Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999

Pavement

Rehabilitation

Problem Soils

Pavement Materials

Comparison of alternatives and selection of design

Refinement of design, if required

110 Bitumi~ous Surfacinqs

[ 11 Gravel Roads

Ministry of Works

Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999

9.0

General

9.0.1

Rehabilitation needs

The purpose of pavement rehabilitation is commonly related to inadequate service levels for the road users ill combination with excessive costs in maintaining the existing pavement structure. Rehabilitation may however be required for reasons not directly related to the present surface condition, i.e. due to expected dramatic increase of traffic or as a strengthening combined with upgrading the geometry of the road.

9.0.2 Pavement evaluation

The purpose of pavement evaluation is primarily to determine the present pavement condition so that appropriate rehabilitation measures can be identified. Cost effective pavement evaluation involves collection of only the necessary types of data, or amounts of data to establish the cause of distress and for carrying out rehabilitation design with sufficient contidence.

9.0.3 Rehabilitation design

Three rehabilitation design methods are prescribed in this chapter:

~ maximum deflection method

I;l structural number method

m mechanistic method

9.0.4 Rehabilitation options

Rehabilitation design only forms part of the process to establish appropriate rehabilitation measures. Other factors such as agency policy, practical construction aspects, availability of skills, materials and other resources, environmental mitigation and maintenance aspects shall be taken into consideration in selection of the appropriate rehabilitation option. Rebabilitation options are classified into:

overlays

~ partial reconstruction i!:j full reconstruction

9.1 Pavement Evaluation

9.1.0 General

The purpose of pavement evaluation is primarily to determine why the present pavement condition prevails so that appropriate rehabilitation measures can be identified. Pavement evaluation involves detailing appropriate methods for pavement investigations, relating the symptoms of distress to their causes and explaining the reason for distress. The outcome of the study forms the basis to carry out a rehabilitation design using appropriate design methods.

Ministry of Works

Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999

Figure 9.1 illustrates the procedure for pavement evaluation up to completion of the rehabilitation design.

Carry out desk study

W Carry out initial assessment~II____jI,,!

I I pavement condition

L_~~~~~~~ __ ~ ~ __ ~~ __ -,~~ __ ~

Carry out structural surveys as i.. Carry out detailed condition survey I I Assess each homogenous section

required based on the detailed I 'I' If reqUired In accordance with r-i according to Fjg 9,2

L_c_on_di_tio_n_s_urv_e~Y~ _Ji ' Fig. 9.2 , L ----'

~

! Re-assess demarcation into I I Carry out pavement rehabilitation I i" I homogenous sections based on all 1----, design for each homogenous Ii

I available data :~. ~_"_M_in_n ~' ,I~ ~ _

Figure 9.1 Pavement evaluation and rehabilitation procedure

9~ 1.1

Confidence level

The confidence level for pavement data processing shall be 90%, i.e. that 10% of the length of the road is allowed to perform unsatisfactorily at the end of the design period when the design is based on current pavement data.

9.1.2 Design traffic loading General

Collection of traffic loading data shall be carried out in accordance with /Chapter 4 - Traffic/.

Past traffic loading

Past traffic received by the pavement shall be calculated for the purpose of estimating residual pavement life.

Design traffic loading

Design traffic loading for the design period shall be projected in accordance with /Chapter 4 - Traffic/.

9.1.3 Pavement investigation procedure GenerAl

The extent of the pavement investigation depends on prevailing conditions on site as detailed in this chapter and in Chapter 9.1.4 - Extent of investigation, and shall be carried out in the following sequence:

~ desk study (shall always be carried out)
W£ initial assessment (shall always be carried out)
~ detailed condition surveys (If required)
II! structural surveys (if required) Figure 9.2 illustrates the procedure for pavement investigations of each section deemed to be homogenous based on initial assessment. The procedure is shown up to the completion of detailed condition surveys and identification of sections that require structural surveys.

Ministry of Works

Combine sections with similar rehabilitation measures into

9.3

Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999

~

~>-' -------

T »<:

Y~S Sect.ianW.~

~. -- only ~a~I~S8d <,

____ ~ distress ?

j Establish the cause- of the > <,

Iloca.llsea distress, if ~ecessary '. "-.

~rlylJul';;:.'J0ili""lli:1lflt;:[i...l: : NO

. ","Mg. i ~

I ~~oe~:~~~

c-~-, ' I YES V

i NO!

.>;

/ Any pass~blliti-es of saJvag1ng the pavement?

YES

YES

Determine the need far structural surveys: -DCP

Design full pavement reconstruction wthout any further investigation of the-

Recommend corrective measures. Further mvestlgat;on ot the section IB normally no! necessary.

- dcftocticn

- sampling I'ab testing) eMpler 9. 1.4

Chapter 9.S.3

Figure 9.2 Assessment of one homogenous section

Desk study

A desk study shall always be carried out to gather available information about the road section, which may include:

l!!! as-built data including construction records and information about

geometry and drainage

!1l maintenance records

m data from previous traffic counts and axle load surveys

!&Ii data from previous investigations such as measurements of deflection, DCP, rutting, roughness, surface defects, sampling, rutting, roughness, cracks, and others

!!Jl data on climate, geology and topography

Initial assessment

Initial assessment of the road shall be carried out before the schedules for condition surveys or structural surveys are being established, Initial assessment includes visual inspection and examination of data obtained in the desk study. The objectives of the initial assessment are those given below

A Initial assessment shall establish the length of sections with:

~ no significant problems

!1l localised distress clearly related to specific problems such as poor

drainage, expansive sub grade soils, or others

!&Ii distress obviously related to the surfacing only ~ possibilities of inadequate structural strength

ml obviously no possible salvage of the existing pavement hence full reconstruction is the only possible rehabilitation measure

B. Initial assessment shall provide:

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Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999

~ a record of observation data and any initial measurements carried out during the visual inspection

~ quantified data on serviceability of sections with obviously no possible salvage of the existing pavement. These include measurements of driving speed, PSI or estimated International Roughness Index

C. Initial assessment shall give recommendations on:

Ii remedial action for the localised distress II remedial action for the surface distress

I1li a further field test programme for sections with possibilities of inadequate structural strength or with distress where the existing pavement may be salvaged

Homogenous sections

Homogenous sections shall initially be established on the basis of pavement condition after the: initial assessment. The demarcation of homogenous sections shall be revised and changed if required after the detailed condition survey and structural surveys are carried out.

Detailed condition surveys

Detailed condition surveys shall be carried out where the existing pavement may be salvaged and where distress is not obviously related to the either surfacing only or localised problems. Detailed condition surveys include measurements of the following parameters:

m rutting
II surface defects
II potholes
lil cracks, all cracks and wide cracks >3 mm
m loss of stones (ravelling)
II patches
ill roughness
~ shoulder conditions
Il drainage conditions Structural surveys

Structural surveys shall be scheduled according to Chapter 9.1.4 - Extent ofinvestigations and include collection of one or more of the following data:

i.I Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP)

ll!ll maximum surface deflection with Benkelman beam (8175 kg axle) U1 equivalent equipment approved by the Ministry of Works , correlated back to Benkelman beam measurements

~ pit logs and Iaboratoi y tests of samples such as moisture content, grading, Atterberg limits, CBR, or others as required

Ministry of Works

Comments:

A statistical method, cumulative sums (CUSUM), can be used to eatablish homogenous sections for each type of meacurcd data. IAppcndix AB.3/.

Worked Example /Appendix A8. 3/

The required test frequencies: Chapter

9.1.4 - Extent of investigations. . ..

Comments:

Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999

9.1.4 Extent of investigations

The conditions that require the investigation frequency of scheme A or B respectively are given in Table 9.1. The extent of investigations for the purpose of pavement evaluation are given in Table 9.2.

Table 9.1 Conditions that require scheme A or B respecttvety for frequency oj investigations

Table 9.2

- All trunk roads

- Other important main roads, e.g. strategic routes or major links in towns, deemed to be of particular Importance

- Other roads

Required extent of pavement investigations

Rut depth, measured both sides in outer wheel path only

1000

100

50

Surface defects such as patches, cracks, loss of stones, or others

Continuously measured

Roughnes5, International Roughness Index (IRI)

500 1000

OCP, the side with highest rutting values

min 3 per homogenous section

Maximum surface deflection, measured on the side with highest rutting values, in outer wheel path only

100

200

Test pits excavated to design depth as defined in/Chapter 5.1!Pit log, testing of CBR, indicators, moisture content

2000

The test frequencies are the minimum acceptable. Additional tests may be required depending on site conditions and in the case of anomalies in the tested values. The demarcation of homogenous sections may be revised after analysis of the test re5U~S.

Roughness shall be measured with the MERLIN apparatus or alternative high-capacity equipment of a type approved by the Ministry of Works. Alternative equipment shall be calibrated against the MERLIN.

Ministry of Works

Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999

9.1.5

Distress criteria

Comments:

Distress criteria for use in pavement evaluation are given in Table 9.3. The following is the meaning of the terms 'sound', 'warning' and 'severe' in the condition rating:

!lllI sound: adequate condition

til warning.uncertainty exists about the adequacy of the condition II severe: inadequate condition

Table 9.3 Pavement distress criteria

. . Condition rating : . . ....
. . .... ....
Parameter . ..... . . ..... -. . ' ··c··.·. . ' .•. '. ..: ... : .••..
Traffic class TLC1 or lower '. Traffic class TL<;3: orhig hj!r .':.'.
Sound Warning -. Sound Vvarning" iSevere
Severe
< 10 10 - 20 > 20 <5 5 -15 > 15
Rutting, 90%-ile over a _.
section [mm] Rutting caused by shoving within bituminous layers shall be assessed separately. Rutting is a more severe
defect than what is reflected above when combined with a cracked surface. Figure 9.3 gives the
procedure to interpret these data
Potholes < 0.01% 0.01% >0.2% < 0.01% 0.01% > 0.1%
- 0.2% -0.1%
All cracks < 20 20 - 50 > 50 <10 10 - 30 > 30
Surface defects Wide cracks
[%of >3mm[in % < 20 20 - 50 > 50 < 10 10 - 30 > 30
carriageway
area] of all cracks]
Loss of <5 5 -15 > 15 <5 5 -10 >10
stones Loss of stones on pavements with a surface treatment over a base course made of unbound materials
(ravelling) ahejl be reted "severe' "Wherever the affected area exceeds 0-010
Patches 0.3% , 0.2%
!% of carriageway area] <0.3% -1.0% > 1.0% <02% - 0.6% >0.6%
Roughness, IRI [mlkm] <3 3-6 >6 <3 3-6 >6
Max deflection [mm]
90% -ile over a section [mmJ
- granular base course < 0.7 0.7 -1.3 > 13 < 0.5 0.5 - 1.0 > 1.0
- ligthtly cemented base < 0.55 0.55-1.15 I > 1.15 < 035 0.35 - 0.85 > 0.85
I Ministry of Works

Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999

9.1.6

Data interpretation

The procedure for interpretation of data is illustrated in Figure 9.3.

WARNING or SEVERE

SEVERE

j

If rutting is due 10 shoving in the asphalt carry out special invsstiqations.

Consider whether fuJI reconstruction applies Chapter 9.3.3

Consider whether full reconstruction applies Chapter 9.3.3

NO

Good correlation rutting I deflection, Or roughness! deflection?

Design traffic loading is less than 10 million E80?

NO

Structural number method Chapter 922 , Dr Mechanistic method Ch8pter 9.2.3

. '.-: ... ".

'Various .'. form~Oldi$tre$Smay .'. be . rel~te(j,af1djtsprimaiy¢ausemaybe obscuredou.roeuewher ~"sj"g" lI"s

. been reached WI'le:feby numerous' forms .: . of distress are evident The parts of a .' road .whlch ha~in9lyetTeacheda c()mplelely·.failedslage~relikelytogjve vaIU~ble\infonl1ationonti)eprimary

. '. 9aLiseof.distress·.anq thereby.clLies to. '" 'det~rrnj nethemosl"'appropriate

reh<ibililationoplion, '..

(for confirm ali on)

Maximum deflection method Chapter 9.2.1

Rehabilitation design method

Selecl appropriate rehabilitation option Chapter 9.3 and

consider options to prevent reflective cracking if applicable Oneote: 9.4

Figure 9.3 Interpretation of pavement data

9.2

Rehabilitation Design Methods

9.2.0

General

This chapter gives an overview of available pavement rehabilitation design methods and indicates their limitations and requirements for input data. The designer has the following methods at hand for carrying out pavement rehabilitation design:

~ maximum deflection method ~ structural number method

ill'); mechanistic method

empirically derived

empirically derived theoretically/empirically derived

The appropriate method shall be applied depending on pavement type, condition and oilier parameters as described in Table 9.4,

Output from pavement rehabilitation design methods only forms part of the final decision on appropriate rehabilitation remedies for a section or an entire project. Other factors such as agency policy, practical construction aspects, availability of skills, materials and

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Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999

other resources, environmental mitigation and maintenance aspects shall be taken into consideration.

Table 9.4 Selection of appropriate design method

.. Rehabilm.tion desig nmethod
Base course Main I'JK)de
material type of distress Maximum Structural Mechanistic
deflection number
Cracking (not
Granular or applicable)
lightly cement V V
Deformation VO)
Cemented or Cracking or (not V V
deformation,
bituminous or both applicable)
*) The maximum deflection method only applies for traffic load class TLC 10 or lower and
where deformation originates from the subgrade. 9.2.1

Maximum deflection method

Description of the method

The maximum deflection method is based on empirically derived relationships between pavement performance and surface deflection under loading. The method requires different performance criteria for different pavement types and is inapplicable for certain pavements. Deflection measurements will only give information about the pavement's structural response at the time the measurement were carried out. This means that moisture conditions, and temperature in the case of thick bituminous layers, affect the results significantly and can be misleading to the designer.

Applicability and limitations of the method

The deflection method shall not be used as the only rehabilitation design method, but to supplement other methods in a multi-analysis approach and shall not be used unless all the following conditions prevail:

Ii\! distress originates from the subgrade, and

the base course in existing pavement is a granular or lightly cemented type, i.e. not cement stabilised,. and

!Ii there is remaining structural life in the existing pavement, and ~ future design traffic is less than 10 million. E80

Extensively cracked cemented layers may be classified as granular layers.

TIle relationship between maximum deflection and rut depth measurements taken along the length of a road gives an indication of the cause and mechanism of the distress. A good correlation will usually indicate that distress may be associated with an over-stressed subgrade. A poor correlation is indicative of distress originating in one or more of the upper layers of the pavement. In this case the maximum deflection method may not apply.

Similarly, a poor correlation between maximum deflection and road roughness measurements will usually indicate distress in the upper layers of the pavement, while a good correlation is indicate of problems in the subgrade.

Ministry of Works

. '-.'-._.- .. _ ..... -.'.-' ...

Deflection .rneasurernentsgiveuseful information to explain the mode of distress in existing pavements .andare.of~en -, justified even though the rehabilitation

. design}snot based on the deflE:iction

method: .

Rut aeptn In relation to poor base or .

subbase. .

Comments:

, ,

The deflection rcoo"ory (rebound) method offers an easier measuring procedure with less risk ,of damage to equipmentHowever, .onnewlyconstructed pavements {less than 3 years in service} this method does not give results thatcorrespond sufficiently well with the design method. Correction, of deflection .data for temperature is not necessary for investigation of pavement" with granular base course end such correcticns do not improve the accuracy of the maximum deflection method 19-6/. Design methods using radius of curvature are not provided, however collection of curvature data can give useful information to explain the

cause of distress, '

A statistical method, cumulative sums (CUSUM), can be used to establish homogenous sections for deflection data,

IAppendix AB.3/. '

Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999

Design procedure

Figure 9.4 (describes the procedure for pavement rehabilitation design using the maximum deflection method)

I Delermine traffic loading: " _J' Establish homogenous

I - past E80 I sections. (The CUSUM

- future E80 (design traffic 1,,' '" method in /Appendix A8.3/

loading) , , may be used).

~----------~--~ ~----------------~

i . i i Me8sure 8na calculate deSign 1

deflection for each homogenous section.

Ioetermine expected pavement i life (total E80)

I Fig. 9.5

Past E80 larger YES 'I' .

th t d ...._ MaXimum deflection method

~ ~:vne~x:n~~i;e? / ---" does not apply.

~ ;

NO I

~

larger than design traffic loading?

Calculate resloua: capacity: = expected capacity" past E80

. No strengthening is required based on the maximum deflection method.

NO I

I Select overlay altemanve as appropriate.

i Table 99

I Determine target deflection, Fig. 9.5 or Fig. 9.6

Determine required strengthening, SN oiff ! Fig.9]

Figure 9.4 Design procedure, maximum deflection method

Deflection input data

Input data is maximum deflections measured with Benkelman beam (dual wheels, 8175 kg axle load) or data collected with other types of equipment, correlated back to equivalent Benkelman beam deflections. The transient method shall be used where the existing pavement or overlay was constructed less than 3 years before the measurements, the deflection recovery (rebound) method can otherwise be used.

The maximum deflection method requires that the measured deflection is the maximum deflection over a year. The time of measurements in relation to rainy seasons shall therefore be carefully assessed and the need for repeated measurements at a different time shall be considered.

Design deflection

The design deflection is the 90%-ile deflection value for a homogenous section with a minimum of 20 measurements.

Design deflection = (mean deflection) + 1.3 x (standard deviation)

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Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999

Traffic

Required traffic parameters for input in the design method are the following:

Wlll estimated past cumulative traffic loading carried by the pavement since construction or its last structural rehabilitation (in millions E80) m design traffic loading (future) determined according to /Chapter 4 - Traffic/.

Expected pavement fife

The pavement's expected life is the cumulative number ofE80s the pavement is expected to be able to carry, i.e. past cumulative traffic loading plus the estimated residual pavement life until critical condition is reached.

Residual life

The residual life of the pavement is the difference between expected pave ment life and past cumulative traffic loading.

Residual life (ESO) = expected life (ESO) - past cumulative traffic loading (ESO).

If the past cumulative traffic loading is larger than the expected pavement life, i.e. negative residual life, then the maximum deflection method shall not be applied.

If the residual life is larger than the future design traffic loading, then strengthening of the pavement is not required.

Desired pavement fife

The desired pavement life is the total traffic loading the pavement would need to carry in order to endure the design period without overlay. I.e. the cumulative past traffic loading plus the design traffic loading.

Target deflection

The target deflection is the maximum deflection value that would give a pavement life sufficient to carry the cumulative past traffic loading plus the design traffic loading (desired pavement life) without overlay

Design charts

Design charts giving the relationship between deflection and pavement life (traffic loading) are presented in Figure 9.5 and Figure 9.6 where the design line for a 90% confidence in achieving life is marked. The two figures are valid for pavements with a granular base course and lightly cemented base course respectively.

In Figure 9.5 the use of the design chart is shown by aid of an example The key parameters are as given in Table 9.5 v . .r:ith letter symbols referring to positions in the chart.

Ministry of Works

Comments:

I n vspecla Ii sed.invl;:lstigationsof pavements without remaining structural life it is possible to study the r~lationship between rutti ngand deflectionand respectively rouchness and.deftection in order. to establishdistresscriteriaJor that particular pavement structure. Such .. Investigations and rehabjiita!iond~sigl')s. are only supplementary (0 the design . method u::>ing ::>tl ucturel IIUI"Ut: r.

9.11

Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999

Table 9.5 Design parameters used in the deflection design charts

R8fer~nc~ •• • . Parameters .... .. Value in Notes . ..
tQFfg.9,5< . .: example . ... ..
. . -. ....
A (input) Design deflection, derived from field 0.77 mm Input parameter for Figure 9.7
measurements
B (input) Past cumulative traffic loading 2 x 106
E80 -
T (input) Design traffic loading (future) 8 x 106
/Chapter 4 - Traffic/ E80 -
C Current pavement state, the crossing If the point C falls above the design line, then
point betvveen the lines drawn straight - there is no residual life In the pavement, and
from A and B, as shown in the design method is inapplicable.
0 Expected pavement life, determined by 4 x 106
continuing the trend-line from C, as E80 -
shown in Figure 9.5
(0 - B) Residual life 2 x 106 Residual life (O-B) larger than the design traffic
E80 loading (T). means that strengthening of the
pavement is not necessary
E = (B+T) Desired pavement life 10x10B
E80 -
F Target deflection. determined by follo-
wing the trend-lines using E as input 0.53 mm Input parameter for Figure 9.7
parameter, as shown in Figure 9.5 Maximum deflection is determined under an axle load of 8175 kg using dual wheels.

TLC05 TLC 1

TLC3

TLC 10 TLC20

167
154
142
129
'"
0 116
><
E 103
E 90
s:::
gA 77
0
Q) 64
-=
2iF 51
39
26
13
0.2 Critical condition. 90% / confidence in achieving life

,¥

0.3 0.5

1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 5.0

B D

10 15 20 30 E

Equivalent standard axles, E80 I x 106]

Figure 9.5 Deflection design chart, granular base course

Maximum deflection is determined under an axle load of 8175 kg using dual wheels.

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Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999
TLC05 TLC 1 TLC3 TLC 10 TLC20
167 Critical condition. 90%
154 confidence in achieving life
142
'b 129
x 116
E 103
E
90
I:::;
0 77
n
GI 64
lSj
c 51
----
39
--
26 - --
13
0.2 0.3 0.5 1.0 1.52.0 3.0 5.0 10 1520 30
Equivalent standard axles, ESO r x 106]
Figure 9,6 Deflection design chart, lightly cemented base course RequirArf strengthening

The required strengthening is determined by using Figure 9,7 with the target deflection and the measured design deflection as input data, SNdilf shall be determined by interpolation in the chart

/
/
0,8

E
E
I:::;
0
n
III
;::
III
n
Q)
E'
~
0,2 o

0,2

0,6

1.6

1,2

0.4

10

1,4

Design deflection, measured [ mm 1

Figure 9, 7 Determination of required strengthening, SlY aiff

9.2.2

Structural number method

General

The structural number method is based on empirical correlation between tested material properties and expected pavement performance,

Laboratory tests and in-situ measurements are required to determine material strength, expressed as the material coefficient, The following methods are applicable for these measurements:

Ministry of Works

Worked Example IAppendix A8. 51

. . - ...

'Thestructural~umber'calculations

' .. include aconverston between inches and mllllmetres .individing by 25.4 when l<lyerthicknessesllri?9iven in millimetres,

• becausetherniilterialcoefficients (a) are universally expressed as inch" ..

Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999

m CBR and indicator testing of samples taken from the road Ili in-situ strength measured with DCP

1§1j measurement of layer thicknesses in the existmg pavement with UCP combined with excavation of test pits

Structural number of the existing pavement, SNeX!S'

The materials in the existing pavement structure shall be given a material coefficient (a) after assessments in accordance with Table 9.4. The structural number (SNexist) is defined as the product between the thickness (t) of each pavement layer (n) and its corresponding material coefficient (a), added for the entire pavement structure or part of the pavement structure.

SN=(ajxtl + azxtz + a3xt3 + .... + anx t. )/25.4

where layer thickness (t) is measured in mm

Table 9.6 Material coefficients (a) for existing pavement layers

..... .r.: : .•...•..... < •.........•..

Surfacing:
.: Asphalt Concrete (AC), generally uri-cracked and with little deformation in the wheel
....
paths OAO
Portland cement concrete layers, generally uri-cracked
.. Asphalt Concrete (AC) that exhibit some cracking but with little deformation in the
...... wheel paths
0.30
\ Portland cement concrete layers, generally stable but has some cracks, however
....... containing no pieces smaller than 1 m2.
.' Asphalt Concrete (AC) that exhibit appreciable cracking, with some deformation in
the wheel paths, but is essentially stable 0.18
.: Appreciably cracked and faulted Portland cement concrete layer
....... Surface treatments with total thickness min 30 mm 0.20
.. ' Portland cement concrete layer, deliberately broken into pieces less than 0.5 m 0.16
•• across
. Base course:
i
i Bituminous layers other than AC, generally uri-cracked and with little deformation 0.30
.. Penetration macadam without infiltration of fines into the layer 0.20
Cement stabilised base course, generally without reflected cracking to the surface 018
......
.......... Cement stabilised base course, with extensive pattern cracking reflected to the surface 016
.: Bituminous layers other than AC, appreciably cracked and with some deformation
0.14
. ' Granular layer of crushed or natural material, PI max 8, CBR min 80 .
... Low grade base course, subbase or earthworks layers:
• Fully cracked cemented subbase or granular layers of natural gravel or with small
... proportions of crushed particles, CBR min 60 01?
Natural gravel of nominally subbase quality, CBR min 25 0.10
Natural gravel in improved subgrade layers, CBR min 10 0.08
...... .. ' . .: Ministry of Works

Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999

Required strength and strength deficiency

The calculation of strength deficiency (SNdiff) shall minimum be carried out for the top of subbase level and for the top of subgrade level in the existing pavement. Calculations are only required within the design depth, reference is made to /Chapter 5.1/ for determination of design depth. The calculation giving the highest SNdiff becomes the value for which the rehabilitation design is carried out.

The required structural number (SNrequi.re) shall be determined using Table 9. 7 with input CBR expressing support conditions at the calculated level in the existing pavement structure. The existing pavement's strength deficiency (SNdiff) at the calculated level in the structure is the difference between the required structural number (SNr'Quir'~ and the structural number of the existing pavement (SNexi) above the calculated level.

SNdiff = SNreqUired - SNexist

Table 9.7 Determination of required structural number, SN'''"fl';red

·i.>/Requiredstn,leturat rlllrnber,· •• SNr~quire~i·.·

SlIb-< ......•.......... ·····Traffidlo~u:frilal5sesi ..••.......•.•.•...•.....•...

g~~e .: TLC0:2TLd05TLC1..tLC:3 · •• Tl.C1 0 TLC20TLC50

> 30 1.10 1.25 1.60 1.90 2.35 3.00 350
15 -29 1.35 1.50 1.80 2.20 2.75 3.80 4.20
10 -14 1.60 1.80 2.10 2.50 300 4.10 4.50
7 - 9 '1.90 2.00 2.30 2.75 3.30 4.30 4.70
5-6 2.10 2.20 2.50 2.90 3.50 4.50 5.00
3-4 2.40 2.80 3.10 3.40 4.00 5.00 5.50 9.2.3 Mechanistic method

Mechanistic methods are theoretically derived through linear elastic theory and are based on a set of built-in distress criteria. The South African mechanistic design shall be used where a mechanistic method is applied /9-3/

The South African mechanistic method requires that the follow-ing information about the existing pavement is gathered:

Ii pavement type (test pit log and laboratory tests)
Wi pavement state (surface deflections: stiff/flexible)
II layer state (test pits: wet/dry/cracked)
m layer thickness (test pit log)
II layer moduli (laboratory tests: values are given in table) Correlation is made to a catalogue of pavement behaviour states on the basis of the above information about the existing pavement.

Ministry of Works

.·Co~mel1ts:··

Worked Example IAppendix AB. 51

Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999

9.3 Rehabilitation Options

9.3.0 General

The following options are available for pavement rehabilitation:

II overlays with a new surfacing

~ overlays with a new surfacing and base course

!!!:t! partial reconstruction by reworking the existing pavement and adding new pavement layers as required

Ii! full reconstruction by downgrading of the existing pavement to subgrade for the new pavement

Which method is the appropriate for a road section depends on the following: !I condition of the existing pavement

11l\l strength requirements for the new pavement II types of material in the existing pavement

!§l! available materials for construction of the new pavement !I required surface levels of the new road

liIll construction practicalities

9.3.1

Overlays

Applicability

Overlays are used for the following purposes:

l!'i!l to add sufficient structural strength so the pavement can c;]rry the

future traffic in the design period

!i'i:i1 to restore the riding quality of the pavement

Overlays shall not be used under the following conditions:

I.il on severely cracked pavements where there is a risk of early crack reflection through the new layers. Methods to minimise the risk of crack reflection are given in Chapter 9.4

!I:i on pavements with deformation (shoving) in bituminous layers unless repair or removal of the deformed material is carried out Chapter 9. 3. 2 liIll where there is uncertainty about the performance of the overlay due to defects in the existing base course or in patches in the existing pavement

Materials

Material types selected for overlays shall meet the requirements given in the design catalogue Chapter 8 - Pavement design - New Roads and in Chapter 7 - Pavement Materials. Material coefficients (a) for pavement and subgrade materials are given in Table 9.6.

Overlay design

When an overlay is placed, restoring of the drainage system shall always be included.

The general. requirement fur layer thicknesses is that ~IAX shall not exceed 2/3 of the compacted layer thickness. Table 9.9 gives alternative overlay designs for varying degrees of required strengthening.

Ministry of Works

Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999

Table 9.8 Material coefficients (a) for new pavement layers

'. Mab!rial ...
Type ()f.material
.' .... .... .... ... ' . coefficient (a)
Surfacing:
Asphalt Concrete surfacing (AC) OAO
Base course:
Bituminous base course, BEMIX, FBMIX, DBM, LAMBS 0.30
Penetration macadam, PM 0.25
Cement or lime stabilised materials, C2 020
Cement or lime stabilised materials, C 1 0.15
Cement or lime modified materials, CM 0.11
Granular, crushed base course materials, CRR 0.15
Granular, crushed base course materials, CRS 0.14
Natural gravel base course, G80 0.13
Natural gravel base course, G60 012
Subbase:
Cement or lime stabilised materials, C2 0.20
Cement or lime stabilised materials, C1 0.15
Cement or lime modified materials, CM 0.11
Granular, crushed materials used for subbase, CBR>45 0.11
Natural gravel subbase, G45 0.11
Natural gravel subbase, G25 0.10
Subgrade:
Natural gravel for improved subgrade, G15 0.09 All selection of surfacing type and base course material type shall meet the requirements for the respective traffic load class given in /Tables 8.4/ to fifl in /Chanter fi - POVPIJ1(.'nt Design - New roads!

Overlays with granular base course

Table 9.9 provides an option to use graded crushed rock as base course (eRR) in overlays. This option shall be used with discretion and particular attention to the following:

m the uudcrlyiug :SUI[Ul,;t; IIlU:Si. be freely drained, particularly where depressions or ruts are present, in order to avoid water being trapped in the new base course layer

!I the layer thickness given in Table 9.9 shall not be compromised by unevenness in the existing surface, consideration shall be given to reprocessing ofthe existing pavement (partial reconstruction) if the existing surface is deformed

Ministry of Works

Pavement Rehabilitation

Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999

~ eu mm

~ 50mm

_ eo n-rn

ST

Elsumm

Only TLC 10 or lower

S7

rPM"E::J 50 mm

ST Fl100mm

__ ac mm

ST EJ10CIllnl CklhrTLCiOorloweJ

~omm ~50mm

a!ternatilJely~ ST

r=i-

100mm

BiI 1GOmm

alternatively"

ST

EJ120mm Only,le 10 or IOWl>f

alternatively; ST

Fl'2smm

ST

El~mm

• 120mm

~~mm ~oomm

"';te>;I"\"th.,d!,l"

ST

..El'40mm

0'1Iy11.C100ltOW-E>:

attern~l:ivECIIi

ST

~50mm ~ 1DOmm

The appropriate type of bituminous base course shall be selected depending on traffic load class according to /Tsble 8.71 in IChapter 8 - Pavement Design - New Roads!

Best suited for roads with low traffic speed such as urban roads. For roads with high traffic speed a levelling course made of a bituminous mix may be necessary to provide satisfactory riding quality.

Limited to me conditions given in /Tetses 8.4/ and /13.5( In (Chapter 8 - f'avement Design - New Roads! with regards to traffic loading and climate.

Consideration shall be given to reprocessing of the existing pavement.

1)

2)

3)

~50mm ~25mm

a,'temati'lely:

ST

~oomm .l:::.._I100 mm

~5Dmm ~25mm

eltemafively ST

_Dmm

200mm

Ministry of Works

Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999

9.3.2

Partial reconstruction

General

Partial reconstruction IS reprocessmg or removal of material from the existing pavement to let the existing pavement form either base course or subbase in the new pavement. Whether the existing pavement forms a new base course or a new subbase depends UIl.

m the material properties of the existing pavement layers !1:!l the condition of the existing pavement

[I the strength requirements for the new pavement ~ any required adjustments of road levels

The pavement design caralogno, lTahles X 41 to 18 8/ in IChaptPr 8 -Pavement design - New Roads/ shall be used for selection of pavement layers.

Reprocessing the old pavement to base course in the new pavement The base course, consisting of the reprocessed old pavement, shall fulfil the requirements for base course in accordance with the design catalogue.

Reprocessing the old pavement to subbase in the new pavement

The subbase, consisting of the reprocessed old pavement, shall :fulfil the requirements for subbase in accordance with the design catalogue.

9.3.3 Full reconstruction

Full reconstruction is when the existing pavement is reprocessed to improved subgrade in the new pavement, whether or not reworking is carried out.

The pavement design catalogue, /Tables 8.4/ to /8.8/ in IChapter 8 - Pavement design - New Roads/ shall be used for selection of surfacing, base course and subbase. The subgrade, consisting of the old pavement, shall meet the requirement for subgrade /Chapter 5 - Subgrade/.

Methods to Prevent Reflective Cracking

9.4.0 General

9.4

Special materials and methods may be used for the purpose of minimising reflection of cracks from the underlying surface below asphalt concrete overlays. Special binders are also available for use in surface treatments for maintenance reseals. Special methods or materials shall only be considered in the cases when alternative conventional rehabilitation options incur considerable additional cost or are unlikely to be successful.

9.4.1 Conventional methods for overlays

Conventional options to minimise crack reflection through overlays shall always be considered and include the following:

!II partly or full removal (milling) of the cracked layer is often a preferred option where the cracks do not extend deep into the pavement

~ overlays using penetration macadam prevents crack reflection

1!lfi! removal ofthe cracked layer in individual locations - and patching - before overlay is cost effective where the total cracked area is small

Ministry of Works

Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999

Iii increasing the thickness of the asphalt overlay will delay the crack reflection through new layers, but carries risks of not being cost effective if the time until crack reflection proves to be shorter than expected

1lI individual sealing of cracks may be effective in cases where traffic is low, cracks arc few and considered Hot vel y aLCLi VI::

!!!l& provision of a thick granular overlay (new base course) before placing the asphalt surfacing

9.4.2 Special methods and materials for overlays General

There is no standard measure to arrest crack reflection that is suited for every situation and successful solutions require good knowledge of each case in order to ensure that the most appropriate method is selected. The cost effectiveness - and likelihood of success - when applying specialised materials or methods shall be carefully assessed and documented before application in the works. No added structural strength shall be attributed to the presence of such layers in the pavement

Interlayer systems

There is a considerable number of specialised systems available for prevention of crack reflection in overlays. These include the use of:

II gee-textiles impregnated with binder II reinforcement by the use of grids

iI combinations of geo-textiles and grids

!Ii interlayer systems with thin sand asphalt

iI surface treatment with modified or conventional binder before placing the overlay

II a membrane made of polyester threads or glass fibre in combination with a bituminous binder

il!tl specialised binders or mix designs, or special materials such as fibres,

in the overlay mix

~ reprocessing of the existing asphalt surface by the aid of heating

Any specialised method under consideration shall be assessed together with conventional alternatives to select the most cost effective and technically appropriate option. Any modification of the overlay mix itself shall not compromise the ability of the layer to withstand plastic deformation under traffic.

9.4.3

Surface treatments

Specialised surface treatments utilising special binders such as bitumen with rubber or polymer modified binders may be used for the purpose of enhancing the ability of a maintenance reseal to arrest crack reflection. The designer shall consider whether alternative multi-layer reseals by the use of conventional binders, or increased resealing frequency, are likely to give similar results as specialised binders, and make estimations of which is the more cost effective solution

Ministry of Works

Pavement and Materials Design Manual - 1999

References

9 1 AMERICAN SOCIETYFOR TESTINGAND .MATERIALS (1987).

Annual Book of ASTM Standards, VoL 4.08. Philadelphia, USA

9 - 2 AUS1ROADS (1992): Pavement Design: A guide to the structural design of road pavements. Sydney, Australia.

9 - 3 COMivliTTEE OF STATE ROAD AUTHORITIES. Draft TRH 12 (1997): Bituminous pavement rehabilitation design. CSRA, Pretoria, Republic of South Africa.

9 - 4 COMMITTEE OF STATE ROAD AUTHORITIES. TMH 5 (1981):

Sampling methods for road construction materials, CSRA, Pretoria, Republic of South Africa.

9 - 5 E~1BY, J, C R JONES, and M S MUSTAFA (1992). The use of hot surface treatment to rehabilitate cracked asphalt concrete surfacings in Malaysia. Proc. the seventh REAM. Conference, Singapore, June 1992.

9 - 6 SOUTHERN AFRICAN TRANSPORT AND COMMlJ1'..,}CATION C011MISSION - SATCC (1998). Draft: Code of practice for pavement rehabilitation CSIR, Pretoria, South Africa, for SATCC.

9 - 7 HIGHWAY RESEARCH BOARD (1962). The AASHO Road Test.

Report 5, Pavement Research. Highway Research Board Special Report No. 61E. National Research Council, Washington DC, USA

9 - 8 HIZAM HARUN, M and C R JONES (1992). The performance of polymer modified asphaltic concrete on climbing lanes in Malaysia. Proc. the sixteenthARRB Conference, November 1992, Melbourne, Australia.

9 - 9 HIZAM HARu'N, M and G MOROSIUK (1995). A study of the performance of various bituminous surfacings for use on climbing lanes. Proc. eighth REAA.'\ conference, Taipei, April 1995.

9 -10 QUEENSLAND TRANSPORT (June 1992). Pavement rehabilitation manual. Pavements and Asset Strategy Branch, Qneensland Transport, Australia.

9 - 11 RILEM REPORT 18 (1997). Prevention of Reflective Cracking in Pavements, Edited by AVanelstraete and L.Francken.

9 - 12 ROLT, J, H R S1vIITH and C R JONES, (1986). The design and performance of bituminous overlays in tropical environments. Proc. Second International Conference on Bearing Capacity of Roads and Airfields, Plymouth, Bristol, UK.

9 - 13 ROLT, J, M S HA.SIM, M HAMEED and Z Sl3FFIAN (1996). The prediction and treatment of reflection cracking in thin bituminous overlays. Second Malaysian Road Conference'So, Innovations in Road Building, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

9 - 14 THE ASPHALT INSTITUTE (1969). Asphalt overlays and pavement rehabilitation. Asphalt Institute manual (MS-17), USA

9 - 15 KENNEDY CK, LISTER NW (1978). Prediction of pavement performance and the design of overlays. TRRL Laboratory report 833. Crowthorne, UK.

9 -16 TRANSPORT RRSFARCH TARORATORY (1993). A guide to the structural design of bitumen-surfaced roads in tropical and subtropical countries. Overseas Road Note No. 31. TRL, Crowthome, for ODA, London, lJK.

9 - 17 WbSlON U J (lY~U). Expansive soil treatment tor southern Africa.

Proc. 4th International Conference on Expansive Soils, Denver, USA. 9 - 18 YODER E J, WITCZAK M W (1975). Principles of pavement design.

Sec:nncl edition A Wiley-Interscience Publication, USA and Canada,

Ministry of Works

9.21