continuous activity, for example residents of an apartment
block leaving for work in the morning and returning several hours later.
Design for rhythmic activity
Where floors are likely to be subject to dancing and jumping activities characterised by synchronised crowd
movement, the floor must be designed for ultimate limit state considerations in accordance with the requirements
given in the National Annex to BS EN 1991-1-1[4].
According to these Standards:
The floor may be designed to have a fundamental frequency of at least 8.4 Hz vertically and at least 4 Hz
horizontally, in which case the resonant effects need not be evaluated.
or
The floor should be designed to resist the anticipated dynamic loads due to rhythmic activity which should be
considered as an additional imposed load case.
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The vertical natural frequency of the floor should be evaluated for the appropriate mode of vibration for an empty
structure.
Designing for dynamic loads
As noted above, a dynamic load may result in considerably higher forces and moments in a structure compared to the
corresponding static load. The degree of magnification depends on the ratio of the frequency of the loading function
(fp) to the natural frequency of the structure (fn); the level of damping present in the structure is also important.
The ratio of dynamic to static responses is known as the Dynamic Magnification Factor (DMF). The relationship
between DMF (fp/fn) and damping ratio is shown below.
Dynamic magnification factor for accelerations
It is apparent from the figure that, as the frequency of the applied load approaches the natural frequency of the
structure (fp/fn =1), resonance occurs leading to very large DMF values. The magnitude of the DMF at resonance is
dependent on the degree of damping. Theoretically for undamped systems, i.e. ξ = 0, the steady-state response tends
towards infinity. Since in many practical structural systems the critical damping ratio is of the order of 1%, the dynamic
magnification can be considerable, if precautions are not taken to avoid resonance.
Resonance on the fundamental frequency (the worst case) may be avoided by designing the floor to have a natural
frequency of over 3Hz. This ensures that the fundamental frequency of the floor will be higher than the lowest
harmonic of walking.
Vibration analysis
Basic principles
The vibration characteristics of a structure are defined by its modal properties comprising:
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Natural frequency
Modal mass
Mode shape
Modal damping.
For any structure, there are an infinite number of modes, each with its own set of properties. However, in practice, only
those modes with the lowest frequencies will be relevant to the analysis.
For each individual mode, the natural frequency is the number of oscillations per second, the mode shape is the
deformed shape that the structure would naturally tend to exhibit at that frequency, and the modal damping defines the
energy dissipation within the mode. The first three modal properties are dependent on the dimensions, mass and
stiffness of the structure and may be calculated using one of the methods described below. Damping depends on the
finishes on the structure and an appropriate value will generally have to be assumed (based on past experience or
testing).
As real structures are built up from a number of components, the determination of the modal properties is a complex
process, requiring consideration not only of all of the members within the structure, but also the interaction between
these members. The most effective way of assessing the modal parameters of a structure is by finite element analysis,
but simplified methods may also be used on some simpler structures. Simplified methods are usually only applicable to
regular structures with rectilinear grids and may be conservative.
Finite element modelling
Finite element modelling may be used to obtain the natural frequencies, modal masses and mode shapes of any shape
of floor, but the method is particularly useful for buildings with irregular grids or onerous design requirements with
regard to vibration e.g. hospitals. The method is more accurate and generally less conservative than hand calculation
methods.
Finite element modelling is an approximation, in which a continuous structure is divided into a number of parts or
elements. The accuracy of the solution is dependent on the number of elements into which the system is divided, but
this has to be balanced against the longer computation time. Selecting the optimum number of elements is crucial to
the success of the analysis. There are no firm rules for determining the mesh size (and hence number of the elements)
but in general, if the number of elements can be doubled without significantly changing the result, then the number of
elements is sufficient.
Finite element analysis
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A typical output from a modal finite element analysis of a building is shown. The figure shows the plot of one of the
floor’s many mode shapes superimposed on an outline of the floor. The red and blue areas indicate positive and
negative modeshape amplitudes respectively (to an exaggerated vertical scale). For a given floor, the software will
generate as many of these plots or modeshapes as required, together with the corresponding natural frequency and
modal mass. In practice, it is generally sufficient to consider only the first 30 modes, i.e. the mode shapes
corresponding to the lowest 30 natural frequencies.
Having obtained the mode shapes, frequencies and modal masses, the vibration response of the floor to a given
excitation, e.g. a person walking at a known pace along a corridor may be obtained by modal superposition. As the
name suggests, this is a process whereby the responses (accelerations) from each of the individual modes are
superimposed on one another and summed to obtain the total response. This is best achieved with the aid of software.
For the majority of buildings, the walking paths are not known at the time of analysis, so the response is calculated on
the basis that the response and excitation points are coincident, i.e. the acceleration is calculated at various points
around the building assuming that the person causing the acceleration and the person feeling it are standing at the
same location. This is likely to produce the worst case response at each location. A range of realistic walking
frequencies is considered to obtain the highest response.
The end product of the analysis will be a matrix of accelerations, corresponding to the nodes of the finite element
mesh. It is normal practice to divide these accelerations by the baseline acceptable value to obtain a series of
response factors. These may be superimposed on the floor plan in order to visually identify any potential problem
areas.
Simplified assessment of floors with steel beams
To avoid the need for a finite element analysis, a simplified assessment method has been developed for simple
building layouts comprising regular grids of steel beams supporting a concrete floor slab. It is also suitable for
composite floors. This design procedure is based on a parametric study of a wide variety of floor grids modelled using
finite element analysis. The method is described in detail in SCI P354 and is summarised in the flowchart below.
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Assessment of floor vibrations from SCI P354

Note: Section numbers refer to those in SCI P354
The design procedure comprises the following steps:
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Typical mode shapes for steel-concrete floor systems
Calculation of natural frequency

Determination of modal mass
Evaluation of the critical acceleration and hence response factor
Checking the response factor against the acceptance criteria (for continuous vibration).
In conventional steel-concrete floor systems, the fundamental frequency may be estimated by using engineering
judgement on the likely deflected shape of the floor (the mode shape), and considering how the supports and
boundary conditions will affect the behaviour of the individual structural components. For example, on a simple
composite floor comprising a slab continuous over a number of secondary beams that are, in turn, supported by stiff
primary beams, two possible mode shapes may be sensibly considered, as shown below:
Secondary beam mode

Primary beam mode.
In the secondary beam mode, the primary beams form nodal lines, i.e. they have zero deflection, about which the
secondary beams vibrate as simply-supported members. The slab is assumed to be continuous over the secondary
beams. In the primary beam mode, the primary beams vibrate about the columns as simply-supported members and
the secondary beams and slab are taken to be fixed-ended.
The natural frequency should be calculated for each mode, allowing for the deflection of both sets of beams and the
slab, and the fundamental frequency of the floor should be taken as the lower value of the two modes considered. The
modal mass for the critical mode may be obtained from the simplified equations in SCI P354. The acceleration may
then be obtained by treating the floor as an equivalent single degree of freedom system.
Floor response calculator
A web-based Floor response calculator is also available that allows designers to make an immediate assessment of
the dynamic response of a floor solution. The software reports the results of approximately 19,000 arrangements of
floor grid, loading and bay size, which have been investigated using finite element analysis. The results from this
software provide an improved prediction of the dynamic response compared to the ‘manual method’ in SCI P354,
described above. The software may be used to examine complete floor plans or part floor plans, comparing alternative
beam arrangements.
Dynamic testing of floors

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Testing and vibration performance assessment based on experimental data are powerful tools which can be used to
ascertain the as-built vibration behaviour of building floors. This is particularly true for complex floor layouts or in
situations where the floor vibration performance is critical for day to day operation of a building, such as in hospitals.
Due to the uncertainties associated with the two analytical methods described above (frequency method and response
factor method), clients often ask for in-situ testing of floors after they are constructed to check the actual performance
and verify the accuracy of the design calculations.
There are two principal categories of dynamic floor test, relating to the purpose and desired output of the test:
Measurement of the modal properties of the floor

Measurement of the response of the floor to dynamic loading.
Modal testing
The purpose of modal testing is to establish experimentally the modal properties of the structure. There are two types
of modal test. Those where:
The excitation force creating the response is not measured

The excitation force creating the response is measured.
Modal testing without measuring the excitation force
There are three types of test in common use:
1. Ambient vibration survey (AVS),

2. Heel-drop excitation
3. Rotating mass shaker excitation.
In the ambient vibration survey the floor dynamic excitation is provided by the environment in which it resides.
Vibration responses to this kind of excitation are acquired over a grid of test points covering the floor area of interest.
This grid needs to be dense enough to describe all of the likely floor mode shapes in sufficient detail. It is also
necessary to ensure that the modes of interest are excited by the ambient environment and that the reference
transducers are away from the nodal points of the mode being measured.
Excitation in a heel-drop test is provided by a single person raising himself on the balls of the feet, and dropping onto
the heels, thus providing an impact. The multi-modal decaying response to this impulsive broadband excitation can be
measured at one or more locations simultaneously. This method may be used to obtain the modal frequencies of the
floor.
In the rotating mass exciter, two masses rotate in a vertical plane at the same speed but in opposite directions, so that
the horizontal components of their inertial forces cancel, leaving only a sinusoidally varying vertical force. Harmonic
forces at particular frequencies generated by the rotating mass shaker excite floor harmonic responses at the same
frequencies. These are then measured simultaneously at one or more grid points on the floor and their amplitudes
recorded. The excitation frequency is then changed and the corresponding harmonic response amplitudes are again
recorded. By repeating this process for a number of frequencies and plotting the recorded amplitudes against the
frequencies for each test point, it is possible to estimate likely natural frequencies of the floor.
A common feature in all these modal testing methods, where the excitation force is not measured, is that modal
properties tend to be less reliable than those obtained from tests where the excitation force is measured. This is
because the lack of force measurement requires a number of assumptions to be made to enable extraction of modal
properties; incorrect assumptions can lead to significant errors.
Modal testing with measured excitation force

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Typical instrumented hammer test
Two types of tests are commonly performed:
1. Impact testing
2. Shaker testing.
Typical shaker test
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Impact testing may be undertaken using an instrumented hammer or a heel-drop on an instrumented force plate. In the
case of an instrumented hammer, the force is measured by a load cell installed at the tip of the hammer. The excitation
usually moves from point to point while the responses are measured at a number of stationary reference points. At
each point, the excitation is applied several times to average out the effects of extraneous noise. To minimise the
detrimental effects of unmeasured extraneous excitation of the floor, the testing should be performed on an
unoccupied floor structure, preferably in an unoccupied building. Therefore, for floors in operation or under
construction, night and weekend work is often the only option. An instrumented hammer test is shown.
Shaker testing may be undertaken using a single shaker or an array of shakers distributed over the floor area. The
excitation is generated by a moving shaker armature of known mass. This mass is driven by a signal generated by a
spectrum analyser that is also used to acquire all of the force and response data. The use of a shaker overcomes the
problems with extraneous noise encountered with impact testing. A considerable enhancement of the shaker
excitation at a single point of the floor is achieved by multiple uncorrelated random shaker excitation applied
simultaneously over a number of test points distributed over the floor area. A typical shaker test is shown .
Response measurement
There are many situations in which the client, building owner or occupant might want to measure the response of a
floor in service. In this case, the aim of the test will be to measure directly the acceleration caused by a realistic
excitation event. The measured acceleration may then be compared against the specified limit for the floor, in order to
verify its acceptability. Typically, for office floors, the appropriate excitation event is a single person walking.
After the in-situ determination of the natural frequencies and mode shapes of the floor, as described above, the floor
can be classified as low or high frequency. The type of walking test which needs to be carried out will depend on this
classification. As low frequency floors can be excited close to their resonant frequency, by frequencies of one or more
harmonics of walking, it is important to maintain the pacing rate of the test subject to generate the higher harmonics.
For example, if resonance of a floor needs to be excited at 6Hz, the pacing could be set to two steps per second (2
Hz), so that its third harmonic excites the 6 Hz mode. The use of a metronome might be useful in maintaining a steady
pace. In the case of high frequency floors, there is no need to adjust the pacing rate to excite the resonant frequencies
(since resonant build up does not occur in this type of floor). Usually, a range of pacing frequencies is specified, e.g.
from 1.4 Hz to 2.2 Hz in increments of 0.2 Hz.
After determining the required pacing rate(s), a walking path must be selected. This will depend on the utilisation of
the floor. For example, there may be cases when walking paths only along planned corridors are considered relevant.
Finally, a test subject is asked to walk several times along the walking path, during which responses are measured at
a number of pre-selected points on the floor. These may be at positions of maximum amplitude for the mode shape
under consideration or at sensitive locations (e.g. in hospital operating theatres).
In addition to these short tests, requiring an unoccupied building, technology now exists whereby long-term monitoring
of floor vibrations can be performed. One or more vibration transducers can be installed on the floor and left to acquire
vibration response data, due to everyday normal floor usage by its occupants, over a prolonged period of time.
Regulations and design rules

BS EN 1990[5], Annex A1.4.4 states that vibration should be limited to avoid discomfort to users, and to ensure the
functionality of the structure or structural members. It states that the acceptability criteria may be given in terms of a
frequency limit, or can be determined using ‘a more refined analysis of the dynamic response of the structure,
including the consideration of damping.’ It lists a number of possible sources of vibration, including walking,
synchronised movement of people and machinery that should be considered and refers the reader to ISO 10137[6] for
further guidance.
20 / 26
BS EN 1993-1-1[7] states that ‘the vibrations of structures on which the public can walk should be limited to avoid
significant discomfort to users, and limits should be specified for each project and agreed with the client.’ The UK
National Annex[8] refers to specialist literature for more detailed advice.
The two main codes used in the UK which cover floor vibrations are:
ISO 10137:2007[6] Bases for design of structures - Serviceability of buildings and walkways against vibrations
BS 6472-1:2008[2] Guide to evaluation of human exposure to vibration in buildings.
ISO 10137[6] gives recommendations on the evaluation of serviceability against vibrations of buildings and walkways
for human occupancy, the contents of the building and the structure of the building.
BS 6472-1[2] provides guidance on predicting human response to vibration in buildings over the frequency range 0.5
Hz to 80 Hz. Frequency weighting curves for human beings exposed to whole-body vibration are included, together
with advice on measurement methods to be employed. Methods of assessing continuous, intermittent and impulsive
vibration are presented. The code also describes how to determine the vibration dose value, VDV, from frequency-
weighted vibration measurements.
These codes specify multiplying factors to limit the value of calculated response factors to achieve ‘low probability of
adverse comment’ for different building types. In 1989, SCI proposed a series of multiplying factors which are larger
than those proposed in the codes. These are provided in SCI P354. Similar values are also recommended by the
AISC/CISC DG 11[9] (American code for vibration) which leads to a more economical design.
For the case of health buildings, HTM 08-01[10] sets out the vibration design criteria for healthcare premises. These
are shown in the table below.
Response factors used in HTM 08-01[10] to specify satisfactory magnitudes of vibration in hospitals
Space Response factor for continuous vibration
Operating theatre, precision laboratory, audiometric 1

testing booth
Wards 2
General laboratories, treatment areas 4
Offices, consulting rooms 8
SCI P354 ‘Design of floors for vibration: A new approach’ presents the details of the response factor method to assess
the performance of the floors subject to different sources of vibration. This publication, which includes worked
examples, is becoming increasingly popular in the industry and widely recognised as a good practice for design.
Structural design considerations
Damping
The damping ratio (ξ), in typical steel framed buildings depends on type of the connections, degree of fit-out,
furnishings, etc. The typical values shown in the table should be used in design unless more accurate information is
available.
21 / 26
Critical damping ratios for various floor types
Damping ratio (ξ) Floor finishes
0.5% For fully welded steel structures, e.g. staircases
1.1% For completely bare floors or floors where only a small

amount of furnishings are present
3.0% For fully fitted out and furnished floors in normal use
4.5% For a floor where the designer is confident that

partitions will be appropriately located to interrupt the
relevant mode(s) of vibration, i.e. the partition lines are
perpendicular to the main vibrating elements of the
critical mode shape
Floor loading
It is important that the distributed mass used in vibration analysis is representative of the mass that will be present in
service, as a higher mass will reduce the response of a floor at a given frequency. In design, the mass per unit area
should be taken as the unfactored self-weight of the structure including superimposed dead loads such as the weight
of ceilings and services. In addition, where the designer can be confident that such loading will exist in the finished
structure, an allowance may be included for semi-permanent loads (this loading should not be included for dance or
aerobic floors).
According to the UK National Annex to BS EN 1990, 30% of the imposed load should be included when considering
deformation at serviceability limit state. However, this is likely to be inappropriate for floor vibrations because, in
reality, the actual imposed load will be considerably less than the prescribed design loads on the floor. Hicks et al.[11]
recommend that the allowance should not exceed 10% of the nominal imposed load.
Modelling issues
Due to the small strains encountered during a vibration response, the normal assumption that beams and slabs are
simply supported is not necessarily valid. When the strains are insufficient to overcome friction, the beams and slabs
will act as if they were structurally continuous, even where nominally pinned connections are used. In this case, a more
accurate result will be obtained by modelling the joints as rigid connections.
Also non-structural elements, e.g. partitions, can significantly affect the vibration performance of floors. Their influence
is complex however and partitions may be reconfigured over time. Therefore the beneficial influence of partitions is
generally not included in the structural models.
The methods presented for evaluating natural frequencies of beams are broadly applicable to cantilevers. However,
due to the ineffective mobilisation of mass near to the free end of the cantilever, the simplified method of calculating
response can be unsafe and should not be used. Designers should only use the general procedure (finite element
analysis) for cantilevers.
Continuity and isolation of critical areas
22 / 26
The structural response is dependent on the floor mass participating in the dynamic movement. Designers may
influence the floor response by taking measures to control the extent of floor participation. Where a greater mass is
required, designers should seek to maximise the area of floor participating in the response by way of floor plate
continuity. Conversely, where specific areas are especially sensitive to vibration, it may be desirable to isolate these
areas from the rest of the floor.
A floor which has not been designed to be continuous when loaded statically, may act as such under dynamic
conditions. If a floor plate is continuous over a beam, or if the beam provides continuity, the floor plate can generally be
considered continuous for dynamic performance. For composite beam applications, care must be taken to ensure that
transverse reinforcement is provided, as its absence can lead to a worsening of vibration performance over time, as
cracks form and continuity is lost.
To isolate an area of floor, it must be structurally separated from the rest of the floor. This may be achieved by the
provision of construction joints all around the edges. Alternatively, the stiffness of the floor may be increased locally;
this has the effect of isolating the area.
Precast concrete units in composite design
Precast units with an in situ concrete topping and supplementary continuity reinforcement will behave in a similar
manner to a metal decking composite floor system, if connected to the supporting beams through shear connectors, or
if trapped between the flanges of the beams (e.g. shallow floor construction). However, if shear connectors are not
provided to the supporting beams, the area considered to participate in the motion should correspond to half the beam
span multiplied by half the beam spacing.
If a structural topping is not provided to the precast units, the designer should be aware that there is a danger that the
units could vibrate independently from one another. This will result in a high response, owing to the relatively low
effective mass participating in the motion.
Architectural design considerations
Walking paths
Some areas of a floor will have a higher response than others due to the mode shapes of the vibration. Generally,
areas close to beams and columns will be less responsive than areas in the middle of a slab as these form nodal lines,
i.e. limited or no motion. By locating walking paths closer to these less responsive areas, many vibration issues may be
eliminated.
In addition to location, the length of the corridor should be considered. The longer the corridor, the greater the time
associated with the walking activity. Reducing corridor lengths or breaking-up the corridor into smaller lengths reduces
the duration of any given walking activity and may prevent the build up of a resonant response.
Location of aerobic areas
Aerobic areas are, by their very nature, likely to experience a high dynamic response. Due to continuity of the floor, this
response may be transmitted into other areas of the building. It is, therefore, advisable to take care when positioning
aerobic areas to ensure that the affected floor locations do not exhibit a response that would be considered
unacceptable. Ideally, office, residential and other communal locations should not be placed close to areas where
rhythmic activities are likely to take place.
23 / 26
Case studies
The Noel-Baker School, Alvaston, Derby

The Royal Orthopaedic Hospital, Birmingham
24 / 26
References
1. ^ BS EN 1991-1-4:2005+A1:2010, Eurocode 1. Actions on structures. General actions. Wind actions, BSI.
2. ^ 2.02.12.22.32.4 BS 6472-1:2008, Guide to evaluation of human exposure to vibration in buildings. Vibration

sources other than blasting, BSI.
3. ^ BS 6841:1987 Guide to measurement and evaluation of human exposure to whole-body mechanical
vibration and repeated shock, BSI
4. ^ NA to BS EN 1991-1-1:2002, UK National Annex to Eurocode 1. Actions on structures. General actions.
Densities, self-weight, imposed loads for buildings, BSI.
5. ^ BS EN 1990:2002+A1:2005. Eurocode: Basis of structural design. BSI
6. ^ 6.06.16.2 ISO 10137: Bases for design of structures – Serviceability of buildings against vibration, International
Organisation for Standardization, 2007.
7. ^ BS EN 1993-1-1:2005+A1:2014, Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures. General rules and rules for
buildings, BSI
8. ^ NA to BS EN 1993-1-1:2005+A1:2014, UK National Annex to Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures General
rules and rules for buildings, BSI
9. ^ Design Guide 11: Floor Vibrations Due To Human Activity, AISC/CISC Steel Design Guide Series 11,
American Institute of Steel Construction, 1997.
10. ^ 10.010.1Health Technical Memorandum 08-01, Acoustics. Department of Health, 2013

11. ^ Hicks, S.J., Brozzetti, J., Remy, B. and Lawson, R.M. Dimensionnement Des Planchers Mixtes Acier Beton
vis-à-vis des Vibrations Construction Metallique No.1, pp 3-31, 2003 (in French).
Further reading
Steel Designers' Manual 7th Edition. Editors B Davison & G W Owens. The Steel Construction Institute 2012,
Chapter 13, Structural vibration
Ellis, B.R. On the response of long-span floors to walking loads generated by individuals and crowds, The
Structural Engineer, 78(10), May 2000, pp 17-25.
Resources
SCI P354: Design of floors for vibration: A new approach (Revised Edition), 2009
Floor response calculator
Steel Construction: Floor Vibration, BCSA, 2016
See also
Cost of structural steelwork
Healthcare buildings
Composite construction
Long-span beams
Multi-storey office buildings
25 / 26
Residential and mixed-use buildings
CPD
Design of floors for vibration
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SteelConstruction.

Introduction to floor vibrations

Plymouth Derriford hospital – multi-storey, steel-framed construction

Human activity, e.g. walking, dancing, jumping, etc.

Single degree of freedom systems

Model of a SDOF system

Frequency and period

Mode shapes of a simply supported beam

Response to periodic impulses

Human induced vibration

Typical force time plot for walking

The human perception of vibration

Design criteria for vibrations

Directions for Vibration defined in ISO 2631, BS 6472-1[2] and BS 6841[3]

z-axis base curve (BS 6472BS 6472[2])

Design for rhythmic activity

According to these Standards:

Designing for dynamic loads

Dynamic magnification factor for accelerations

Finite element modelling

Finite element analysis

Simplified assessment of floors with steel beams

Assessment of floor vibrations from SCI P354

The design procedure comprises the following steps:

Typical mode shapes for steel-concrete floor systems

Calculation of natural frequency

Secondary beam mode

Floor response calculator

Dynamic testing of floors

Measurement of the modal properties of the floor

The excitation force creating the response is not measured

Modal testing without measuring the excitation force

There are three types of test in common use:

1. Ambient vibration survey (AVS),

Modal testing with measured excitation force

Typical instrumented hammer test

Two types of tests are commonly performed:

Typical shaker test

Regulations and design rules

BS 6472-1:2008[2] Guide to evaluation of human exposure to vibration in buildings.

Space Response factor for continuous vibration

Operating theatre, precision laboratory, audiometric 1

General laboratories, treatment areas 4

Offices, consulting rooms 8

Critical damping ratios for various floor types

Damping ratio (ξ) Floor finishes

0.5% For fully welded steel structures, e.g. staircases

1.1% For completely bare floors or floors where only a small

4.5% For a floor where the designer is confident that

Continuity and isolation of critical areas

Precast concrete units in composite design

Architectural design considerations

Location of aerobic areas

The Noel-Baker School, Alvaston, Derby

2. ^ 2.02.12.22.32.4 BS 6472-1:2008, Guide to evaluation of human exposure to vibration in buildings. Vibration

10. ^ 10.010.1Health Technical Memorandum 08-01, Acoustics. Department of Health, 2013

Residential and mixed-use buildings

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