A C O M P U T E R M O D E L FOR T H R E E - D I M E N S I O N A L

FLOW IN F U R N A C E S

S. V. PATANKAR AND D. B. SPALDING

Mechanical Engineering Department, Imperial Collegeof Science and Technology, London, England

The paper describes the development of a computer program for the prediction of the flow,
heat-transfer, and combustion processes in a three-dimensional furnace. The mathematical
model involves the solution of the differential equations for momentum, continuity, chemical-
species concentrations, stagnation enthalpy, radiation fluxes, turbulence quantities, and con-
centration of particles in various size ranges. The mathematical framework is outlined in some
detail, and the results of some recent computations are presented.
The conclusions are: that substantial progress has already been made toward the develop-
ment of a computer model for the transfer processes in a furnace; and that further work is
needed to validate the computer model and to refine the physical inputs.

1. Introduction 2. Solving the H y d r o d y n a m i c P r o b l e m

The authors are developing a computer pro- 2.1. Choice of Method

gram called Mammoth If. [-This stands for
Mathematical model of transfer of Heat I n
furnaces. The program development is being
sponsored by Combustion, Heat and Mass
Transfer Ltd.] When it is completed, the
program will be capable of predicting the flow,
heat-transfer, and combustion processes inside
industrial furnaces, whose geometry is fully three-
dimensional. The flow may be steady or unsteady,
laminar or turbulent, with or without effects of
buoyancy and particulate suspensions; and the
chemical reaction may be chemically or physically
controlled. Radiative heat transfer is taken
account of, as well as the convective and con-
ductive modes.
The first purpose of the present paper is to
explain the nature of the decisions which have to
be made during the construction of the model, and
the arguments which govern them. The second
purpose is to show what progress has been made
with the model, by exhibiting some recent
computations.
Before the mathematical model can be accepted
as adequate by design engineers, it must be
validated by careful comparison of its predictions
with experimental data. This phase of the work
will start in the near future.
605
The velocity field must be computed by solving
the equations of momentum and continuity.
Methods of doing so fall into two classes: direct
methods, in which pressure and the three velocity
components are the dependent variables; and
indirect methods from which pressure is elimi-
nated and attention is concentrated upon the
three components of the fluid vorticity. We have
chosen the direct approach because the equations
and boundary conditions which it generates are
simpler, and because knowledge of the pressure
is required, during the course of the computations,
whenever the fluid is compressible.
A further sub-division is that between explicit
and implicit formulations of the finite-difference
equations; the former contain only one unknown
for each algebraic equation, while the latter
contain several. Despite the necessity for matrix
inversion or iteration entailed by implicit
methods, we have chosen to use them; the reasons
are that, in unsteady-flow problems, they allow
the use of larger time-steps and therefore are
cheaper; and implicit methods allow one to make
a faster approach to the solution of steady-flow
problems. In this respect our method differs from
that of Zuber, ~ who has also chosen the pressure-
606 FLAMES IN FURNACES AND COMBUSTORS
~"~<'-'~'~ ~Section
Y ~ ~ s e c t i o n
7 ~ A-A
Geometry considered
~c_~_s
P
0 s/c
FIG. 1. Results of computations for a cavity flow in which a strip of solid
material is drawn at uniform velocity W, over the otherwise free surface of the
liquid in the cavity.
velocity formulation as the basis of his computer
program for furnaces.
The details of the present solution procedure
can be found in two publications.2'3 Briefly, it
employs a combination of line-by-line solution,
by way of the tri-diagonal-matrix algorithm, with
block relaxation, which quickly ensures that
residuals in the difference equations have only
small-wavelength variations about a zero mean.
The program contains a number of special tricks
to reduce storage, increase speed, and improve
the ease and flexibility of boundary-condition
input.
In addition to the usual inertia, pressure-
gradient, body-force, and shear-stress terms, dis-
tributed-resistance terms are included in the
momentum equations. This facility makes it
possible to solve problems of flow in packed
beds--for example, blast furnaces and catalyst
arrays.
2.2 Particular Examples
To illustrate the flexibility of the method,
Figs. 1 and 2 are provided. The first represents
the results of computations of the flow in a
shallow rectangular cavity, across tile free surface
of which moves a strip of solid having a width
which is less than that of the cavity. Such situa-
tions arise in the "float" process of glass-sheet
manufacture, in which the strip of glass is drawn
across the surface of a bath of molten metal, on
which it floats.
Figure l ( a ) shows the variation of non-
Section B-B
Section A-A
dimensional strip drag, as a function of the ratio
of strip width to cavity width; and Fig. l ( b )
illustrates, by velocity vectors, the flow patterns
on two horizontal and vertical planes for a partic-
ular geometry and Reynolds Number. The latter
diagram clearly exposes the three-dimensional
nature of the flow.
Figure 2 illustrates the flow in a packed bed,
into which fluid is blown through an inclined slot
in one wall. Figure 2(b) shows velocity vectors
in one vertical central section, and Fig. 2(c) those
in another. The recirculations set up by the inertia
of the entering fluid are clearly visible.
2.3 Discussion
Physical intuition confirms the plausibility of
the flow patterns displayed in Figs. 1 and 2. Many
such flow patterns have now been computed, with
uniform success. Where exact solutions of the
equations are available, as for several two-
dimensional laminar flows, good agreement has
been obtained. Since the computer times involved
are quite modest (30-40 seconds on a CDC 6600),
we can conclude that we now possess a practically
usable means of predicting three-dimensional
flow patterns.
The flow in Fig. 1 was supposedly laminar,
while that of Fig. 2 was dominated by the inertia
terms and by the distributed resistance. In
general, however, turbulent shear and normal
stresses are of high importance; they must there-
fore be included in the mathematical model.
Although the techniques for doing so are still
 COMPUTER MODEL FOR
O00@O
0 @ O0
Q 0 0 0 0
0(300
0 @ 00@
0 000
@ 0 0@0
0 0 O0
0 0 0 (~0
0 @ O0
FB
(~o~oo I S e c t i o n A-A
A
oo? ol (a)
0 0 (~BO O(itl
I_ B ~1
FIG. 2. Results of computations for the flow in a packed bed with inflow from
an inclined tuyere; (a) illustrates the geometry of the bed, and (b) and (c) the
velocity vectors on two vertical sections.
under development, the most successful ones
require the solution of differential equations for
two turbulence quantities--for example, the
energy and the length scale. However, these
differential equations are of the same type as
those which govern the velocity components;
therefore, they can be solved by substantially
the same procedure.
The subject of turbulence modelling is too large
to review here. An account of the main lines of
current work, with a description of its application
to flows of many different kinds, has recently been
published by Launder and Spalding.4 The
advanced turbulence models are only now being
incorporated into the Mammoth If program,
having been tested hitherto in two-dimensional
contexts; therefore, no results based on them can
be supplied with the present paper.
3. Flow with Chemical Reaction
3.1 The Method
The concentrations of reactive and unreactive
species in a furnace, and the distribution of stag-
nation enthalpy, are governed by partial dif-
ferential equations having the same general form
as those governing the distribution of momentum;
the terms of all these equations represent the
effects of: time-dependence and convection, which
give rise to first-order differentials; diffusion,
THREE-DIMENSIONAL FURNACE 607
t t t t t ttttt
I
t t t t ~ t tttt",
tttt~
1 1 ..~i t
ttz~
\2 z t'.zz'/
S e c t i o n B-B
(b) (c)
including turbulent diffusion, which gives rise to
second-order differentials; and source and simk
terms, usually algebraic expressions involving
more than one dependent variable each.
The Mammoth If program solves these equa-
tions by the same algorithm as is used for the
velocity distribution. The only points that require
specific mention here are therefore those con-
cerning the nature of the source and sink terms.
Because of the complexity of the chemical
kinetics of the combustion of even the simplest of
fuels, the chemical-kinetic source terms are
numerous and complex. Consequently, the pre-
liminary work on the Mammoth If program has
been based on the suppositions: that the fuel gas
and air react chemically in a unique proportion;
that the reaction gives rise to a single unique
product; t h a t the effective diffusivities of all
chemical species are equal; and that the rate of
chemical reaction is so great that it is impossible
for both fuel and oxygen to co-exist at any point
in the flame. These presumptions, which are con-
venient rather than essential, are the common
ones for diffusion-flame theory, and are known to
fit industrial-soMe flames quite well; their main
deficiency is that they neglect the effect of
turbulence in delaying chemical reaction. A
theory for this exists, s however, and its implica-
tions will be incorporated into Mammoth If at a
later date.
Because of the assumptions just indicated, there
is no need to solve the source-containing differ-
608 FLAMES IN FURNACES AND COMBUSTORS

- I * ~~ " \ _~' \
Air r ~ ~
"\ ~ " \.,,~....
ln

Fuel ~ i , . - T ~ ' ~-' - 2"!"-" T-- "- Products

A B C D

Velocit y vectors in the x-y plane

~ ~ b f b
tl

g
$,

" "ll"
Regions of unburnt fuel
OX OX OX O

fu
O,u @
fu

fu

Temperature T/Tin

-~(/ (r ~
FIO. 3. Predictions for an adiabatic furnace.
 COMPUTER MODEL FOR THREE-DIMENSIONAL FURNACE
ential equations for the mass fractions of fuel and
oxygen, m~u and mox. I t suffices instead to solve a
single equation, without sources, for the variable
(mf,~- mo,~/i), where i is the mass ratio of
oxygen to fuel in a stoiehiometric reaction.
3.2 Example
Figure 3 shows the results of a computation
along these lines, conducted for a flow with dimen-
sions and conditions which are reminiscent of
those of the experimental furnace of the In-
ternational Flame Research Foundation at
Ijmuiden. 6 Methane is supposed to be injected
through a nozzle placed at the center of the left-
end wall of the square-sectioned furnace; the air
supply is supposed to be uniform over the
remainder of the end wall. The side walls are
taken to be adiabatic, and of course impervious
to matter; the flow is steady.
Because no advanced turbulence model was
incorporated in the program, the effective
viscosities t~off were computed from the formula:
.e~ = Kp~M~2f(x/d, y/d), (1)
where p is the local gas density, M the rate of
flow of momentum into the furnace, x, y are,
respectively, the horizontal and vertical distances
from the axis of the furnace, d is the width of the
furnace, f(x/d, y/d) is a function which falls from
the value unity near the axis (x = y = 0) to zero
at the walls of the furnace, and simulates the
way in which t~eff does in fact fall off in real con-
fined flows, and K is a constant calculated from
the theory of turbulent iets so as to ensure the
correct value of pelf in the jet of the fuel gas.
I t is not easy to display the numerous results
of a three-dimensional computation on a fiat
piece of paper. The device adopted in Fig. 3 for
doing this is to provide for a series of sections
across the furnace and for several of the variables,
contour plots showing the distribution of the
variable over the sections. Imaginative inter-
polation between these contour plots then
permits the building of a complete picture of the
flow. Vector diagrams, which are also shown in
Fig. 3 for the velocities in the planes of the
sections, also contribute to this picture.
Inspection of Fig. 3 reveals the following
features, all of which are physically realistic:
(a) The forward-moving jet, which results
from the fuel injection, soon entrains all the
combustion air which is supplied through the
left-end wall. Consequently, a recireulation of
combustion products is caused, from which the
further entrainment by the jet is supplied.
609
(b) Because of the symmetrical entry of the
fuel and air, and the absence of swirl, there is no
circulation of gas in the sectional plane.
(c) The flame, by which here is meant the
envelope within which unburned fueI gas is to be
found, widens at first with distance from the
injection nozzle, and thereafter diminishes to
zero.
(d) The maximum of temperature is found at
the flame envelope.
(e) The nonuniformities of temperature di-
minish as the furnace exit is approached.
3.3 Discussion
Since six distinct differential equations have
been solved simultaneously, and the grid con-
tains 1000 points, it might be thought that the
program is expensive to operate. However, the
computer time needed for obtaining a converged
solution was only about 100 seconds on a CDC
6600.
Of course, one eannnot presume that the com-
putations made on a 1000-point grid represent
accurate solutions of the differential equations.
Accuracy can indeed be established in such
circumstances only by increasing the number of
points until the predictions of physically sig-
nificant quantities, such as the length of the
flame, are unaffected by further grid refinement.
This increase in the number of grid points will be
accompanied as a rule by a slightly-more-than-
proportionate increase in the computer time.
Mathematical models are preferable to phys-
ical ones, or to experiments conducted on full-
scale equipment, only if the information which
they provide is both accurate and cheap. Since
the measure needed to increase the accuracy also
increases the expense, as we have just seen, the
developer of a model must take great care to
ensure its economic competitiveness. Since the
expense of building and testing a furnace is
enormous, and since physical models which
simulate real-furnace processes accurately are
almost impossible to construct, computer pro-
grams for furnace design start with a big ad-
vantage; nevertheless, it remains to be established
that the expense of prediction can be reduced to a
level which will allow furnace designers to use the
program freely.
4. Radiative H e a t Transfer
4.1 The Choice of Method
When the mean free path of radiation is very
large, and the wall temperature of the furnace is
uniform, it is possible to express the influence of
610 FLAMES IN FURNACES AND COMBUSTORS

A B C D

u n iform
7.5 + IxlC] 5 7.6 +_ Ixll3 6 = 7.6* Ixl{] 6 : ?.6_+lxlO -6

FIO. 4. Contours of temperature [T/TOnlet)] for the conditions of Fig. 3, except

that the conduction approximation for radiative transfer is used.

radiative heat transfer by way of sinks, propor-
tional to the fourth power of the local temper-
atures, distributed throughout the furnace. The
calculation of these sinks rests on the assumption
that there is a negligible amount of absorption,
within the gas, of radiation emanating from the
gas. Their effect on the temperature distribution
through the gas is then deduced by straightfor-
ward solution of the regular differential equations
for the stagnation enthalpy.
An equally simple means of accounting for
radiation can be employed when the mean free
path of radiation is small compared with the fur-
nace dimensions. This is the "conduction approxi-
mation", 7 according to which the effect of radia-
tion is the same as that of an additional thermal
conductivity, proportional to the third power of
the local absolute temperature. This is easy to
incorporate into the finite-difference equations
which govern the enthalpy distribution.
Unfortunately, in most practical furnaces the
mean free path of radiation has a value which
varies with position within the furnace, but which
is neither large nor small enough for either of the
above means of calculation to be valid. In such
cases, the radiation must be calculated by one or
the other of two methods which are appreciably
more complex in concept and realization. These
are the "zone method" of Hottel and Sarofim, s
and the "six-flux method" which is a generaliza-
tion of that employed in astrophysical work by
Schuster, and rendered more readily applicable
to heat transfer by Hamaker. 1
Although the zone method has more advocates
than the six-flux method at the present time, it is
the latter that is being incorporated into the
Mammoth If program. The objections to the zone
method are that: because each gas wall zone is
connected with each other zone, the finite-
difference equations for temperature adjustment
are extremely lengthy; because the coefficients in
these equations contain exponentials of integrals
involving the variation of absorptivity and
scattering coefficient along the connecting path,
these coefficients are time-consuming to compute;
and because the radiative-exchange process has to
be computed simultaneously with that of
momentum and mass transfer, these coeffi-
cients must be recalculated at each stage in the
iterative or time-dependent computation, since

A B C D

FIG. 5. Contours of temperature [T/T(wall)] for the conditions of Fig. 4, except

that the wall temperatures are held at 20C.
 COMPUTER MODEL FOR THREE-DIMENSIONAL FURNACE
A B
FIG. 6. Contours of temperature [TIT(wall)] for the conditions of Fig. 4, except
that the two side walls are held at 20C.
absorptive and scattering properties of the
medium suffer change at each stage.
In the six-flux method, attention is focussed on
the quantities I -~- J, K -~- L, M + N, where I
and J are, respectively, the forward and back-
ward radiation fluxes in the x-direction, and K
and L, and M and N, are the corresponding fluxes
in the y and z directions, respectively. The
second-order differential equations governing
these quantities are derived from the addition
and subtraction of first-order terms describing
the variation with distance of the individual
fluxes. Thus
dI/dx = a E - - (a + s ) I + ( # 6 )
X (I--F-J-~-K-F-L-~-M+N),
where E stands for the blackbody emissive power,
a for absorptivity per unit length, and s for
scattering per unit length,
dJ/dx = -- aE + (a + s ) J -- @/6)
X (I+J+K+L+M+N),
whence
d ( I ~ - J ) / d x = -- (a~- s) ( I - - J ) ,
( d/dx) { ( a -~- s)-~[d( I Jr- J) / dx-]}
= -- ( d / d x ) ( I -- J)
= -- 2aE Jr- (a + s) (I -~- J) -- (s/3)
X {(I+g)+ (K+L) + (M+N)}.
The finite-difference equivalents of these equa-
tions are easy to derive; and, moreover, they
possess forms which are simple versions of those
611
C D
lllll
for which the Mammoth If algorithm has been
constructed. I t is therefore a simple matter to
incorporate the equations for ( I + J ) , (K ~- L),
( M ~ - N) into the program, and to solve them
simultaneously with the other equations. Of
course, the absorption and emission of radiation
appropriate to these flux-sum distributions appear
in the equation for stagnation enthalpy as source
and sink terms. I t is easily possible to give
separate treatment to the fluxes in various wave-
length intervals.
4.2 Example
The incorporation of the flux model into the
Mammoth If program is still in progress at the
(2) time of finalization of the text of this paper. Its
results will be presented orally at the Symposium.
As a stop-gap, there will now be presented some
computations for the same flow as was represented
in Fig. 3, but based on the conductive approxima-
tion with an absorption coefficient of 1 m -1.
Figure 4 shows the temperature distributions at
the various sections when the additional con-
(3) ductivity is incorporated, but the wall is still
adiabatic. Figure 5 shows further temperature
distributions, with the same input values of fuel
and air properties when the wall temperature is
(4) held to 20C; and Fig. 6 shows the temperature
distributions which result when two of the walls
are adiabatic and the other two are at 20C.
Figure 7 shows distributions along the duet of
maximum velocity and maximum temperature
for the four different cases.
4.3 Discussion
(5)
Comparison of Figs. 4 and 3 shows that the
action of radiation is to make the temperatures
within the furnace and at its walls significantly
more uniform. Figures 5 and 6 show the effects of
612 FLAMES IN FURNACES AND COMBUSTORS
~2 1
70
8 2000
Wmax6
(m/s)
0 I I I I I
0 2 4 6
Z (m)
FIG. 7. Distributions along the furnace of the maximum z-direction velocity and
the maximum gas temperature for the computations of Figs. 3, 4, 5, and 6.
the various thermal boundary conditions; and
Fig. 7 serves as a reminder that the calculation
of radiative heat transfer cannot be separated
from the calculation of the flow field, because the
distribution of sources and sinks of heat has a
significant effect upon the distributions of
velocity.
Of course, an absorption coefficient of 1 m - t is
not sufficiently large to justify the use of the con-
duction approximation for a furnace of 2-m
width; so the results will not be quantitatively
correct. However, their qualitative trends are
correct; and the computations which have been
reported will serve as useful points for comparison
with the results of the six-flux model.
Further, it should not be lost sight of that the
six-flux model is itself an approximation. In
reality, radiation is distributed through all 47r
radians of solid angle, and is not neatly tied in the
six kinds of bundles which our model takes into
account. To establish the accuracy which the six-
flux model can provide, it will be necessary, at
least in a few simple situations, to make compari-
sons with exact solutions of the integro-differ-
ential equations. If the accuracy proves not to be
adequate, possibly some less drastic discretization
of the "angle space" can be employed.
5. Other Effects
In a paper short enough for inclusion in the
proceedings of this Symposium, it is not possible
to describe in detail the further physical processes
which are being incorporated into the Mammoth
If program. The following few remarks will have
2800 i
/
/ 4/
fig.3
Tmax
(K)
1200
4OO I I I I I
0 2 4
z (m)
to suffice; some will be illustrated by slides during
the oral presentation.
Buoyancy
Many industrial furnaces are large enough for
the interactions of the gravitational force field
with the variations of gas density to have some
influence on the distributions of velocity. Thus,
in a furnace as large as that of Fig. 3, the flame
would certainly rise from its position along the
horizontal axis and cause the heat flux to the top
wall to differ from that to the bottom.
Mammoth If can take account of this process
by the simple inclusion of the additional body-
force terms in the momentum equation for the
vertical direction. These terms bring an additional
linkage between the various differential equa-
tions; and this linkage can, on occasion, induce
numerical instability. A special form of under-
relaxation has been devised to combat this.
Swirl
In many furnaces, at least a part of the com-
bustion air is injected in such a way as to impart
to the gases a swirling motion. Once again, it is
easy to introduce such effects into the Mammoth
If program; for they are expressible simply by way
of the boundary (i.e., entry) conditions of the
velocity equations.
There are some sources of doubt, however.
There is evidence 1I which suggests that existing
turbulence models are not yet able to predict
correctly the processes of nonisotropic momentum
transport in turbulent swirling flows. This is an
 COMPUTER MODEL
important research area for fluid dynamicists
interested in combustion.
The Presence of Particles
Most industrial furnaces embody two-phase
flow effects in some degree. Even if the fuel is
gaseous, particles of soot are often formed; and
knowledge of their size distribution is needed both
to assist in the computation of radiative heat
transfer and to allow prediction of what propor-
tion of the incoming carbon will pass unburned
into the flue gases.
In some furnaces, the rate of vaporization of
the injected liquid-fuel droplets is slow enough to
exert some influence on the length of the flame;
and, of course, in pulverized-coal-burning fur-
naces, the rate of diminution of particle size by
oxidation of the surface layers of the particles
dominates the processes within the combustion
space.
The distribution of particle size will be cal-
culated in Mammoth If by way of equations
having as dependent variables the mass of
particulate matter in fixed particle-size intervals,
per unit mass of local mixture. Thus, if fl is the
mass fraction for the ith size interval, the
differential equation for fi wilt be of the form
[O(pf)/Ot~-[- div ( f i g - F/, gradf~) = S),, (6)
wherein the first term expresses the time de-
pendence, the div term expresses the influences of
convection (G ~- mass-velocity vector) and dif-
fusion (Fi-~ relevant exchange coefficient), and
S/~ stands for the source.
All the knowledge of the physics of particle-
size change is concentrated into Ss,, which may
be replaced by
s~, = - p v i ( o f i / O s ) ,
where V~ stands for the rate of increase of particle
size s with time; i.e., it is a velocity in particle-
size space. Since it is easy to derive finite-
difference analogs of (7), and since the terms on
the left of (6) are of the kind possessed by all the
other equations which Mammoth If solves, there
is no difficulty about handling particle-size effects
within the general framework of the program.
It should be mentioned that there is still need
for answers to questions such as: How is rate of
dissipation of turbulence energy influenced by the
presence of particles? Under what conditions
must allowance be made for the "slip" between
the particles and the gas? What are the laws of
nucleation and flocculation of carbon particles,
FOR THREE-DIMENSIONAL FURNACE 613
and of break-up and coalescence of liquid drop-
lets? The answers to these questions must be
provided by detailed research. Computer pro-
grams of llae Mammoth of type merely use the
answer; they cannot provide them.
6. C o n c l u s i o n s
The foregoing discussion shows that sub-
stantial progress has already been made towards
the development of a mathematical model for the
transfer of heat in furnaces. It is now just a matter
of programming craftsmanship to put together
the various program elements (e.g., turbulence
models, particle-size equations, the six-flux radia-
tion model) and so to complete the required
computer program.
However, there will still be a need for much
further research, of two main kinds. The first
concerns the validation of the mathematical
model, by comparison of predictions with experi-
mental data for furnaces. The second concerns
the elementary processes of radiation absorption,
particle-size growth, turbulence-energy dissipa-
tion, etc., which the more complex of the furnace
calculations will require as an input.
Applied science rarely proceeds in an orderly
way. Sometimes engineering practice has per-
force to venture where science lacks confidence
to tread; and sometimes a surge of scientific
knowledge precipitates advances for which in-
dustry is not ready. The application of mathe-
matical models to furnace design exhibits this
typical disorderliness, which it is useless to
deplore. The task is to develop and refine, to
apply and research, all at the same time, and the
motive for performing this task can be equally
provided by its economic significance and its
intellectual challenge.
(7)
Acknowledgment
The authors are grateful to Mr. D. Sharma for
his assistance in the preparation of the figures.
REFERENCES
1. ZUBER, I.: Ein mathematisches Modell des
Brennraums, Monographs and Memoranda No.
12, Staatliche Forsehungs Institut ftir Maschin-
enbau, Bechovice, Czechoslovakia, 1972.
2. PATANKAR, S. V. AND SPALDING, D. B.: Intern.
J. Heat Mass Transfer 15, 1787 1972.
3. PATANKAR, S. V. AND SPALDING, D. B. : Numeri-
cal prediction of some three-dimensional fluid
flows. To appear.
614 FLAMES IN FURNACES AND COMBUSTORS
4. LAUNDER B. E. AND SPALDING D. B. : Turbulence
models and their application to the prediction
of internal flows, University of Salford Sym-
posium on Internal Flows, Paper 1, 1971.
5. SPALDING,D. B.: Thirteenth Symposium (Inter-
national) on Combustion, p. 649, The Combus-
tion Institute, 1971.
6. FRICKER, N., VAN I~EYDEN, L., AND MICHEL-
FELDER, S. : Investigations into the combustion
of natural gas in multiple burner systems,
International Flame Research Foundation, Doc.
No. F 35/9/5, 1971.
COMMENTS
David T. Pratt, Washington State University,
Pullman, Wash. I understand the origins of the
differential equation for the turbulent kinetic
energy, or for the turbulent vorticity, b y taking
higher moments of the Reynolds equations; but
I do not understand the physical meaning or
origin of the differential equation for the turbu-
lence length scale.
Authors' Reply. Strictly speaking, our second
differential equation is for the vorticity fluctua-
tion squared, for the energy-dissipation rate, or
for some other correlation. The length scale is
then deduced from the values of the energy and
this quantity.
Charles J. Schorr, Bell Aerospace, Buffalo,
N.Y. What is the source of the empirical co-
efficients and exponents used in the eddy-
viscosity mixing models?
Authors' Reply. The eddy-viscosity model for
the calculations presented in the paper was
7. ROSSELAND,S.: Astrophysik und Atom-Theo-
retisches Grundlage, p. 41, Springer-Verlag,
Berlin, 1931.
8. HOTTEL, I~. C. AND SAROFIM, A. F.: Radiative
Transfer, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1967.
9. SCHUSTER,A.: Astrophys. J. 21, 1 (1905).
10. HAMAKER, H. C.: Radiation and heat conduc-
tion in light-scattering material, Philips Res.
Rept. 2, 55 (1947).
11. ROBERTS, L. W.: Turbulent Swirling Flows
with Recirculation, Ph.D. thesis, University of
London, 1972.
constructed so as to fit the experimental facts of
confined-jet spread in their main features.
More complete accounts of turbulence models
used by the hnperial College group can be found
in a book by B. E. Launder and D. B. Spalding,
"Mathematical Models of Turbulence," Aca-
demic Press, London, 1972, and in the contribu-
tion of Launder, Morse, Rodi, and Spalding to
the N A S A - - L a n g l e y Conference on Free Turbu-
lent Flows, July, 1972.
R. S. Levine, N A S A--Langley Research
Center, Hampton, Va. When you mentioned
including "unmixedness," did you mean you
could consider, for instance, first a fuel-rich
eddy, then an oxidizer-rich eddy in a zone
whose average condition is fuel-rich?
Authors' Reply. Yes, we solve a special dif-
ferential equation for the root-mean-square
concentration fluctuation. The unmixedness is
deduced from the local value of this quantity,
which is computed for every point in the field.