HSC Physics Module 9.

7 Summary
1. Our understanding of celestial objects depends upon
observations made from Earth or from space near the Earth

Discuss Galileos use of the telescope to identify features of the

Moon

Galileo did not invent the telescope, but was able to build a telescope that
produced a clear enough image to observe the features of the moon. He used
higher quality glass than used before, and produced his own lenses in order to
build an improved telescope that had a magnification greater than 3x.

His interest in celestial bodies caused him to point the telescope at the moon,
and be the first person to record observations made of the moon from the
telescope. He observed and recorded that the moons surface was uneven,
rough, and full of cavities and prominences. Galileo was able to calculate the
height of mountains on the moon from the measurement of their shadows. This
challenged the view held by the Catholic Church, who believed that all celestial
bodies were perfect.

Discuss why some wavebands can be more easily detected from

space

Nearly all wavebands of the electromagnetic spectrum are present in space, and
most are directed towards Earth. Not all wavebands reach Earths surface
however, as most wavebands are filtered out by the atmosphere. The only
wavebands that predominantly reach Earths surfaces are visible light,
microwaves and radio waves.

EMR Waveband Wavelength (m) Absorption by

atmosphere
Gamma rays <10-10 Absorbed
X-rays 10-11 to 10-7 Absorbed
UV light 10-8 to 4x 10-7 Mostly absorbed
Visible light 4x10-7 to 7x10-7 Not absorbed
Infra-red 7x10-7 to 1x10-2 Mostly absorbed
Radio waves 1x10-3 to 1x106 UHF, VHF, HF,
MF and LF
frequencies not
absorbed. Rest
absorbed.
As a result of the absorption by the atmosphere of electromagnetic wavebands,
ground-based telescopes can only detect visible light, microwaves and radio
waves coming from space. Observations of other wavebands need to be
conducted from space, such as from the Hubble Space Telescope.

*Additional to atmospheric absorption of infra-red radiation, ground-based

infrared telescopes are limited by the radiation given off as heat by Earth-based
sources.

Define the terms resolution and sensitivity of telescopes

The theoretical resolution of a telescope is its ability to detect distinct objects in

space. A telescope with poor resolution would not be able to distinguish two
close celestial bodies such as binary stars as distinct bodies. The equation for
calculating resolution is the following.

where

R = resolution [arcsec]
= wavelength of EMR [m]
D = diameter of telescope [m]

Whilst this equation is not required in the syllabus, it is useful for demonstrating
the effect of wavelength and diameter on the resolution of a telescope. A smaller
value of R corresponds to an increased resolution, as arcsecs is a measure of
angles. Therefore an increased wavelength decreases the resolution of a
telescope, whilst an increased diameter telescope, or larger collecting area,
would increase the resolution of a telescope. Therefore, a radio telescope such as
the Parkes telescope would have a poor resolution, as it measures radio waves,
which have a large wavelength.
The image to the left has a poorer resolution than the one on the right, as the
stars are less distinct.

The sensitivity of a telescope is a measure of its ability to detect E.M.R. radiation

from space. A telescope with a high sensitivity is able to detect faint objects,
whilst a telescope with poor sensitivity detects radiation from a smaller range.
The sensitivity of a telescope can be improved by having a larger radius. The
Parkes telescope, due to its large radius, has a high sensitivity, despite having a
poor resolution.

The image of the right has been taken from a telescope with a higher sensitivity,
and thus has been able to detect more light coming from space.

Discuss the problems associated with ground-based astronomy in

terms of resolution and absorption of radiation and atmospheric
distortion

Ground-based astronomy has several problems due to the presence of Earths

atmosphere. The absorption of most E.M.R. wavebands limits the use of ground-
based telescope systems to visible light, microwave and radio wave detection.
This limits the ability of ground-based systems to detect features of the universe,
as much of the radiation emitted from celestial bodies is of the other wavebands.

Ground-based systems are also limited by the distortion of wavebands that

arent absorbed by the atmosphere. The distortion of EMR wavebands is also
known as seeing, and is due to tiny, rapidly changing temperature variations in
Earths atmosphere, which change the path of EMR radiation, particularly visible
light. This causes the resolution of wavebands to decrease, as the radiation is
blurred by the atmosphere. For example, the theoretical resolution of the Anglo-
Australian telescope is 0.027 arcsec, but is restricted to a resolution of 1 arcsec
due to the distortion of light in the atmosphere. This is about the same resolution
as a small 100mm telescope, which demonstrates the problem of atmospheric
distortion of radiation. Longer wavebands such as radio waves are less affected
by atmospheric distortion, though radio waves can be absorbed by water
droplets in the atmosphere.

Outline methods by which the resolution and/or sensitivity of

ground-based systems can be improved, including:

adaptive optics
interferometry
active optics

There are a number of methods and technologies that have been developed in
order to combat the problem of atmospheric distortion for ground-based
systems. These include interferometry, active optics, and adaptive optics.

Interferometry

Interferometry is a method of improving the resolution of ground-based radio

telescopes. Interferometry involves laying out many radio dishes in a large
pattern, and then combining their signals together through computerised
systems. A sample layout is shown below.

The combined signal behaves as a single signal, but as it has been collected over
a large radius, the resolution of the signal is improved through effectively
increasing the diameter of the telescope. Radio waves are not affected by
atmospheric distortion as much as visible light, so ground-based systems using
interferometry are able to achieve a significantly high resolution.

Another example of interferometry in telescopes is the Space Interferometry

Mission (SIM), launched by NASA. A satellite was launched into space, and is
connected by satellite communication to a ground-based radio telescope. The
large distance between the ground and space telescope give a long baseline for
the interferometry system, thereby significantly enhancing the resolution of
images obtained.

Interferometry techniques have also been used in optical telescopes. A technique

called speckle interferometry uses many images from a telescope. Each image
is captured using a short enough exposure to effectively freeze atmospheric blur.
The multiple images are then processed by a computer to produce images of
celestial bodies with an increased resolution.

Active optics

Active optics is a recent development to improve the resolution of ground-based

optical telescopes. Active optics systems detect errors in the image due to the
deformities in the mirror, and then automatically correct the image. Deformities
in the mirror can be caused by the mirror sagging under its own weight due to
movement, and by temperature changes. The light is sampled by a wavefront
sensor after the light has been reflected off the primary mirror, and before it
passes through the final lens. The wavefront detector slowly samples the light,
and is able to detect any distortions in the light due to deformities in the mirror.
This information is then fed into a computer, which is able to rectify deformities
in the mirror. It does so through an array of actuators behind the mirror that are
able to change the shape of the primary mirror. The shape of the primary mirror
is changed every few minutes, and this keeps it in optimum shape.

Before the use of active optics, mirrors were made to be several metres thick in
order to reduce deformities. This meant that optical telescopes were limited to a
diameter of around 6m, and the mirrors were still subject to deformities. With
active optics, lightweight primary mirrors of up to 10m in diameter and 20cm
thick have been used, such as in the Keck telescopes in Hawaii.

Adaptive optics

Adaptive optics relies on a similar feedback system to active optics in order to

improve the resolution of images. The difference with adaptive optics is that they
rectify errors due to atmospheric distortion, and rely on a much faster feedback
system. A wavefront sensor samples the incident light up to 1000 times per
second by analysing the light coming from a nearby target star, or from a laser
beam, which a tilting mirror keeps in the image. These corrections are processed
by a computer, which alters a rapidly adaptive mirror to rectify the blurring of
light due to atmospheric distortion. The diagram below shows a simplified
schematic diagram of an adaptive optics system.
The rapid calculations require considerable computing power, and the
technology to make the rapidly adaptable mirror is expensive. Nevertheless, it is
able to overcome the decrease in resolution by atmospheric distortion of
electromagnetic radiation, as can be seen in the diagrams below.

Identify data sources, plan, choose equipment or resources for,

and perform an investigation to demonstrate why it is desirable
for telescopes to have a large diameter objective lens or mirror in
terms of both sensitivity and resolution

REFER TO PRAC 9.7.1 f)

METHOD
Circles of variable diameter were constructed out of paper. M&Ms, which
represented photons, were laid flat inside each circle, and the maximum
number of M&Ms without overlapping was recorded. Number of photons
was plotted against diameter squared, which yielded a linear relationship.
Another method is to reflect light off mirrors of varying diameters into light
meters, and recording the intensity of light. Take a recording of ambient
light as a control to increase the investigations validity => DO NOT LOOK
DIRECTLY AT SUNLIGHT
RESULTS/CONCLUSION
As aforementioned, number of photons was plotted against diameter
squared, yielding a linear relationship => sensitivity of light is proportional
to diameter SQUARED
RELIABILITY
The method was repeated several times, and an average taken
Results were compared to other groups, who measured similar results
The data points were close to the line of best fit => PRECISION
VALIDITY/ACCURACY
The experiment and results reflected the aim
Only one variable was changed (diameter of circle), all the others were
controlled
The final result was checked against reliable textbooks, online websites,
and scientific journals, which gave the same result.
The method was a model, and so was LIMITED due to discrepancies
between model and reality (photons are massless, does not show wave
properties of light etc.)
 2. Careful measurement of a celestial objects position in the
sky (astrometry) may be used to determine its distance

Define the terms parallax, parsec, light-year

Parallax is the apparent change in position of an object relative to a distant

background due to a change in the position of the observer. In relation to
celestial bodies, parallax occurs as the Earth orbits the Sun. The changing
position of Earth causes celestial bodies to appear to be changing position, as
our perspective of celestial bodies relative to their background is changing.
Parallax can be demonstrated by holding your finger out in front of your eyes,
and covering one eye, then the other. Your finger appears to move relative to the
background as your perspective changes, yet your finger has remained still.

A parsec is a measure of distance, commonly used when calculating celestial

distances. More specifically, one parsec is equal to the distance from the Earth to
a point that has an annual parallax of one arcsecond.

One parsec is equal to 3.26 light-years. Annual parallax will be discussed below.
The parsec is used commonly in astrometry, which is the branch of astronomy
concerned with the position of celestial bodies.

A light-year is the distance that light travels in one Earth year. It is approximately
equal to 9.5x1015m.
Solve problems and analyse information to calculate the distance
to a star given its trigonometric parallax using:

Angles of deviation used in trigonometric parallax calculations are normally

calculated at 6 month intervals, where the diameter of the Earths elliptical orbit
around the Sun is a maximum.

As can be seen in the above triangle the distance of the star from Earth can be
calculated using trigonometry.

The large distances from Earth to celestial bodies means the angle of deviation is
very small. Proxima Centauri has the smallest angle of deviation, which is
0.772arcsecs. At angles this small, the following approximation can be used.

Also, the radius of Earths orbit is 1 AU (astronomical unit). Therefore, the above
formula becomes

where

d=distance from Earth [parsecs, pc]

p=parallax [arcsecs, ]

Explain how trigonometric parallax can be used to determine the

distance to stars
Trigonometric parallax is a method of determining distances to celestial objects
by using parallax. If the change in position of the observer and the angle of
deviation due to parallax is known, the distance to the celestial body can be
calculated using trigonometry.

Through the tan ratio

Rearranging

Discuss the limitations of trigonometric parallax measurements

Trigonometric parallax measurements rely on accurate measurements of the

angle of deviation of celestial bodies. Angles of less than 0.01arcsec are
impossible to use, as they have an error of 10% due to limits in resolution, such
as due to atmospheric blurring. The refraction of light in the atmosphere changes
the angle measured, and thus reduces the accuracy of small angles measured. In
addition, parallax readings are limited by the precision of the measuring
equipment, as the angles measured in trigonometric parallax are very small. This
means that trigonometric parallax is only useful for calculating distances up to
around 100 parsecs, which is a small distance in astronomical terms.

Gather and process information to determine the relative limits

to trigonometric parallax distance determinations using recent
ground-based and space-based telescopes

Recall that trigonometric parallax determinations are limited due to

o Limits in resolution (e.g. atmospheric blurring), which increase the
error of reading
o The refraction of light in Earths atmosphere
Ground-based telescope => V.L.T. (Very Large Telescope)
o Built by the European Southern Organisation
o Minimum angle of parallax: 0.01-arcsec
o Allow for distances up to 100pc to be measured
o Only a few hundred stars are this close
 o Limited by atmospheric blurring (despite interferometry and
adaptive optics), and refraction of light in Earths atmosphere
Space-based telescope => Hipparcos (HIgh Precision PARallax
COllecting Satellite)
o Launched by the European Space Agency in 1989
o Minimum angle of parallax: 0.001-arcsec
o This allows for distances up to 1000pc to be measured =>
Hipparcos has measured the parallax of around 100 000 stars.
o Hipparcoss parallax measurements are limited by the precision of
the reading equipment
Future telescope => GAIA
o Due for launch in 2012 by the European Space Agency as a follow-
up to Hipparcos
o Minimum angle of parallax: 10 microarcseconds
o Allows for measured distances up to 100 000pc
o Parallaxes of >200 million stars can be measured
o Limited by the precision of the reading equipment
As can be seen, space-based telescopes are able to achieve a much more
precise measurement of parallax angles than ground-based telescopes, as
space telescopes are not limited by atmospheric effects.
Sources of information
o http://outreach.atnf.csiro.au/education/senior/astrophysics/parallaxli
mits.html
o ESO (European Space Organisation) and NASA website
 3. Spectroscopy is a vital tool for astronomers and provides a
wealth of information

Account for the production of emission and absorption spectra

and compare these with a continuous blackbody spectrum

Recall that electromagnetic radiation consists of a wide spectrum of

wavelengths
Three types of spectra are emission spectra, absorption spectra, and
continuous spectra
Emission spectra
o Produced by energy supplied to a low-density gas, (e.g. a low-
pressure sodium lamp)
o An atom absorbs the exact required energy, the an electron will
become excited and jump from its ground state to a higher energy
state (excited state)
o When the electron returns to its ground state, it emits photons of
discrete frequencies, given by

o If the electron had been excited to an even higher excited state,

then it can return to its ground state in one single jump, or by a set
of smaller jumps
o Each particular jump down between energy levels represents
different quantities of energy, and so a spectra of discrete
frequencies of photons are given off => this is the emission spectra
o The emission spectra consists of only discrete wavelengths, rather
than a continuous spectra (see below)
o Each element has a unique emission spectra, thus its emission
spectra is a fingerprint for the element

Absorption spectra
o Produced by a relatively cool, non-luminous gas in front of
continuous spectra source (e.g. the relatively cool gas overlying
the hotter, denser gas of a star)
o As mentioned above, for an electron to jump to an excited state,
it absorbs a discrete quantity of energy
o The gas absorbs the photons from the continuous source, but
only at the wavelengths matching the differences in energy
levels
 o The atoms then re-emit the light as the electrons jump back
down, but in all different directions => only a fraction of the re-
emitted radiation is in the direction of the incidence light
o The net effect is that the incident light is deficient in the
absorbed wavelengths
o The absorbed wavelengths appear as dark lines on an otherwise
continuous spectrum
o The dark lines on the absorption spectrum for an element
correspond to the bands on its emission spectrum

Continuous blackbody radiation

o Produced by a hot solid, liquid, or high-density gas (e.g. a

tungsten filament)
o Recall that a blackbody is a hypothetical object capable of
absorbing all the electromagnetic radiation falling on it
o A black body re-emits EMR in a continuous spectrum related to
its absolute temperature, described by a black body curve (or a
Planck curve)
o As the temperature of the body increases, the peak wavelength
becomes shorter, and the intensity of emitted radiation
increases

o Most high-density hot bodies approximate a black body

o A continuous black body spectrum appears simply as a
continuous spectrum
 Below is a diagram showing the three different types of spectra as applied
to a star

Analyse information to predict the surface temperature of a star

from its intensity/wavelength graph

Consider the intensity/wavelength graph for a black body below:

The peak wavelength emitted depends on the temperature of the black

body
Stars approximate black bodies, so if the peak wavelength emitted from a
star is known, then its temperature can be estimated off an
 intensity/wavelength graph (provided that the shapes at differing
temperatures are known)
Whilst not required by the syllabus, Wiens displacement law provides a
quantitative means of calculating a stars temperature if the peak
wavelength emitted is known:

Where:
o max = maximum wavelength emitted [m]
o T = Temperature of black body [K]
o W = Wiens constant = 2.898x10-3 mK
This equation may be given however, which would simply require reading
the peak wavelength of the graph, and rearranging the formula

Describe the technology needed to measure astronomical spectra

Astronomical spectra is measured with a spectroscope

A simple spectroscope consists of light source, slits, a prism, and a
photographic plate, and a spectrum can be observed by the following steps
1. Light from a telescope is passed through a slit to form a flat, vertical
beam
2. The beam passes through a glass prism, which disperses the light into
its spectrum
3. The dispersed light falls onto a photographic plate, which records the
spectrum

A simple spectroscope is useful for observing spectra, but there are new
technologies available for more sophisticated analysis
o Diffraction gratings can be used instead of a prisms to increase the
spectral resolution of images obtained
o Collimators are used instead of slits to narrow the light beam
o Improved lenses and mirrors have been developed (including
collimating mirrors)
o Photo electric detectors, such as CCDs (Charged coupled devices) are
used to detect light, as they convert 80%-90% of incident photons into
the recorded image. This is an improvement of photographic plates
which only convert 1% of photons.
 The S-Cam is a technology currently in development. The S-Cam
is a new CCD that can record the position and colour of
individual photons of light, and quickly compile the information
into a database by a computer.
o Sophisticated computer analysis have significantly aided in the analysis
of astronomical spectra

Identify the general types of spectra produced by stars, emission

nebulae, galaxies and quasars

Object Description Spectrum Example

Star A large, self- Continuous
luminous, spectrum
celestial body created by the
of plasma inner layers of a
star, which acts
as a black body.
Absorption
spectrum
created by the
atmosphere of a
star.
Emissio Regions of Emission
n low-pressure spectrum =>
nebula gas clouds dominated by
(mostly strong emission
hydrogen and lines
helium) that characteristic of
glow due to the gas
intense UV composition
light from
nearby stars
Galaxy Collection of Continuous
billions of spectrum from
stars, gas, the stars in a
and dust. galaxy
Spectrum ***May be
dominated by absorption or
mix of stars emission
depending on the
abundance of
nebulae in a
galaxy => young
galaxies tend to
show emission
spectra, whilst
older galaxies
tend to show
absorption
Quasar Very Emission
energetic and spectrum
distant superimposed on
galactic continuous
nuclei, which spectrum due to
dominate the fast moving gas
total energy clouds
output

Describe the key features of stellar spectra and describe how

these are used to classify stars

Stellar spectroscopy is the analysis of the spectra of stars in order to learn

more about their composition, surface temperature, and other features.
Stellar spectrum consists of absorption spectrum characteristic of the
atmospheric elements superimposed on an approximate black body
continuous spectrum for a given temperature
Most stars consist of a very similar set of elements and compounds, yet stars
can exhibit very different spectral lines
Different atoms and molecules produce spectral lines of very different
strengths at different temperatures
o For example, at lower temperatures molecules can exist near the
surface, whilst at higher temperatures atoms become ionised => these
two situations produce very different spectral lines
Stars have been classified into spectral classes based on their observed
spectrum.
o The main spectral classes are O B A F G K M in order of decreasing
surface temperature (Oh Be A Fine Girl/Guy Kiss Me)
 o There are also other spectral classes (see below) that have been
discovered in recent times
o Each spectral class is divided into 10 sub-classes, with 1-10, where 1 is
the hottest and 10 is the coolest (e.g. the Sun is a G2 star)

Spectral Temperatur Colour Strength of Other % of main

class e (k) hydrogen spectral sequence
lines features stars
W >50,000 Blue Weak He, C, N Extremely
emission rare
lines
O 31,000- Blue Weak Ionised He+ 0.00003
50,000 lines,
strong UV
continuum
B 10,000- Blue-white Medium Neutral 0.1
31,000 helium
lines
A 7500 White Strong Ionised 0.6
10000 metal lines
F 6000 White- Medium Weak 3
7500 yellow ionised Ca+
lines
G 5300 Yellow Weak Ionised Ca+ 8
6000 lines, metal
lines
K 3800 Orange Very weak Ca+ Fe, 12
5300 strong
molecules,
CH, CN
M 2100 Red Very weak Molecular 76
3800 bads e.g.
TiO, neutral
metals
L 1200 Red Negligible Neutral Brown
2100 metals, dwarf,
metal numbers
hydrides uncertain
T <1200 Red Negligible Methane Brown
bands dwarf,
numbers
uncertain

Below is a diagram showing the stellar spectra of different spectral

classes, which demonstrates the link between spectrum and spectral
classes.
 Recall that stars of the same surface temperature (or spectral class) can
have different luminosities
This suggests that one star has more
surface area than the other (i.e. one
star is larger than the other)
This has led to the development of
luminosity classes to also define a star

Luminosity Description
class
Ia Bright supergiant
Ib Supergiant
II Bright giant
III Giant
IV Subgiant
V Main sequence
dwarf
VI Subdwarf
VII Dwarf

For example, the Sun is a G2 V star

Describe how spectra can provide information on surface

temperature, rotational and translational velocity, density and
chemical composition of stars
TEMPERATURE

As mentioned above, the absorption spectrum produced by a star depends

on the surface temperature of the star
By assigning a star a spectral class based on its spectra, the
corresponding surface temperature can be inferred
Alternatively, the effective surface temperature can be calculated by
determining the peak intensity wavelength of radiation from a star, and
substitute it into Wiens law

ROTATIONAL VELOCITY

Recall that the Doppler effect causes the lengthening or shortening of

wavelengths due to rotational motion
As a star rotates, one side is moving away relative to Earth, and one side
is moving towards Earth.
The side moving away from Earth is red-shifted due to the Doppler effect,
and one side is blue-shifted
This causes the broadening of absorption spectral lines, which can then be
analysed to determine the rotational velocity of a star

TRANSLATIONAL VELOCITY
The Doppler effect can also be used to determine translational velocity
The detected absorption spectrum of a star can be compared to a
standard spectrum, such as a the hydrogen spectrum
If a star is moving away relative to Earth, its spectrum will be red-shifted
If a star is moving towards Earth, its spectrum will be blue-shifted
By measuring the distance the spectrum is shifted, the stars velocity
away from or towards Earth can be calculated
By combining this with the stars sideways velocity, the stars translational
velocity relative to the Sun can be calculated
 DENSITY
The lower the density a stars surface, the lower the gas pressure
At lower pressures, gases produce sharper absorption spectral lines
Thus high density and pressure within a stars atmosphere can also
broaden the absorption spectral lines
Supergiants have lower atmospheric density and pressure, whilst main
sequence stars have higher density, so knowing the density of a star gives
information on the luminosity class of a star
CHEMICAL COMPOSTITION
As discussed above, the molecules, atoms, and ions in a stars atmosphere
produce the absorption lines on a stars spectrum
Each molecule, atom, and ion has a unique absorption spectrum
Comparing the measured absorption lines of a star to those produced by
an element under laboratory conditions indicates the presence of
particular elements in a stars atmosphere
The relative intensity of the absorption lines indicates the abundance of
that element

Perform a first-hand investigation to examine a variety of spectra

produced by discharge tubes, reflected sunlight, or incandescent
filaments

METHOD
Sunlights spectrum was observed by going outside, pointing a
spectroscope away from the Sun, and recording the spectrum observed.
An incandescent lights filament was observed by pointing the
spectroscope at an incandescent light in a darkened room, and recording
the observed spectrum. The spectrum of hydrogen, neon, and sodium
lamps were observed by pointing the spectroscope at each lamp one at a
time in a darkened room, and recording the observed spectrum.
o To observe emission spectra, place various low pressure gases in
front incandescent light sources
RISKS
Do not point spectroscope directly at the Sun
Do not touch or knock discharge tubes, and place them in a sturdy
position with cushioning, as they are depressurised and can IMPLODE
Limit exposure to high frequency radiation (e.g. X-rays) produced by
discharge tubes by staying one metre back (inverse square law =>
intensity greatly reduced)
RESULTS/CONCLUSION
 RADIATION SOURCE OBSERVED SPECTRUM
Reflected sunlight Continuous spectrum
Incandescent Continuous spectrum
filament
Hydrogen lamp Distinctive violet, blue, green, and red bands
Neon lamp Many distinctive blue, green, yellow, orange, and
red bands
Sodium lamp Yellow doublet

Reflected sunlight and the incandescent filament both produced

continuous spectrum
The discharge tubes produced emission spectra
VALIDITY/ACCURACY
The results obtained corresponded to the expected results
The observations were compared to reliable sources, such as textbooks,
websites, and scientific journals, which corroborated the collected data
Natural sunlight was limited when observing the incandescent filaments
and discharge tubes spectra, thus controlling the variables
Qualitative data was collected => reliability of data not important (though
repeated observation and comparison to others helps!!!)
 4. Photometric measurements can be used for determining
distance and comparing objects

Define absolute and apparent magnitude

The apparent magnitude (m) of an object is a measure of how bright an object

appears when viewed from Earth. As it is a measure of brightness, it is
influenced by distance, and celestial matter that may alter the brightness of the
star. It is measured on a logarithmic scale, where a body of apparent magnitude
1 is 100 times brighter than that of an apparent magnitude of 6. Apparent
magnitude ranges from -27, that of the Sun, to around +30, the faintest object
detected by the Hubble telescope.

The absolute magnitude (M) of an object is the brightness a star would have if it
was observed from 10 parsecs away. Absolute magnitude is a measure of
luminosity. It is also a logarithmic scale: for each five magnitudes lower, a star is
100 times more luminous. This measurement allows astronomers to compare
features of stars more accurately, as absolute magnitude is not influenced by
distance.

Explain how the concept of magnitude can be used to determine

the distance to a celestial object

The two primary factors that influence the apparent magnitude of a celestial
body are luminosity and distance. As absolute magnitude is a measure of a
bodys luminosity, a relationship exists between apparent magnitude, absolute
magnitude, and distance.

Take for example the magnitudes of the stars Sirius and Betelgeuse. Sirius has an
apparent magnitude of -1.4, and Betelgeuse has one of +0.45. The absolute
magnitude of Sirius, however, is +1.4, whilst the absolute magnitude of
Betelgeuse is -5.1. As can be seen in this comparison, the apparent magnitude of
Sirius is lower than that of Betelgeuse due to the distances to each star (Sirius is
much closer to Earth than Betelgeuse), and thus a relationship exists.

This relationship is:

The expression m-M is also known as the distance modulus.

Rearranging

where

M = absolute magnitude [no units]

m = apparent magnitude [no units]

d = distance to Earth [parsecs, pc]

Solve problems and analyse information using:

and

to calculate the absolute or apparent magnitude of stars using

data and a reference star

As described above, the relationship between the absolute magnitude and the
apparent magnitude of a body can be calculated if the distance to Earth from the
star is known. The formula is the following:

where

M = absolute magnitude [no units]

m = apparent magnitude [no units]

d = distance to Earth [parsecs, pc]

NOTE: log = log10

The ratio of the brightness of two stars can also be calculated by considering
that magnitude is measured on a logarithmic scale. For every five magnitudes
lower, a body is 100 times brighter. This can be expressed mathematically as the
following:

Rearranging

where

IA/IB = the ratio of brightness of two body A and B

mA = the magnitude of body A

mB = the magnitude of body B

Outline spectroscopic parallax

Spectroscopic parallax is a method of determining the distance to a star

using the H-R diagram and the distance modulus formula
The steps involved in spectroscopic parallax are:
1. Measure the apparent magnitude (m) of a star using photometry
2. Determine the spectral class and luminosity class of a star using
spectroscopy
3. On the H-R diagram, draw a vertical line from the relevant spectral
class to the middle of the star group corresponding to the luminosity
class.
4. Draw a horizontal line from the obtained point to the vertical axis,
and read the absolute magnitude off the axis
5. Using the distance modulus formula, calculate the approximate
distance to the star

The distance measured by spectroscopic parallax has a large percentage

error, due to the estimates in determining the absolute magnitude
Spectroscopic parallax is useful however for calculating approximate
distances, as often there is no other method available to calculate a more
precise distance

Explain how two-colour values (eg colour index, B-V) are obtained
and why they are useful

The observation of a stars colour depends on the sensitivity of the

detection method to different wavelengths of light
 The human eye is most sensitive to the yellow-green (550nm) part of the
visual band
Photographic film is most sensitive to the blue (~440nm) part of the visual
band
The overall colour of a star as viewed by the naked eye is both a
combination of the stars spectrum and the spectral sensitivity of the eye
o For example, the peak intensity of blue giants lie in the UV/violet
part of the spectrum, yet appear blue-white to the human eye
The brightness or apparent magnitude of stars appears to change when
viewed through different colour filters, as shown below.

o A star field viewed through a red (left) and blue (right) filter
The apparent magnitude of a star as viewed by the naked eye is called the
visual magnitude
Star colours can be determined by using a standard set of coloured filters
in front of a photometer, and measuring the brightness of each
o The three standard coloured filters are ultraviolet, blue, and visual
(yellow-green) filters, or the UVB set

Filter Central wavelength (nm) The
Ultraviolet (U) 350
Blue (B) => photographic 440
Visual (V) 550
difference in brightness seen through different filters is a measure of the
colour of a star
o This is called the colour index of a star, and is defined by

o B = mB = apparent magnitude as viewed through a blue filter

o V = mV = visual magnitude
The higher the colour index the more red the star is
The lower the colour index, the more blue the star is
Colour index typically ranges from -0.6 (O spectral class) to +2.0 (M
spectral class)
AO stars have a colour index of zero
Two-colour values such as colour index are useful because:
o Colour index can determine the true colour of a star, independent of
the sensitive of the detection method to different colours
o Colour index can be used to determine the spectral class of a star,
which can then be used to determine its distance from Earth
 NOTE: Absolute magnitudes are also dependent on colour sensitivity, so
ensure that when using the distance modulus formula, both apparent and
absolute magnitude are of the same coloured filter

Describe the advantages of photoelectric technologies over

photographic methods for photometry

Photographic film records images using light-sensitive film emulsion

through the reaction of silver salts to light
Photoelectric technologies use the photoelectric effect to produce a
voltage
Photoelectric technologies include:
o Photomultiplier tube, which consists of a vacuum tube that
multiplies the original signal by millions of times
o Photodiode, which consists of a solid state device that acts as a
light detector
o Charged-coupled device (CCD), which consists of millions of
photovoltaic cells that record incident light, and convert it to a
digital signal to produce a digital image => also found in digital
cameras
Advantages of using photoelectric devices over photographic methods
include
o Sensitivity => a typical CCD records ~70% of incident photons,
whilst photographic film records 2%-3%
o Response to range of wavelengths => CCDs and other photoelectric
technologies can detect infrared radiation (e.g. in night-vision
cameras) and UV, whilst photographic film is restricted to the visible
light band.
o Image manipulation and enhancement => photoelectric devices
can record digital images, so computer technologies can enhance,
enlarge, add false colour, or subtract selected wavelengths to aid in
analysis
o Wider detection => CCDs can record many objects at once, whilst
photographs can only record a single image
o Faster processing => CCDs provide images much faster than
photographic film
o Increased astronomical sensitivity => CCDs can record images from
fainter objects
o Greater detection manipulation => CCDs can either record a broad
spectrum, or a narrow band of EMR for specific analysis

Identify data sources, gather, process and present information to

assess the impact of improvements in measurement technologies
on our understanding of celestial bodies

Many recent developments in astronomical measurement technologies

have had a significant impact on our understanding of celestial objects,
and allowed for new directions in astronomical thinking
 Such technologies include charged-coupled devices (CCDs), space
telescopes, and Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe.
CHARGED-COUPLED DEVICES (CCDs)
CCDs consist of a light-sensing array developed since the 1970s that
records incident photons by means of the photoelectric effect => the
same technology (but much simpler) is used in digital cameras
CCDs convert photons into electrical signals, which are then used to form
a pixilated image

CCDs are an improvement on previous photographic technologies

because
o They can measure a wider range of EMR wavelengths, allowing for a
more thorough analysis of stars
o They have increased the light-gathering power of telescopes by
almost two orders of magnitude
o The collected image is immediately computerized, allowing for
instant digital storage, enhancement, and analysis
CCDs have had a highly significant impact on our understanding of
celestial objects, as they have allowed for significantly more accurate
analysis of obtained celestial images
SPACE TELESCOPES
Space telescopes are telescopes launched into Earths orbit, taking images
outside of Earths atmosphere
Some space telescopes include HIPPARCOS (launched 1989 by ESA), the
Hubble telescope (launched 1990 by NASA), and GAIA (due to be launched
2013 by ESA)
Space telescopes are an improvement on previous measurement
technologies because
o Radiation detected by space telescopes is not subject to
atmospheric distortion, allowing for the most of the EMR spectrum
to be detected and analysed => this provides greater
understanding of stellar radiation
o Radiation detected is not subject to atmospheric distortion,
meaning images have a higher resolution without the need for
adaptive optics, astrometric measurements are more accurate =>
this is particularly useful with parallax measurements (astronomers
predict that GAIA could measure parallax of >200 million stars) and
resolving globular star clusters, which has enhanced our
understanding of stellar evolution
 o Images obtained are much less subject to background radiation,
allowing for greater sensitivity
Thus space telescopes have had a significant impact on our understanding
of celestial objects, as they have allowed for a greater range of the EMR
spectrum to be measured, and provided significantly more accurate data
of celestial bodies.
o e.g. The Hubble telescope allowed the Hubble constant to be
calculated within 10%, allowing for a greater understanding of the
universes expansion
WILKINSON MICROWAVE ANISOTROPY PROBE (WMAP)
WMAP is a NASA Explorer mission launched in 2001 to make fundamental
measurements on cosmology (the study of the universe as a whole)
WMAP was launched on a spacecraft to measure differences in
temperature of the Big Bangs remnant radiant heat
WMAP was a significant improvement in measurement technology, as it
provided the following data:
o Reported the first detection of pre-stellar helium
o Placed 50% tighter limits on the standard model of cosmology
o Measured, with very high significance, temperature shifts induced
by hot gas in galaxy clusters
o Improved visual measurements of the polarization patterns around
hot and cold spots
WMAP led to the production of the new Standard Model of Cosmology
Thus WMAP has had a highly significant impact on our understanding of
celestial objects through the collection of new and more accurate
measurements, and the development of new cosmological models.
More information can be found at: http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/

Perform an investigation to demonstrate the use of filters for

photometric measurements

METHOD
A light box was set up in a darkened room with a red cellophane filter
placed in front of the light source. A light meter was directed towards the
light source, and readings were taken with no additional filtering, a yellow
filter, then a blue filter placed in front of the light meter, and results were
recorded. The process was repeated for blue-filtered light. DO NOT LOOK
DIRECTLY AT THE LIGHT SOURCE
RESULTS

Light Filter Intensity (x2000 lux)

Red No filter 580
Yellow (Visual) 530
Blue (B) 33
Blue No filter 100
Yellow (V) 45
Blue (B) 60
 By considering magnitudes, B-V for the red star produces a positive result
(remember magnitudes decrease as brightness increases), which reflects
expected results
B-V for the blue star produces a slightly negative result, which was
expected.
As can be seen, a red star has a positive colour index, whilst a blue star
has a negative colour index
RELIABILITY
Multiple results were taken, and an average was obtained
The range of results for each data point was minimal, thus indicating
precise results
Our results were compared to other groups, all of which produced similar
results
VALIDITY
The method tested the aim by demonstrating the use of colour filters in
photometric measurements, specifically colour index
Other variable which werent tested were minimised, such as external light
The use of technology (i.e. the light meter) produced accurate results
The results matched the expected results, and corroborated with reliable
information sources such as textbooks, reputable websites, and scientific
journals.
 5. The study of binary and variable stars reveals vital
information about stars

Describe binary stars in terms of the means of their detection:

visual, eclipsing, spectroscopic and astrometric

A binary star system consists of two stars orbiting around their common
centre of mass

The systems centre of mass lies at the point where the following
relationship holds true:

where from the diagram above

o m1 and m2 = the masses of the respective stars [kg]
o r1 and r2 = the radii of each star from the centre of mass [m]
The brighter star in a binary pair is designated with the letter A, and the
dimmer is designated with B
Binary stars are classified by their means of detection
The classes of binary stars dealt with in this course are visual, eclipsing,
spectroscopic, and astrometric
VISUAL
Can be resolved into two stars by a telescope => they can be detected
visually
Visual binaries orbit very slowly, and can take many years to be confirmed
as a binary pair
The period and radius of each orbit can be measured by visual observation
and analysis, allowing the mass of the overall system to be calculated (see
below)
ECLIPSING
Eclipsing binaries whose orbital plane is oriented so that it is almost
parallel to Earths line-of-sight
The stars regularly eclipse each other, causing periodic minima in the
brightness of the system, as seen on a light curve
o The primary minima correspond to the greatest decreases in
brightness, which depends on the tilt of the orbit, the relative size of
the stars, their surface temperatures, and their atmospheric
structures
 Eclipsing binary system are more easily detected if period of each star is
short, hence most eclipsing binaries are close systems
The diameter of each star can be determined by the duration of each
eclipse, and the period of the stars can be determined by the period of
either the primary or secondary eclipses
A flat-bottomed eclipse indicates a total eclipse, whilst a curved-bottomed
eclipse indicates a partial eclipse
SPECTROSCOPIC
Spectroscopic binaries are detected by the alternating Doppler shifting of
their spectral lines
As the stars orbit, one star will typically have a component of velocity
away from Earth, and the other towards
This causes small red and blue Doppler shifts of the system, causing a
double-lined absorption spectrum
As the stars move in their orbit, they may have no relative motion to
Earths line-of-sight, thus have no Doppler shift
The doubling of spectral lines occurs periodically, indicating the presence
of a binary system
 Spectroscopic binaries are best detected if the component of velocity
measured by Doppler shift is large (maximised when plane of orbit is
parallel to Earths line-of-sight), and the period of each stars orbit is short
(i.e. a close system)
The period of the alternating Doppler shift reveals the period of each stars
orbit, and the degree of Doppler shift reveals the velocity of each star
ASTROMETRIC
Astrometric binaries are detected by an apparent wobble in a stars proper
motion
One of the stars is too faint to be observed
The centre of mass follows a straight path
Measurements of the visible stars wobble reveal the period of orbit and
size, allowing for an estimation of the mass of the system
Explain the importance of binary stars in determining stellar
masses

There is no method of measuring the mass of an isolated star

Measuring the gravitational effect of a star on another object provides a
method of determining a stars mass
o For this reason binary stars are VERY important, as they provide the
only direct method of measuring a stars mass
The analysis of the motion binary stars enable astronomers to calculate
the mass of stars due to the presence of gravity between the two stars
The above relationship is used to determine stellar masses

Determining the mass of stars allows astronomers to further our

understanding of celestial objects, such as through the mass-luminosity
relationship
o If the luminosity of main sequence stars are plotted against their
mass, the following relationship becomes apparent

o This relationship shows that as the mass of a star increases, its

luminosity increases at a much faster rate
o Luminosity is a measure of the rate of the consumption of a stars
fuel, thus higher mass stars consume fuel at a much faster rate =>
high mass stars thus a have a much shorter lifetime
o Additionally, the luminosity-mass relationship shows that as
luminosity increases up the main sequence on an H-R diagram, so
does the mass => this provides a new interpretation of the H-R
diagram
o SUCH ANALYSIS DEMONSTRATES THE HIGH IMPORTANCE OF BINARY
STARS

Solve problems and analyse information by applying:

DEFINITIONS
 m1+m2 = total mass of the binary system (m1 mass of star 1, m2 mass of
star 2) [kg]
r = separation distance of the stars [m]
T = orbital period of the binary system (s)
G = 6.67x10-11m3kg-1s-2 = Universal gravitation constant

The above formula can be derived from equating gravitational force to

centripetal force around the centre of mass, and substituting in the orbital
speed
The full derivation can be seen on p.307 of Jacaranda Physics

REMEMBER
Check the units and dimensions at every line of working
Convert all units to S.I. units when using a formula with a constant such as
G
r is the distance between the centres of mass of each star => you must
add the radius of the star if the distance from the surface is given.

Classify variable stars as either intrinsic or extrinsic and periodic

or non-periodic

Variable stars are ones that appear to vary in brightness with time
Most stars vary in brightness over time, e.g. the Suns solar flares cause
brightness variations of ~0.1%
Other stars significantly vary with brightness, and are tracked on a light-
curve
Below is a diagram showing the classification of variable stars

EXTRINSIC VARIABLES
The variation in brightness is due to a process external to the body of the
star itself
Extrinsic variables include
o Eclipsing binaries => the variation in brightness is due to one star
of the binary star system eclipsing the other
o Rotating variables => Large cool/hot spots cause the brightness to
noticeably change as the star rotates
 INTRINSIC VARIABLES
The brightness variation is due to internal changes of the star => the
luminosity (power output) of the star varies
Many intrinsic variables occupy specific locations on an H-R diagram (see
below0
Intrinsic variables can be further classified as non-periodic and periodic
NON-PERIODIC
Variation in brightness does not follow a regular intervals => the variation
is non-periodic
Also called cataclysmic or eruptive stars
Such stars include supernovae, novae, symbiotic stars, flares stars, R
Coronae Borealis, and T Tauri

Type Brightness variation Physical description

Supernovae Increase to M<-15 Accretion of gas leading to
within hours, then runaway nuclear explosion
gradual fade over
weeks
Novae Sudden increase of A close binary pair, with one
~10 magnitudes over a star leaking gas onto a white
few days, then fades dwarf, until enough gas
over years to original accrues to cause surface
brightness nuclear explosion
Symbiotic stars Varies semi-regularly A close binary pair of a red
over a range of about 3 giant and white dwarf =>
magnitudes outbursts from red giant fall
onto white dwarf
Flare stars Sudden increase >2 Red dwarfs experiencing
magnitudes, then fade intense outbursts of energy
within hours from a small area on surface
R Coronae Sudden decrease of Yellow supergiant accumulates
Borealis about 4 magnitudes, carbon-rich dust clouds that
slowly fluctuating back obscure surface
to normal
T Tauri Vary irregularly Young protostar still contracting
from gas cloud in which they lie

PERIODIC

Show periodic brightness variations

Period can range from hours to hundreds of days, and is mostly
sinusoidal
Brightness variation occurs generally as the stars pulsate in size,
surface temperature, and colour
1. Pulsation occurs due to disequilibrium between gravitational
force and radiation pressure, the two primary forces that
determine a stars size
 Periodic variables include Cepheids, Mira, RV Tauri, and RR Lyrae
variables

Type Period Brightness Description

(days) change
(magnitudes)
Cepheid 1-50 0.1-2.0 Very luminous yellow supergiant.
Type I (young) and Type II (older)
Mira 80-1000 2.5-10 Red giants and supergiants
RV Tauri 20-150 No typical value Yellow supergiants
RR <1 <2 Old giants stars with M=~+0.6
Lyrae

Below is an H-R diagram showing the various locations of variables

Explain the importance of the period-luminosity relationship for
determining the distance of cepheids

The study of Cepheids in the Small Magnetic Cloud in the early 20 th

century revealed a relationship between the period of a Cepheid and its
absolute magnitude
1. Cepheids with longer periods of brightness variations have
higher luminosities
A Cepheids period can be determined from its measure light curve

Further analysis revealed that there are two types of Cepheids:

1. Type I (classical) Cepheids => massive, young, second-
generation stars
2. Type II (W Virginis) Cepheids => small, old, red, first-generation
stars
3. Astronomers can determine the Cepheid type from spectral
analysis
The following graph demonstrates the period-luminosity relationship

As the graph shows, the luminosity (or absolute magnitude) of a

Cepheid can be determined from the period of brightness variation
Consequently, the distance to a Cepheid can be calculated using the
distance modulus formula
METHOD FOR CALUCLATING DISTANCE TO A CEPHEID
1. Establish the type of Cepheid through spectral analysis
2. Determine the period from its light curve
 3. From the period-luminosity relationship, use the period to
determine the stars average absolute magnitude (M)
4. From direct observation, measure the stars average apparent
magnitude (m)
5. Use the distance modulus formula to calculate the distance to
the star

Thus the luminosity-period relationship has proved significant in

determining distances to Cepheids
o This has allowed for distances to be calculated within our galaxy,
and to neighbouring galaxies as well

Perform an investigation to model the light curves of eclipsing

binaries using computer simulation

METHOD
A java application on the following website was used to simulate light
curves of eclipsing binaries:
http://www.astro.cornell.edu/academics/courses/astro101/herter/java/eclip
se/eclipse.htm. The spectral classes of each main sequence star were
altered (F and F, F and B, F and M) whilst the separation (12 solar radii)
and angle of view (5) was kept constant. The resulting light curve was
recorded and compared. The spectral class (B and F) and angle (5) was
then kept constant, and the separation was altered.
RESULTS
Spectral classes B and F, 5 angle to plane, 12 solar masses separation

Spectral classes B and F, 5 angle to plane, 25 solar masses separation

 Spectral classes F and F, 5 angle to plane, 12 solar masses separation

Spectral classes M and F, 5 angle to plane, 12 solar masses separation

The first simulation demonstrates total eclipses, indicated by the flat-

bottomed troughs
As the more luminous star is eclipsed by the less luminous star, a primary
trough occurs. As the less luminous star is eclipsed by the more luminous
star, a secondary trough occurs. In this simulation, luminosity is related to
spectral class as main sequence stars are modelled.
The troughs have a shorter duration as separation increases, as the orbital
velocity of each star is faster.
RELIABILITY/VALIDITY
The computer simulation provided a highly accurate model of our current
understanding of eclipsing binaries.
The results are based on precise mathematical analysis, hence are very
reliable.
 Variables were controlled in the simulation, thus a valid method was
followed.
 6. Stars evolve and eventually die

Describe the processes involved in stellar formation

A star forms from a region of large quantities of interstellar medium

called a nebula, which consists of interstellar dust and gas (mostly
hydrogen molecules, but also helium and other ionised gases)
o Interstellar medium forms after the death of larger stars, hence
matter is essentially recycled
o The dust in gas clouds obscures or blocks light coming from
nebula, thus it is difficult to observe the process in stellar
formation => X-ray, infra-red and radio wave radiation penetrate
dust, so these telescopes provide the information on stellar
formation
The gas cloud is triggered into gravitational collapse, such as the
explosion of a nearby star (e.g. supernova), the first burst of radiation
from a nearby star, or collisions between gas clouds.
The gas cloud starts contracting due to the gravitational between
particles to form a denser core
The density of the core gradually increases over time, which increases
the gravitational forces between the core and gas molecules, thus the
star contracts even faster
o The rate at which a star contracts depends on its size => a star
of 0.2 solar masses would take billions of years to contract to a
protostar, whilst a star of 30 solar masses would take only 30
000 years.
 As the core contracts, the gravitational potential energy of the gas
particles are converted to kinetic energy, so the gas cloud heats up
The heat creates an outwards pressure that opposes the gravitational
collapse (called the hydrostatic equilibrium), only slightly at first, but it
gradually builds
When the star is hot enough, the outwards pressure stabilises the size
of the core whilst the surrounding gas continues to fall inwards => at
this stage the star is called a protostar

With no source of energy, the gas cloud in a protostar continues to

collapse, which increases the temperature of the core
Once the cores temperature reaches approximately 10 million Kelvin,
the fusion of hydrogen is triggered, which provides a long-lasting
energy source that stabilises the star => the star is now a zero-age
main sequence star
 Not all gas clouds form stars however
o Gas clouds of less the 0.08 solar masses cannot heat sufficiently
to trigger the fusion of hydrogen
o Gas clouds of greater than 30 solar masses are too unstable
during collapse due to overheating, and blow apart to form
smaller stars
The above processes have been limited the formation of a single star in
a gas cloud, but most often more than one star forms from a gas cloud,
creating a binary star system or a cluster of stars
o The contracting gas clouds could form multiple cores, which
would eventually form multiple stars
o Multiple stars can also be formed from the fragmentation of a
star, as a star spins faster as it contracts (conservation of
angular momentum) => this can also lead to a system of
planets around a star
Summary

Outline the key stages in a stars life in terms of the physical

processes involved
 The key stages in a stars life are summarised in the flow-chart below:

NEBULA TO MAIN SEQUENCE

A star initially forms from a cloud of dust and gas (interstellar medium)
called a nebula.
The nebula gradually collapses under its own gravity to form several cores
of matter
The gravitational potential energy is converted to kinetic energy, thus the
core heats up, and provides radiant pressure to oppose the gravitational
forces inwards
The core is called a protostar when the core stabilises (i.e. forces are
balanced), and the surrounding cloud becomes luminous.
The star continues to shrink and heat up => when it reaches a
temperature of around 1x107K and sufficient pressure, hydrogen fusion
commences in the core, and the star becomes a Main Sequence star
o There is a balance between the gravitational force inwards and
radiant pressure outwards, thus the star stops contracting
o The star remains on the Main Sequence of the H-R diagram for
around 90% of its lifetime
o The position a star enters the Main Sequence depends on its mass
=> a higher mass star will start on the Main Sequence at a higher
point
See above for a more detailed description of star birth, see below for a
description of thermonuclear reactions in Main-Sequence stars
POST-MAIN SEQUENCE
Recall the mass-luminosity relationship, which demonstrates that a star of
higher mass consumes its fuel at a higher rate (thus giving higher surface
temperatures)
o A star of 0.3 solar masses stays on the Main Sequence for around
30 billion years, whilst an O class stays on the Main Sequence for
only 30 000 years
 When the helium content in the core reaches around 12%, the fusion of
hydrogen stops
The future of the star depends on its mass:
o A small mass star (less than 0.5 solar masses) will not be able to
fuse heavier elements, so the star collapses to form a white dwarf,
which are the hot remnants of a star
o A core of a star of greater than 0.5 solar masses is able to reach
high enough temperatures to commence helium fusion to carbon,
with hydrogen fusion in the core => this star is called a Red Giant
o When a star runs out of fuel in the core (i.e. it cannot fuse heavier
elements), the star collapses under its own gravity, and can form a
white dwarf, neutron star, or black hole depending on its mass
RED GIANT
As mentioned above, when a Main Sequence star runs out of hydrogen
fuel it starts contracting due to the lack of energy to oppose the
gravitational force
If a star has a high enough mass, the temperature and pressure in the
shell surrounding the core will have the required temperature and pressure
to allow hydrogen fusion => this is called shell burning.
o This expands and cools the star, causing it to move off the Main
Sequence towards the top-right of the H-R diagram
As the star contracts, gravitational potential energy is converted to kinetic
energy, so the core heats up, and allows the fusion of helium if a star has
a high enough mass, and fuse hydrogen in the shell
o This may happen in a helium flash (helium fusion starts suddenly in
the core) for stars less than 2.6 solar masses, or smoothly for higher
mass stars
o After helium fusion starts, the star contracts again, thus the stars
surface temperature increases, and it moves towards the left of the
H-R diagram
 A star remains a red giant until the fusion of heavier elements stops (i.e.
the star runs out of fuel)
See below for a more detailed description of star death

Describe the types of nuclear reactions involved in Main-

Sequence and post-Main Sequence stars

As mentioned above, main-sequence stars remain stable due to the

energy radiated by thermonuclear reactions
The two main nuclear reactions in Main-Sequence stars are the proton-
proton chain and the carbon-nitrogen-oxygen (CNO) cycle => MEMORISE
THESE REACTIONS
PROTON-PROTON CHAIN
 The proton-proton chain occurs in all stars once they reach the main
sequence, but only eventually dominates in cooler Main-Sequence stars
like the Sun
The proton-proton chain consists of the following three reactions:

Where
o = neutrino (small, massless, chargeless particle)
o e+ = positron (positive electron)
o = gamma photon
o Hydrogen-2 = deuterium
The first two reactions must proceed twice before the last reaction takes
place
As six hydrogen nuclei go into the reaction but two come out, the overall
reaction is

The mass of four hydrogen nuclei more than the mass of a helium nucleus
=> the lost mass is converted to energy according to E=mc 2, which
provides the energy for the star

CARBON-NITROGEN-OXYGEN (CNO) CYCLE

The CNO cycle is another thermonuclear reaction in stars, but only
dominates in stars more massive than the star, where the core
temperature exceeds 1.6x107K=> both reactions can still proceed
simultaneously however
 The CNO cycle consists of the following reactions:

Note that the carbon-12 acts as a catalyst

The net reaction is still that four hydrogen nuclei combine to produce a
helium nucleus, and release the energy similarly to the proton-proton
chain due to the overall mass deficit.

POST-MAIN SEQUENCE
 Helium fusion occurs in the core of a star through the triple alpha reaction
(recall that a helium nucleus is called an alpha particle)

Carbon then can fuse with a helium nucleus to produce oxygen

Elements up to iron can be fused in the core to provide energy for the star
=> beyond

Discuss the synthesis of elements in stars by fusion

Hydrogen and helium were the only elements present in the primordial
universe => all other elements have been synthesised in stars
All Main Sequence stars fuse hydrogen nuclei to produce helium nuclei
through aforementioned thermonuclear reactions in the core
The mass of a star determines the elements that can be further fused in a
post-Main Sequence star through exothermic nuclear reactions
Elements up to iron (atomic number 26) can be fused in the shell of a
post-Main Sequence star => elements beyond iron are fused in
endothermic reactions, thus are not fused in the core of a star
o A supergiant can develop an onion-like structure of many layers of
shell burning of different elements, though only for a short period of
time (heavier elements fuse more quickly) => the fusion of silicon
to iron typically lasts only for one day

Fusion fuel Core products Core temperature (K) Mass (solar

masses
H He 4x106 0.1
He C, O 120x106 0.4
C Ne, Na, Mg, O 600x106 4
Ne O, Mg 1.2x109 Approx. 8
O Si, S, P 1.5x109 Approx. 8
Si Ni to Fe 2.7x109 Approx. 8

Elements beyond iron are produced in two ways:

o The slow capture of neutrons in a helium-
burning shell of a red giant can produce
elements up to lead
o The fast capture of neutrons in a supernova
explosion, which provides enough energy to
produce elements up to uranium

Explain the concept of star death in relation to:

planetary nebula
supernovae
white dwarfs
neutron stars/pulsars
black holes
 A star dies after it stop fusing element to produce the energy required for
stable existence
The processes involved in star death depend on the mass of the star

PLANETARY NEBULA
Occurs for stars of less than 5 solar masses
A star of this size can fuse helium in the shell, but does not fuse oxygen in
the core
The unsupported hells become unstable, and produce bursts of energy
known as thermal pulses and high superwinds
These pulsations blow eventually around a quarter of the stars material
away from the stars core, which eventually forms an expanding shell-
shaped nebula => this is called a planetary nebula
o The name planetary nebula is historical, as early astronomers
believed these nebula to be planets

WHITE DWARFS
Occurs for stars of less than 5 solar masses
 White dwarfs are the remnant core of a star after material has been blown
off to form a planetary nebula
No fusion reactions proceed, so the core collapses due to gravitational
forces to a size around the size of Earth, forming a very dense, glowing
core called a white dwarf
The balancing force comes from electron degeneracy pressure, which
results from a quantum effect where closely-spaced electrons are
prevented from being on the same energy level
A white dwarf has a surface temperature of around 10 000K but a
relatively low luminosity due to its small size, so it exists at the bottom-left
of an H-R diagram
A white dwarf eventually radiates its remnant energy, and becomes a
brown dwarf
White dwarfs have a maximum mass of 1.4 solar masses (can be higher
for rotating white dwarfs) => beyond this mass the gravitational forces
are too strong for electron degeneracy pressure to balance the force
SUPERNOVAE
This occurs for stars of greater than 5 solar masses
Larger stars are also subject to the pulsations that blow material away,
and form a rapidly contracting core
The high mass of the star however means that electron degeneracy
pressure is not enough to balance the gravitational forces, so the star
continues to contract until degenerate neutron pressure halts the
contraction.
The surrounding layers are bounced back, causing a supernova explosion

A significant quantity (~1046J) of gravitational energy is emitted in a few

seconds, leaving behind a very dense core
Iron and other heavy nuclei are ripped apart, releasing a large number of
neutrons => these neutrons can be captured to produce heavier nuclei
NEUTRON STARS/PULSARS
Occurs for stars between 8 solar masses and 25 solar masses
If the residual matter from a supernova forms a core of between 1.4 and 3
solar masses, a neutron star will be formed
The mass of the star means that gravitational forces overcome the
electron degeneracy pressure, crushing the protons and electrons together
to form a sea of neutrons
 Below 3 solar masses, the neutron degeneracy pressure balances the
gravitational forces, so the collapse halts to form a neutron star of around
10km in diameter
A neutron star formed is a very dense, hot star that is rapidly rotating
(dozens of times per second) due to conservation of angular momentum
as the star shrinks to a significantly small fraction of its initial diameter
Neutron stars also have a very strong magnetic field (10 8T) that emits an
beam of electromagnetic radiation
As the magnetic axis rarely aligns with the rotation axis, the
electromagnetic beam sweeps across space as the neutron star rapidly
rotates
If the Earth is aligned with the beam, the neutron star can be detected
(most commonly with radio telescopes) from the very regular pulsations of
radiation detected => this is why neutron stars are also called pulsars

BLACK HOLES
Occurs for stars greater than 25 solar masses
When the remnant core of a supernova is greater than 3 solar masses, the
gravitational forces are strong enough to overcome the neutron
degeneracy pressure
No known force is able to counter the significant gravitational forces, so
the matter is crushed to a single point of infinite density called a the
singularity
The gravitational forces are so strong that not even light can escape the
singularity from a certain radius called the event horizon, hence the
celestial object is called a black hole
Black holes cannot be directly detected due to the lack of EMR emitted,
but can be detected from its effect on surrounding objects
o For example, material accelerated into a black hole emit X-rays that
can be detected
Explain how the age of a globular cluster can be determined from
its zero-age main sequence plot for a H-R diagram

A globular cluster contains hundreds of thousands of old stars in a sphere

of around 100 light-years in diameter that have evolved from a giant
molecular cloud
o This is in contrast to an open cluster, which contains a few hundred
young stars in a group of around 10 light-years in diameter

The relative ages of open clusters and globular clusters is known because
open clusters contain O and B spectral class stars, whilst globular clusters
do not => higher mass stars have a shorter lifetime, so a cluster
containing high mass stars is a relatively young cluster
The diagram below shows an H-R diagram of an open cluster and a
globular cluster against a Zero-Age Main Sequence (ZAMS) line
o Luminosities can easily be determined, as the stars in a cluster are
about the same distance to Earth
 The globular cluster has a lower turn-off point from the ZAMS line and a
more developed giant branch than the open cluster
o In other words, the highest remaining point of the Main Sequence
group is lower for the globular cluster
Lower mass stars have a longer lifetime than higher mass stars due to the
mass-luminosity relationship, so if more low mass stars have become red
giants, then the cluster must be older
Thus as the star ages, it appears to peel off the main sequence, as higher
mass stars progressively become red giants
In other words, the lower the turn-off point from the ZMAS line in an H-R
plot of a globular cluster, the older the cluster
The age of a globular cluster can be estimated by considering the lifetimes
of the stars that have left the ZAMS line, and the lifetimes of those still on
the line
o In the above diagrams, the open cluster on the left is estimated to
be about 600 million years old, whilst the cluster on the left is about
13 billion years old
Present information by plotting Hertzsprung-Russell diagrams
for: nearby or brightest stars, stars in a young open cluster, stars
in a globular cluster

Consider the H-R diagrams below of (left to right) nearby and brightest
stars, stars in a young open cluster (such as the Pleiades), and stars in a
globular cluster

The plot of the nearby or brightest stars shows a random sampling, so all
the prominent star groups are present
Star clusters were formed at the same time however, so they are not a
random sampling since they are all of the same age
The plot of the young open cluster lies almost entirely within the ZAMS line
The plot of the globular cluster however consists of the bottom half of the
ZAMS line, and a number of stars occupying the red giant region,
indicating that the missing Main Sequence stars have become red giants
and shifted to the right

Present information by plotting on a H-R diagram the pathways of

stars of 1, 5 and 10 solar masses during their life cycle

Stars of 1, 5, and 10 solar masses enter the H-R diagram on a track shown
below:
 The H-R diagram below shows the life cycles of stars of 1 and 5 solar
masses:

For a star of 1 solar mass

o The star enters the Main Sequence at the position indicated
o Once it has fused all the hydrogen in the core, it proceeds to burn
hydrogen in the shell, causing expansion and cooling of the stars
surface
o The core contracts due to gravity, causing the temperature and
pressure to increase => once it reaches the right conditions, helium
begins to fuse to carbon in a helium flash
 o The star contracts until helium fusion stops in the core and shell
burning again, causing it to contract
o No further fusion occurs so luminosity decreases, and the star
contracts due to gravity, causing the surface temperature to rise
=> the star becomes a white dwarf
o NOTE: The evolutionary track from the red giant to white dwarf
should be lower (i.e. the star does not sweep upwards as shown)
For a star of 5 solar masses
o The star follows a similar track to the 1 solar mass star, but enters
the Main Sequence at a higher point due to its higher mass
o The star experiences a supernova however and becomes a neutron
star, so does not exist on the H-R diagram after the supernova
Below is an H-R diagram of a star of 10 solar masses

For a star of 10 solar masses

o The star follows a similar evolutionary pathway to the 1- and 5-
solar mass stars, but at a higher luminosity into the supergiants
region
o The star is able to fuse elements heavier than helium in the core,
so moves left and right in the giant region more often
o The star then goes to a supernova and a black hole, and thus
exits the H-R diagram in the supergiants region

Analyse information from an H-R diagram and use available

evidence to determine the characteristics of a star and its
evolutionary age

Many characteristics of a star can be determined directly from an H-R

diagram, such as colour, surface temperature, chemical composition, and
luminosity.
 The position of a star on the H-R diagram can also help determine what
type of star it is:

Thus from an H-R diagram, we can determine the characteristics and

evolutionary age of a star according to its position
For a protostar (lower than Giants, to the right of Main Sequence)
o It is at the beginning of its life
o No fusion proceeds in the core
o Very cool but luminous, therefore large in size
For a Main Sequence star
o It is in the middle of its life, and remains in the Main Sequence for
the majority of its lifetime
o Hydrogen fusion in the core to produce helium either by the proton-
proton chain or the CNO cycle
o A main sequence star towards the top left of the H-R diagram is
young,
o Stars higher on the Main Sequence burn their fuel at a much higher
rate, and are larger in size than those lower on the Main Sequence
=> stars towards the bottom of the Main Sequence are considered
dwarfs
For a Giant
o It is towards the end of its life, as it has consumed most of its fuel
o It is relatively cool but luminous, thus is large
o It is fusing hydrogen to helium in its shell, and may be fusing helium
to carbon through the triple alpha reaction in its core
For a Supergiant
o It is towards the end of its life, as it has consumed most of its fuel
o It is relatively cool but very luminous, thus it is very large
o It is fusing heavier elements in its core, and fusing various other
elements in its shell in an onion-like structure
For a white dwarf
o It is at the end of its life, as it is no longer fusing elements to
produce energy
o It is a relatively hot star but not very luminous, thus it is very small
(i.e. is a dwarf)
o It is the remains of a former star, and is probably surrounded by a
planetary nebula