LearnToFlySingaporeScholarship

2017

StudyKit

Part1





BasicKnowledge





RunwayOrientation

WhichRunway?

Moorabbinairporthas17/35,13/31&04/22runway,whereairplanesstartandlandinone
directionduringcertainperiodsandintheoppositedirectionduringotherperiods.Howisthe
directiondetermined?

Runwayinuseisbasedonwind,mostofthetime,withaircrafttakingoffintothewind.

RadioCommunication

InternationalRadiotelephonySpellingAlphabet

Part2





FlightTraining




PrimaryControls

ElevatorPitchRotateLateralAxis
AileronsRollRotateLongitudinalAxis
RudderYawRotateNormalAxis

TailConstruction

The front, fixed section of the horizontal tail is called the horizontal stabilizer and is used to
prevent the airplane from pitching up or down. The rear section is called the elevator and is
usually hinged to the horizontal stabilizer. The elevator is a movable airfoil that controls the
upanddown motion of the aircraft's nose. Refer to Figure 1 for a diagram of the control and
stabilitysurfacesonanaircraft.

The vertical tail structure isdividedintotheverticalstabilizerandtherudder.Thefrontsectionis

called the vertical stabilizer and is used to prevent the aircraft from yawing backandforth.The
principle behind its operation is much like the principle of a deep keel (the timber at the very
bottom of a boat's hull to which the frame is attached) on a sailboat which helps the boat from
rolling side to side. In light,inasingleengineaircraft,italsoservestooffsetthetendencyofthe
aircrafttorollintheoppositedirectioninwhichthepropellerisrotating.

The rear section of the vertical structure is the rudder. It is a movable airfoilthatisusedtoturn
the aircraft. Engineers have to be aware of the construction of the wings when testing their


designs. When designing and testing planes, engineers make several test flights with different
wings and wing designs. The rudder and tail are alsoimportantinthedesignofmostairplanes,
almostlikethetailofakite,inthatthesetwocomponentsalsogreatlyaffectflightcapability.

WingTerminology

Camber
Thecamberofawingisthecurvaturewhichispresentontopandbottomsurfaces.The
curvatureontopiswhatcausesthevelocityoftheairtoincreaseandthestaticpressureto
decrease.Thebottomofthewinghaslessvelocityandmorestaticpressure,whichiswhythe
winggenerateslift.

ChordLine
Thechordlineisanimaginarystraightlinerunningfromthewingsleadingedgetoitstrailing
edge.

RelativeWind
Whateverdirectiontheairplaneisflying,therelativewindisintheoppositedirection.Speedof
therelativewindwillbethesameastheaircraft.

AngleofAttack
Theanglebetweenthechordlineandtherelativewindistheangleofattack.Astheangleof
attackincreases,theliftonthewingincreases.

CamberedAirfoilPressurePatterns

The pressure distribution pattern developedbythiscambered(nonsymmetrical)airfoil.Theuppersurface

has pressures distributed which produce the upper surface lift. The lower surface has pressures
distributed which producethelowersurfaceforce.Netliftproducedbytheairfoilisthedifferencebetween
liftontheuppersurfaceandtheforceonthelowersurface.Netliftiseffectivelyconcentratedatapointon
thechordcalledtheCenterOfPressure.
When the angle of attack is increased, Upper surface lift increases relative to the lower surface force.
Since the two vectors are not located at the same point along the chord line, a twisting force is exerted
about the center of pressure. Center of pressure also moves along the chord line when angle of attack
changes,becausethetwovectorsareseparated.

SymmetricalAirfoilPressurePatterns
Upper surface lift and lower surface lift vectors are oppositeeachotherinsteadofbeingseparatedalong
the chord line as inthecamberedairfoil.Whentheangleofattackisincreasedtodeveloppositivelift,the
vectors remain essentially opposite each other and the twisting force is not exerted. Center of pressure
remains relatively constant even when angle of attack is changed. This is adesirablecharacteristicfora
rotorblade,becauseitchangesangleofattackconstantlyduringeachrevolution.


PitchingMoment

The sign of the pitchingmomentcoefficientindicateswhetherapitchingmomentwillpitchthenoseofthe

aircraft up (+) or down ().PitchingmomentsabouttheaircraftCGarecausedbychangesintotalliftasit
isdistributedbetweenthewings,fuselage,andtailsurfaces.Totalliftactsthroughtheaerodynamiccenter
of the entire aircraft. If controls are fixed at the trim position, a constant AOA results andazeropitching
momentexists.

If the AOA is increased to a higher value of CL than indicated at the trim point, a negative pitching
moment must be present to return the aircraft to the trim AOA. Figure 74, point A reflects this. For an
aircrafttoexhibitpositivelongitudinalstability,theslopeofCMversustheCLcurvemustbenegative.The
degree of the slope indicates the degree of stability. A steeper slope shows stronger pitching moments
withchangesinCLsogreaterstabilityexists.

The trim point location is important in aircraft design. The trim point must occur at some usable AOA,
between zero lift and the stalling AOA. To satisfy the preceding requirements, the neutral point, or
aerodynamic center of the aircraft, must be aft of the CG of the aircraft. If a sudden gust pitches the
aircraft to a higher AOA, the increase in overall lift of theaircraft,actingthroughtheaerodynamiccenter,
createsanegativepitchingmoment.Thistendstoreturntheaircrafttoitsequilibriumposition.

AerodynamicCenter(AC)

Overall static stability of theaircraftdependsontheCGspositioninrelationtotheaerodynamiccenterof

the aircraft. Allpartsoftheaircraftcontributetoitsstaticstability.Themomentscontributedbythewingor


other parts depend on the location of the wings aerodynamic center or the other aircraft parts being
considered in relationtotheCG.Together,thesemomentsdeterminewheretheneutralpointislocated.If
airflowisincompressible,thewingsaerodynamiccenterisaboutthe25percentchordofthewing.

It is accepted that lift normally acts through the aerodynamic center of an airfoil, when actually, the
aerodynamic force, of which lift is a component, acts through the center ofpressure.Asanglesofattack
change, the center of pressure moves back and forth on the airfoil. Unequal pressure distributiononthe
wing creates a moment. The moment about the wings aerodynamic center should not be confusedwith
themomentabouttheaircraftCG.

The AC isapointontheaerofoilthatdoesnotmoveasyouchangeangleofattack.Ifyouimagineapivot
point on the trailing edge then the aerodynamic forces would make the aerofoil pivot leading edge up
about that point. If you now imagine the pivot point at the leading edge then theaerodynamicforceswill
make the aerofoil pivot trailing edge up about that point. If that is so, then there must be a point
somewhere between the leading edge and the trailingedgewheretherewillbenochangeinthepitching
moment of the aerofoil as the pressure pattern on the aerofoil changes. That is the ACanditisfoundat
about25%ofthechord.

4Forces
Aerodynamics, the study of flight, isfoundedonfourbasicforceslift,weight,thrustanddrag.
The interaction of these forces explains the movement of objects as they soar through thesky.
What seems like magic a several ton object flying, like an airplane flyingthroughthesky!
isactuallybasedonthelawsofphysicsandthesefourforces.

Diagramofanairlinershowingvectorsforlift,thrust,dragandweight.

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The first force, lift, pushes up on things that fly airplanes,birds,helicoptersandrockets.The

shapeofthewingsonanairplaneandthewhirlingbladesofahelicoptercreateliftastheymove
throughtheair.

The second force is weight the force of two masses being attracted to eachother.Weightis
the force that pulls us towards the center of the earth, and why things fall down. Weight is the
force exerted on all objects by gravity. However, in order to talk about weight, we must first
understand mass. Mass is a measure of how much "stuff" there isinanobject.Themassofan
object is independent of where the object is. For example, a person with a mass of 100
kilograms on earth will still have a mass of 100 kilograms on the moon. The forceofgravityon
an object,ontheotherhand,determinesweight.SincegravityonEarthisaboutsixtimesthatof
themoon,apersononEarthweighssixtimesmorethantheydoonthemoon.


The third force is thrust. Thrust is created by the jet engines or propellers of an airplane. Birds
create thrust (and lift!) with their wings. Thrust pushes things that are flying. Imagine you are
floating in space holding a huge bowling ball. If you were to throw the bowling ball in one
direction, you would move in the opposite direction. The same is true with jets, rockets and
propellers,exceptinsteadofabowlingball,theythrowairoranothergas.Thismovementofgas
(air) is called thrust: the force that causes an airplane to move forwards. Not only does thrust
push the airplane forwards, but that movement also allows the wings to create lift. We learned
thatliftiscreatedwhenairmovesfasteroverthetopofthewing.

The fourth force is drag. Drag pushes against things moving through the air. It is causedbyair
particles bumping into the object. An object that is going faster bumps into more air particles,
and so experiences more drag. Similarly, an object with a large surface area bumps into more
particles,andexperiencesmoredrag.

When the forces are not balanced,flyingobjectsspeedup,slowdownorchangedirection.This

is called acceleration. For example, when the thrust force is bigger than the drag force, an
airplane speeds up. When the lift force is bigger than the weight force, the airplane goes up
faster.

When forces are balanced, objects do not accelerate. An airplane that isflyinginastraightline
at a certain speed has balanced forces. An airplane can even be going up or down and have
balanced forces. As long as the airplane is not turning, speeding up or slowing down (in any
direction,evenupanddown!)theforcesarebalanced.

Sometimes, two of the forces may be the same thing. For example, a rocket engine pushes a
rocket straight up, providing both lift and thrust. A parachute couldbecaughtinanupdraft,and
then the drag force could also provide lift. Not all four forces need to be present, either if
there is no wind, a hot air balloon would not have any thrust acting upon it, only lift, drag and
weight. This may seem confusing, but that's okay. The important thing to remember is that the
interaction offorces(whateverthey'recalled)isresponsibleforeverythingthatspeedsup,slows
down,staysstillormovesataconstantspeed.

Force: Something that acts from the outside to push or pull an object. For
example,anadultpullingachildinawagonexertsaforceuponthewagon.


Weight: The force of a mass being attracted to another mass. For example, the
Earth's mass pulls youdownacertainamount(sometimescalled"theforce
of gravity"). When you stand on a scale, this force is measured as your
weight.Produce

Lift: The force that pushes an airplane up into the air. Lift is caused by the
shapeofanairplane'swings.

Thrust: The force that pushes an airplane forward. Thrust can be produced on
airplanesbypropellersorjetengines.

Drag: The force that slows an airplane or parachute down. Drag is causedbyair
particleshittingagainstamovingobject.

Acceleration: A change in direction, orspeedinguporslowingdown.Whenyoupushthe

gaspedalonacartostartafterastopsign,thecaraccelerates.

HowDoesBernoulli'sPrincipleCreateLift?
The wings are the parts of an airplane that create lift. If we look at a wing from the side, as in
Figure 2, we can see that it is shaped somewhatlikeateardrop,withathick,roundedfrontend
and a thin, pointed back end. The curve on the top ofthewingislongerthanthebottom,which
means air traveling across the topofthewinghastomovefastertokeepupwiththeairmoving
under the wing. According to Bernoulli's principle, there must belesspressureonthetopofthe
wingthanonthebottomofthewing.

Figure2.Bernoulli'sprincipledemonstratedonanairplanewing.

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The result of this difference in air pressure is a net upward force called lift. As illustrated in
Figure 3, the air moving under the wing moves slower and exerts more pressure/force on the
wing than does the air moving over the wing. Since there is more force under the wing than
above it, the net result is that the wing rises up hence, lift. This principle forms the basis of
wingedflight.


Figure3.Howawingproduceslift.

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Flaps are present onthefrontandbackedgesofwings.Duringtakeoffandlanding,pilotsextend

the flaps on the back edge of thewing.Theflapsincreasethecamber(curve)ofthewing,which
maintains the lift at slower speeds. After takeoff, the pilot retracts the flaps for normal flight.
Engineers use wind tunnels and computers to continuously test wing designs to determine their
lift.

WingLiftCreation

A wing creates lift based on two effects: Bernoulli's principle and Newton's third law. The
curvature of the wing uses the reduction in static pressureabovethewing(Bernoulli)sothatthe
pressure below it is greaterthuspushingthewingupward.Whenairflowpassesaroundthewing
or aerofoil it is deflected downward due to the angle of attack, thus creating an upward force
(Newton).

These two effects combined create an upward force called lift and a rearward force called drag
andthemagnitudedependsonanumberoffactorsasweshallseebelow.

Liftformula


As we all (should) know, the lift formula givesusagoodrepresentationofwhatisgoingon:L=1/2V2x

S x CL. Where 1/2 V2 is air density times true airspeed resultingindynamicenergy,Siswingareaand

CLthecoefficientlift.Changeanyofthesevariablesandtheamountofliftwillchangetoo.

For example: if you were tochangespeed(everythingelsebeingequal),theamountofliftwillchangeand

the aircraft will change altitude. For as lift (L) opposes weight (W) and if these two forces are equal, the

aircraftwillremainatthesamelevel,oraltitude.

Dynamicenergy,(1/2V2)

As already mentioned: air density times true airspeed results in dynamic energy, this caused by the

movement of the aircraft in the surrounding air stream and it is indicated as IAS (indicated airspeed) to

ircraftspeeds.
thepilot.Seealsoa

Coefficientlift,(CL)

The two most common waystoincreasethevalueofCLmaxarebyincreasingthecamberoftheairfoilor

delaying the boundarylayer separation. The stall speedisinverselyproportionaltothesquarerootofthe
value of CLmax. If this value is increased, then the stall speed is lowered or a greater weight can be
supportedwiththesamestallspeed.


Wingarea,(S)

Changing the amount of wingareachangestheamountoflifttoo.Certaintypeofflaps(Fowlertypes,

forexample)extendbehindthewingthusincreasingthewingarea(S).

During flight, the wing area (S) is more or less constant for a given wing configuration so we can

assume that stall speed is influenced by angle of attack (AOA) and indicated airspeed alone: Lift =

IAS x CL. Thus for a flight at a constant altitudethereisonlyoneIASmatchedbyoneAOAresulting

inliftequaltoweightandtheaircraftwillnotclimbordescend.


AngleofAttack,(AOA)

Definition: The angle of attack is the angle between the chord of the airfoil (determined by wing form)

andtheincomingrelativeairflow.

Now imagine that the pilot wants to reduce speed and remain at the same altitude. IAS reduces thus

the AOA must increase so that resulting lift still equals the actual weight. This process may continue

until AOA reaches its maximum angle, after which the wing will absolutelystall.Andthisspeedisyour

basiclevelstallspeed,VS,importantforlandings.

MoreAboutDrag

WhatisDrag?
Drag is a force that acts on an object in the opposite directionthanthatobjectismoving.Anobjectmust
be moving through some kind of fluid for drag to occur. A fluid is a substance in which the particles can
movepasteachotherfreely.Themostobviousfluidiswater,butgases,includingair,arefluidsaswell.

HowdoesDragSlowanAirplane?
Air is the fluid through which airplanes move. When an airplane flies through the air, it runs into air
molecules which cause the airplane to slow down. Energy from themovingplaneistransferredtotheair
molecules. In other words, some of the kinetic energy (energy it possesses because of its motion) from
the airplane is given to theairmolecules,slowingdowntheairplaneandspeedingupthesurroundingair.
The amount ofenergylostbytheairplaneisexactlytheamountofenergytransferredtotheair.Thisisan
example of the First Law of Thermodynamics that states energy can neither be created nor destroyed.
Engineers often refer to the First LawofThermodynamicsastheConservationofEnergyprinciple,which
meansthatenergyisalwaysconserved.Energyhastogosomewhereandinthecaseofdrag,theenergy
in the movement of anobjectistransferredintomovingthegasinthepathoftheobject(inthecaseofan
airplane, movingtheairaroundit).Thistransferofenergyresultsinthreetypesofdrag:frictiondrag,form
dragandinduceddrag.

Friction drag comesfromairmovingacrossthesurfaceoftheairplane.Onaverysmallscale,thesurface

of an airplane is rough, likesandpaper.Ifyourunyourhandoversandpaper,thesandpapercatchesyour
skin and slows down, or stops, the movement of your hand. The same thing happens with an airplane.
The "skin" of the airplane catches the air particles next to it and tries to pull the air particles along. This
slowstheairplanedownasairparticlesspeedup.

Form drag is caused by the airplane pushing air molecules tothesidesotheairplanecanpassbythem.

A streamlined shape (likeanairplanewing)willhaveverylittleformdrag.Anonstreamlinedshape,likea
parachute,willhavealotofformdrag.


Figure1.Induceddragatthetipofanairplanewing.

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InducedDrag

1. Air flowing over the top of a wing tends to flowinwardsbecausethedeceasedpressureoverthe

topsurfaceislessthanthepressureoutsidethewingtip

2. Below the wing, the air flows outwards because the pressure below thewingisgreaterthanthat
outsidethewingtip

3. Thereisacontinualspillingofairupwardsaroundthewingtip

4. Since the streams of air from above and below the wing which meet along the trailing edge are
flowing at an angle to each other as they meet, they combine to form vortices, which, when
viewedfromtherear,rotateclockwisefromtheleftwingandcounterclockwisefromtheright.The
tendency is for these vortices to move outwards towards the wing tip joining up as they do so.
Eventually,bythetimethewingtipisreached,onelargewingtipvortexhasformedandisshed.

5. Most of the air flowing off the top of a wing downwash continues more or less horizontally
towards the empennage because it is balanced by a corresponding upwash in front of the wing
leading edge. In contrast, the upwards air movement which leads to vortex consolidationatthe
tip is just outside the tip whereas the corresponding downward movementisjustattheextremity
ofthewingspansothatthenetdirectionofairflowpastthewingisdownwards.

6. The lift created by the wing which is by definition at right angles to the airflow, is therefore
inclinedslightlybackwardsandthuscontributesdraginduceddrag


ReducingInducedDrag

AspectRatio

With a high aspect ratio,thelargerthewingaspectratio,thelessairdisturbanceiscreatedatthetip.The

proportion of air which moves in this way is reduced and therefore more of itgenerateslift.However,for
most aircraft, there arebothpracticallimitstomaximumwingspanforgroundmanoeuvringandstructural
issues which mean thateventually,theweightpenaltytoadequatelystrengthenalongthinwingbecomes
excessive.

WingDesign

Based upon reducing the quantity air movement upwards at the wing tip byaimingtogeneraterelatively
more of the lift away fromtips.Wingtapertowardsthetipassiststhisasdoeswingtwist.TheBoeing767
is a example of a twisted wing. The inner wing is set at a higherAngleofAttackthantheouterwingand
thus generates proportionately more lift whereas the tip, at a very small Angle of Attack generates very
little.

Winglets

Wingtip devices increase the lift generated at the wingtip bysmoothingtheairflowacrosstheupperwing

near the tip and reduce theliftinduceddragcausedbywingtipvortices,improvinglifttodragratio.Italso
increase the effective aspect ratio of a wing without materially increasing the wingspan. An extension of
span would lower liftinduced drag, but would increase parasitic drag and would require boosting the
strengthandweightofthewing.


Blendedwinglets

Winglets do reduce drag, but they actually generate a bit of lift due to the way in which wingtip vortices
strike the leading edges of the winglet...but that only happens to asignificantdegreewhenthewingisat
higher anglesofattacklikeinclimbconfigurations.Aircraftwithwingletsareshorterrange...likethe737.It
makes more sense and saves more fuel to optimize theclimbandapproachsegmentsthanitdoestotry
tooptimizethecruisephaseoftheflight.

737,757,767,A320

Wingtipfence

RakedWingtip

The tip of the wing has a higher degree ofsweepthantherestofthewing.Itdoesthisinmuchthesame

way that winglets do, by increasing the effective aspect ratio of the wingandinterruptingharmfulwingtip
vortices.

Raked wingtips on the other hand don't generate lift...what they do is reduce drag in a special way by
redirecting wingtip drag (vortices) farther outboard and aft of the rest of thewinganditalsoredistributes
the lift across the entire wing (called wing loading). The result is that they work in ultra long cruise
segments. They don't depend on wing angle of attack, and they reduce fuel consumption when engine
powerisalreadysettocruise.

767400,777,747800,and787

HybridDesign

The Boeing 737 MAX uses a new type of wingtip device. Resembling a threeway hybrid between a
blendedwinglet,wingtipfence,andrakedwingtip

MoreAboutThrust

HowisThrustCreated?

Airplane thrust is created by three principle mechanisms: propellers, jet engines, and rocket
engines. All three engine types rely on Newton's 3rd Law of Motion, whichstatesthatforevery
action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. All airplane engines push air backwards.


Newton's 3rd Law predicts that the airplane will move forwards with an equal and opposite
force.Thisreactionforceisknownasthrust.

HowdoPropellersGenerateThrust?

Propellers are comprised of multiple, individual blades (of various sizes, depending on the
overall size of the propeller),whichareeachshapedlikesmallwings.Liftiscreatedononeside
of the propeller blade as it rotates through the air. This lift then pulls the propeller forwards
because it is oriented vertically not horizontally like the wings(whichallowmovementupwards,
orlift).Thepropellerthenpullsontheengineandtherestoftheairplane.

Engine&PropellerRPM

The propeller on a lowhorsepower engine is usually mounted on a shaft which may be an

extension of the engine crankshaft.Inthiscase,theRPMofthepropellerwouldbethesameas
the engine RPM. If thepropellerisafixedpitchandthespeedoftheengineandpropelleristhe
same,atachometeristheonlyindicatorofenginepower.

A tachometer is calibrated in hundreds of RPM, and gives a direct indication of theengineand

propeller RPM. There is a condition under which the tachometer does not show correct power
output oftheengine.Thisoccurswhenoperatingaltitudeincreases.Forexample,2,300RPMat
5,000 feet produce less horsepower than 2,300 RPM at sealevel.Thereasonforthisisthatair
density decreases as altitude increases. Power output depends on air density, therefore
decreasing the density decreases the power output of the engine. As altitude changes, the
position of the throttlemustbechangedtomaintainthesameRPM.Asaltitudeisincreased,the
throttlemustbeopenedfurthertoindicatethesameRPMasataloweraltitude.

On higher horsepower engines, the propeller is mounted on a shaft geared to the engine
crankshaft.Inthistype,theRPMofthepropellerisdifferentthanthatoftheengine.

Slipstream

The propeller pushes air backward with thesamediameterasitselfwhichaddsmomentumtothetubeof

air where momentum = mass velocity, and isalsoavectorquantity.Thetubeofaccelerated,energised
airistheslipstream.Thereactionpullstherestoftheaircraftalongbehind.

ThrustLine


Since lift and weight do not act in the same line, they make up what is known as a couple. This couple
has a turning effect on the aircraft, pitching the nose downward. In addition, the lineofactionofthrustis
normally below the drags lineofaction,becauseenginesarenormallypositionedmidwayorloweronthe
aircraft body. The thrust and drag forces constitute an opposite couple, the effect of whichistopitchthe
noseupwards.Thus,thecouplescanceleachotherout.

HowDoJetEnginesGenerateThrust?

Jet engines are much more complex. First, air is pulled into the engine through an inlet and
compressor. The compressor pushes the air into a combustion chamber at a high pressure.
Then, liquid fuel is continually sprayed into the combustion chamber and burned. This creates
exhaust gas, which is at an extremely high temperature andpressure.The(exhaust)gasinthe
combustionchambertriestoexpandasaresultoftheincreaseintemperature,creatingextreme
pressure. This highpressure gas exits the engine through a turbine and nozzle. It is this
highpressure gas leaving the engine at such a high speed that pushes the engine forwards.
This is similar to letting the air out of a balloon. The air molecules are pushed backwards and
the balloon is pushed forwards. This is again an example of Newton's 3rd Law of Motion. The
action is the air being pushed backwards from the engine the reaction is the engine being
pushedforwards.


Figure2.ThepartsofaPratt&Whitneyjetengine.
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Stall

BoundaryLayer

Duringflight,therearetwotypesofairflowalongtheuppercamberofanairfoilturbulentand
laminar(smooth).Turbulentandlaminarflowareseparatedbyapointoftransitionor
separationpointastheangleofattackisincreased,theportionoftheupperairflowthatis
turbulentalsoincreases(itmigratesforwardfromthetrailingedge)andthereforeproduces
increaseddrag.

Vortexgeneratorsaresmallfins(approximately1inchtall)thatareplacedalongtheleading
edgeofanairfoilthevortexgeneratorsarethemselvessmallairfoilsthatareplaced
perpendiculartotheupperwingsurface,andarepositionedsoastomeetthelaminarflow
comingoverthewingwithaslightangleattackthevortexgenerators,asthenameimplies,
generatevorticeswhichregeneratetheboundarylayeranddelayturbulentflow(boundarylayer
separation).

Stall

Stalloccursatthecriticalangleofattack,whereinduceddrag(airfoildrag)exceedsliftthe
wingcannolongerproducesufficientlifttocounteractweight.Astheairfoilapproachesthe
criticalangleofattack,thepointoftransition,orseparationpoint,movesforwardenoughto
exceedthedesignfactorofthewing.Incontrast,thecentreofpressuremovesforwardasthe
angleofattackisincreaseduntilthecriticalangleofattackisachievedwhenastalloccurs,the
centreofpressuremovesrearward,causingtheinstabilityassociatedwithstallphenomena.

Assaidearlier,thestallingangleisusually1620.Sincemostaircraftlackangleofattack
indicators,airfoilangleismeasuredbyindicatedairspeed(IAS)ourbestestimateoftheactual
angleofattack.Asarule,aircraftwillusuallystallnearthestallingspeedpublishedinthePilot
OperatingHandbookhowever,IASdoesnotalwaysaccuratelyindicateangleofattack,asin
thecaseofahighspeedstall.

FactorsthataffecttheStall

Contaminants.Snow,frost,iceanddirtallofthesedisruptthelaminarflowandtherefore
reduceairfoilliftcapability.Itisillegaltoflywithsnow,frost,oriceadheringtocriticalsurfaces


oftheaircraftwings,controlsurfaces,rotors,propellers,horizontalstabilizers,vertical
stabilizersoranyotherstabilisingsurfaceofanaircraft.Contaminationtotheextentofmedium
tocoarsesandpaperwillreduceliftby30%andincreasedragby40%.

Weight.Increasedweightrequiresincreasedliftandanincreasedangleofattackthereforethe
criticalangleofattack(stall)willoccurathigherairspeeds.Statedanotherway,iftwoaircraft
aretravellingatthesameairspeed,butoneisheavierthantheother,theangleofattackofthe
heavieraircraftisgreaterthanthelighteraircraftandthereforethatmuchclosertothecritical
angleofattack.

CentreofGravity.StallingspeedincreasesastheaircraftCofGmovesforward.AstheCofG
movesforward,thenegativeliftgeneratedbythehorizontaltailsurfacewillhavetobe
increased.Anyincreaseinthenegativeliftproducedbythetailwilleffectivelyincreasethe
aerodynamicweightoftheaircraftproducingthesameeffectasdescribedabovewithrespect
toweight.Conversely,stallingspeedsdecreaseastheCofGmovesaftaslessnegativeliftis
requiredfromthetailandtheaircraftisaerodynamicallylighter.Whilethebenefitsofarearward
CofGisalowerstallspeed,theadverseresultofarearwardCofGislessstabilityasthereis
lesstailforcethatcanbemanipulatedbythepilotthroughelevatororstabilatorcontrol.

Turbulence.Upwardverticalgustsabruptlyincreasetheangleofattackbeyondthestalling
angle,irrespectiveofairspeed.

Turns.Duringaturninlevelflight,greaterliftisrequiredtooffsetincreasedloadfactorthe
criticalangleofattackisthereforereachedathigherairspeeds.Theformulaisas
followsnormalstallingspeedtimesthesquarerootoftheloadfactorequalsbankedstall
speedaccordingly,anaircraftwithastallspeedof50KTSina60bankedturn(loadfactorof
2.0)willstallat71KTS.

Duringaclimbingturn,theinnerwinghasasmallerangleofattackthantheouterwingthe
outerwingwillthereforestallfirst.Thereverseisthecasefordescendingturn,wheretheinner
winghasalargerangleofattackandwillthereforestallfirst.2

Flaps.Anincreaseinairfoilliftisproducedbytheuseofflaps,andthestallspeedisdecreased
bytheiruse.

Part3





AircraftComponents&Others




PitotStaticSystem

The pitotstatic system of instruments uses the principle of air pressure gradient. It works by measuring
pressures or pressure differences and using these values to assess the speed and altitude. These
pressures can be measured either from the static port (static pressure) or the pitot tube (pitotpressure).
The static pressure is used in all measurements, while the pitot pressure is only used to determine
airspeed.

PitotTubeBlocked,IASincreaseswithaltitudegainanddecreasewithaltitudeloss.

Static Port Blocked, a blocked static port will cause the Altimetertofreezeataconstantaltitudeatwhich
the static port became blocked. The VSI will become frozen at zero and will not change at all. The
airspeed indicatorwillreversetheerrorthatoccurswithacloggedpitottubeandcausetheIAStoberead
less than it actually is as the aircraft climbs. When the aircraft is descending, the airspeed will be
overreported.

Electricalpower

The three most basic units in electricity are voltage (V), current (I, uppercase "i") and resistance (r).
Voltageismeasuredinvolts,currentismeasuredinampsandresistanceismeasuredinohms.

A neat analogy to help understand these terms is a system of plumbing pipes. Thevoltageisequivalent
to the water pressure, the current is equivalent to the flow rate, and the resistance is like the pipe size.
Current=Voltage/Resistance

Electricalpowerismeasuredinwatts.Power=VoltagexCurrent

AntiBalanceTab

A tab on a control surfacethatmovesinthesamedirectionasthecontrolsurfacetomakeitmoredifficult

to move it in an airstream. This results in generation of large aerodynamicforces,whichmakesitharder
to move control surfaces. It is commonly used on aircraft where the controls are too light or the aircraft
requires additionalstabilityinthataxisofmovement. Anantiservotabisplacedonittoartificiallyprovide
feedbacktothecontrolswhichkeepsthepilotfromoverstressingthecontrolsurfaces.

ServoTabs


Servo tabsmoveintheoppositedirectionofthecontrolsurface.Thetabhasaleverageadvantage,being
located well aft of the surface hingelineandthuscandeflectthecontrolsurfaceintheoppositedirection.
Thishastheeffectofreducingthecontrolforcerequiredbythepilottomovethecontrols.

ControlHorns

On an aircraft with reversible controls the pilot must apply aforcetothecontrolcolumnsufficienttokeep

the thecontrolsurfacedeflectedintheairstream.Toassistthepilottheaircraftdesignwillusuallyprovide
a control horn, such as the one shown to theright.Thehornissimplyanextensiontothecontrolsurface
whichprojectsaheadofthehinge.Theairstrikingthehornassiststhepilottodeflectthecontrolsurface.

MassBalance

When a control is deflected a low pressure area forms on the cambered side. This tends to pull the
control back into alignment with the wing, stabilizer or fin as the case may be. However, the control
surface has mass and therefore momentum. If the centre of gravity of the control surface is behind the
hinge, the control tends to overshoot the point of alignment. The result is a tendency for the control to
flutter. Flutter couldbecomesufficientlyseverethattheaircraftcouldbreakupinflight.Tosolvetheabove
problemthecontrolmustbebalanced,sothatitscentreofgravityisinlinewiththehinge.

Stabilator

Stabilator, sometimes referred to as an allmoving tail, is a fully movable aircraft horizontal stabilizer.
Stabilators are designed to pivot about their aerodynamic center which is the point at which thepitching
moment is constant regardless of the angle of attack, and thus any movement of the stabilator can be
made without added pilot effort. As a consequence, very little pilot effort is required to make a control
input.Thisamountofeffortdoesnotvarywithairspeedorangleofattack.

To prevent overcontrolling, the aircraft must show an increasing resistance to an increasing pilot input
(movement). To provide this resistance, the stabilator on a light aircraft is fitted with anantiservotabon
its trailing edge. Control input causes the antiservo tab to deflect in the same direction as, but further
thanthestabilator.Thisadditionaldeflectioninducesanaerodynamicforcewhichresiststhepilotinput.

PrimaryRadar

The radar transmitter sends out a pulseofradioenergy,ofwhichaverysmallproportionisreflectedfrom

the surface or structure of the target aircraft back to the radar receiver. Radar antenna provides the
bearing of the aircraft from the ground station, and the time taken for the pulse to reach the target and


return provides a measure ofthedistanceofthetargetfromthegroundstation.Thebearinganddistance

ofthetargetcanthenbeconvertedintoagroundpositionfordisplaytotheAirTrafficController.

SecondaryRadar&Transponder

The transponder is a radio receiver andtransmitteroperatingontheradarfrequency.Thetargetaircraft's

transponderrespondstothegroundstationbytransmittingacodedreplysignal.

It transmits a squawk code with the aircraft's position, its altitude and its call sign. It is constantly being
radarpinged,helpingairtrafficcontrollersonthegrounddeterminetheairplane'sspeedanddirection.

VHF

VHF has radio frequency electromagnetic waves from 30 MHz to 300 MHz, with corresponding
wavelengths of one totenmeters.FrequenciesimmediatelybelowVHFaredenotedhighfrequency(HF),
andthenexthigherfrequenciesareknownasu
ltrahighfrequency(UHF).

Unlike HF, the ionosphere does not usually reflect VHF waves (called skywave propagation) so
transmissions are restricted to the local radio horizon less than 100 miles. VHF is also less affected by
atmospheric noise and interference from electrical equipment than lower frequencies. While itisblocked
bylandfeaturessuchashillsandmountains,itislessaffectedbybuildingsandcanbereceivedindoors.

Carburetor

Air first flows through an air filter, usually located at an air intake in the front part of the engine cowling.
This filtered air flows into the carburetor and through a venturi, a narrow throat in the carburetor. When
the air flows through the venturi, a lowpressure area is created, which forces the fuel to flow through a
main fuel jet locatedatthethroat.Thefuelthenflowsintotheairstream,whereitismixedwiththeflowing
air.

Carburetor ice occurs duetotheeffectoffuelvaporizationandthedecreaseinairpressureintheventuri,

which causes a sharp temperature drop in the carburetor. If water vapor in the air condenses when the
carburetor temperature is at or below freezing, ice may form on internal surfaces of the carburetor,
including thethrottlevalve.Thefirstindicationofcarburetoricinginanairplanewithafixedpitchpropeller
isadecreaseinenginer.p.m.,whichmaybefollowedbyengineroughness.

Because hot air is less densethancoldair,enginepowerwilldropwhencarburetorheatisused.Usually,

the air filter is bypassed when carb heat is used. Because using unfiltered air can cause engine wear,
carbheatusageonthegroundiskepttoaminimum.


Mixture

As altitude increases, the density of air entering the carburetor decreases, while the density of the fuel
remains the same. This creates a progressively richermixture,whichcanresultinengineroughnessand
an appreciable loss of power. Theroughnessnormallyisduetosparkplugfoulingfromexcessivecarbon
build up on the plugs. Carbon build up occurs because the excessively rich mixture lowers the
temperature inside the cylinder, inhibiting complete combustion of the fuel. This condition may occur
during the pretakeoff run up at highelevation airports and during climbsorcruiseflightathighaltitudes.
To maintain the correct fuel/air mixture, you must lean the mixture using themixturecontrol.Leaningthe
mixturedecreasesfuelflow,whichcompensatesforthedecreasedairdensityathighaltitude.

During a descent from highaltitude,theoppositeistrue.Themixturemustbeenriched,oritmaybecome

too lean. An overly lean mixture causes detonation, which may result in rough engine operation,
overheating, and a loss of power. The best way to maintain the proper mixture is to monitor the engine
temperatureandenrichenthemixtureasneeded.

Part4





BasicMeteorology



Introduction

Weather can, at times, change quickly and unexpectedly at other times, it seems steady and
reliable, or slow to change. Some weather patterns can be cause for concern or even life
threatening, such as a severe blizzard causing unsafe road conditions or a lengthy drought
destroying crops and leaving people without a water source. In these cases, being able to
predictweatherandadjusttoitisnotonlyimportantforcomfort,butforsurvivalaswell.

When we say weather, we are talking about things taking place in theEarth'satmosphereover
the shortterm,suchashoursordays.Mostofourweatherisdirectedbythesun.Areascloseto
the equator receive more energy from the sun than those closer totheEarth'spolesandwithin
those areas, the various surfaces (such asoceans,forests,deserts,etc.)havedifferentabilities
to soak up the sun's rays. The resulting temperatures have the biggest affect on the Earth's
weather. How is temperature measured? It is measured with an instrument called a
thermometer. The tilt of the Earth (which leadstothedifferentseasons)alsoaffectstheamount
ofdirectsunlightaspecificareareceives,leadingtoevenmoretemperaturedifferences.

These temperature differences affect the atmospheric (or air) pressure around us. When air is
heated, it expands, which lowers the air pressure. The reverse is also true. Differences in air
pressure can cause all types of weather. For example, air naturally moves from areas of high
pressure to areas oflowpressure,andthismovementcauseswind.Also,differentairpressures
are associated with different types of weather. Moving air masses and air pressure are two
factors that help us determine what the weather is going to be in an area on a given day. A
barometer is the instrument that helps us measure the airpressurearoundus.Ananemometer
istheinstrumentthathelpsusdeterminethespeedthattheairismoving.

Humidity also affects the weather. The amount of humidity, or water vapor in the air, indicates
the likelihood of precipitation, dew or fog.Thepresenceofwatervaporintheairisalsodictated
by the sun, as solar energy powers the Earth's water cycle.Thewatercycleisthetermusedto
describe the continuous movementofwaterover,aboveandbeneaththeEarth'ssurface,which
includes (among other things) evaporation, precipitation and condensation, as illustrated in
Figure2.


Figure2.TheEarth'sweathercycle.

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Evaporation is the process by which liquid water from our planet's surface is transformed into
gaseous water in the atmosphere. Precipitation is condensed water vapor that falls to the
Earth's surface in the form of rain, snow, hail or sleet. Condensation describes the
transformation of water vapor into liquid water droplets in the air, producing clouds and or fog.
Humidityismeasuredbyaninstrumentcalledahygrometer.

Some common forms of weather on Earth include wind, clouds, rain and snow. More extreme
weather, such as blizzards, tornadoes and hurricanes, occur much less frequently. These
phenomena occur almost uniquely in the layer oftheatmosphereclosesttotheEarth'ssurface,
referredtoasthetroposphere.

The Earth's weather is constantly changing. Weather can alsoaltertheEarth,includingerosion

of rocks and soil into tiny particles that can change the chemistry of the Earth's surface. Over
time, mountains can be formed or torn downcompletely,duetoweathering.Humanactivitycan
also impact the weather, through agriculture, industry and even everyday use of cars and
electricity. These can lead to extreme weather, such as drought, flooding and storms. Because
of the threat to weather from human activity that might cause reduction in food, resources and
human health, humans have tried to control the weather. Engineers have worked to develop
technologiestomanageflooding,increaseprecipitationandreducehail.


InternationalStandardAtmosphere(ISA)

Pressure of 1013.2 millibar Pressure is taken to fall at about 1 millibar per 30 feet in the lower
atmosphere(uptoabout5,000feet)
Temperature of +15 C Temperature falls at a rate of2Cper1,000feetuntilthetropopauseis
reachedat36,000feetabovewhichthetemperatureisassumedtobeconstantat57C.
Densityof1,225gm/m3.

Troposphere

The lowest layer of atmosphere extending from the surface to the Tropopause, approximately 11 km
above sea level. The Troposphere contains 75% of the mass of the Atmosphere and almost all of the
water vapor. ThereisconsiderablemovementandmixingofairwithintheTroposphereanditiswithinthis
layer of the Atmosphere that most of the Weather occurs. Within the Troposphere, temperature and
pressuredecreaseuniformlywithheightuntiltheT
ropopause.

Tropopause

The tropopause is the boundary between the troposphere and the Stratosphere. The tropopauseoccurs
at approximately 20,000 feet over the poles and at approximately 60,000 feet above the equator. The
International Standard Atmosphere assumes that the average height of the tropopauseoccursat36,000
feet.
The location of the tropopause is of interest to air crews because it indicates the altitude at which
temperature becomes constant with increasing altitude, whichisanimportfactorinperformanceandfuel
calculations. It also gives an indication of the location of jet streams and the high winds and turbulence
associated with them. In general, clouds and weather occur below the tropopause in the troposphere
however,deeptropicalconvectivesystemscanbreakthroughthetropopause,especiallyoverland.

Stratosphere

The layer of atmosphere extending from the Tropopause, approximately 11kmabovesealevel,toabout

50 km above sealevelisknownastheStratosphere.TheStratosphereischaracterisedbyatemperature
which is steady or increases with height. Towards the top of the layer, theaveragetemperatureisonlya
littlebelow0C.

OzoneLayer

It locates at 1530 km above the surface oftheearth.AbsorbsmostoftheSun'sUVradiation.Itcontains

high concentrations of ozone (O3) relative to other parts of the atmosphere. Ozone is a naturally
occurringmoleculecontainingthreeatomsofoxygen.


Clouds

Figure3.Cumulusclouds.

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When the sun's rays hit the Earth directly, they heat the Earth more than when they hit it atan
angle. This fact explains why we experience seasonal temperature variations. During the
summer, for example, the Earth's angle allows the sun's rays to hit a given region directly,
whereas during the winter, the same rays would hit that region at an angle, allowing warmer
temperaturesduringthesummerthanthewinter.

The Earth's atmosphere is brokenupintofivelayers.Thetropospherereferstotheatmospheric

layer closest to the Earth's surface, extending from the surface itself out 7 miles. Weather
occursinthetroposphere.

The Earth's atmosphere holds some of the heat our planet receives from the sun. Without the
atmosphere, it would be freezing cold during the night. Threebasictypesofcloudsoccurinthe
Earth's atmosphere and give us an easy visual of the weatherforecastcumulus,stratusand
cirrus.


HighLevelClouds

Cirrusclouds:highlevel,whitetuftsorfilamentsmadeupoficecrystals.Noprecipitation.

Cirrocumulus:highlevel,smallrippledelementsicecrystals.Noprecipitation.

Cirrostratus:highlevel,transparentsheetorveil,halophenomenaicecrystals.Noprecipitation.

MiddleLevelClouds

Altocumulus: middle level layered cloud, rippled elements, generally white with some shading.
Precipitation:Mayproducelightshowers.

Altostratus: middle level grey sheet,thinnerlayerallowssuntoappearasthroughgroundglass.

Precipitation:rainorsnow.

Nimbostratus: thicker, darker and lower based sheet. Precipitation: heavier intensity rain or
snow.

LowLevelClouds

Stratocumulus: low level layered cloud, series of rounded rolls, generally white. Precipitation:
drizzle.

Stratus: low level layer or mass, grey, uniform base if ragged, referred to as 'fractostratus'.
Precipitation:drizzle.

Cumulus: low level, individual cells, vertical rolls or towers, flat base. Precipitation: showers or
snow.

Cumulonimbus: low level, very large cauliflowershaped towers to16kmhigh,often'anviltops'.

Phenomena:thunderstorms,lightning,squalls.Precipitation:showersorsnow.


Figure5.Clouds.

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WeatherFronts
Pressure differences in our atmosphere's air masses cause them to constantly shift and change, along
with our weather. With all these air masses moving around in our atmosphere, they are sure to collide
with each other...and they do! Even though they bump into each other, these air masses rarely mix
because of their different densities.Instead,stormsandothersevereweatherphenomenaformalongthe
boundaries of the air masses. This area is called a weather front. Four possible types of weather fronts
are: 1) warm fronts, 2) cold fronts, 3) occluded fronts and 4) stationary fronts. How do you know which
kindoffrontwillform?Well,thatalldependsonthepropertiesoftheairmassesthatarecolliding.

A warm front is the leading edgeofamassofmovingwarmair.Warmfrontsusuallymoveslowlyandare

often marked by rain and cloudy skies.Coldfrontsformwhenquicklymovingcoldairmassescollidewith
more slowly moving warm air masses. Because cold air is denser, it sinks beneath warm air. And since


cold fronts move quickly, they are also associated with quicklychanging weather conditions, which may
include thunderstorms. Cold frontsareusuallyassociatedwithlowerairpressure.Next,anoccludedfront
occurs when a cold air front takes over a warm air front. Thiscanbelikeanairmasssandwich,inwhich
the warm air mass becomes stuck between two cold air masses. The denser cold air masses lodge
themselves around the warm air mass, pushingthewarmairmassfartherawayfromtheEarth'ssurface.
The cold air masses are then left to mix near the ground, cooling the temperatures we experience.
Usually these fronts are associated with a drying of theair.Lastly,astationaryfrontreferstothemeeting
of two air masses that do not overtake each other. With this front, a cold air mass and a warmairmass
may be next to each other, but they movealongatthesamepace,leadingtoextendedrain,snow,fogor
cloudsattheboundary.

Weather fronts are displayed on the surface weather analysis by thick lines blue lines for cold fronts,
red lines for warm fronts, purple lines for occluded fronts, and combined red/blue lines for stationary
fronts. Areas of high pressure are indicated on the surface weather analysis with a letter H, and low
pressurewithaletterL.Allofthesesymbolsonthemaphelpusunderstandhowtheweatherismovingin
aregion.

Storms are associated with the different weather fronts and can include strong winds, thunder and
lightning,andprecipitation.Sometimesthestrongwindsmovedustandsnowthroughtheairmasses.

WindShear

Wind shear is a difference in wind speed and direction over a relatively short distance. Airplane pilots
generally regard significant wind shear to be a horizontal changeinairspeedof30knotsforlightaircraft,
and near 45 knots for airlinersatflightaltitude.Verticalspeedchangesgreaterthan4.9knotsalsoqualify
assignificantwindshearforaircraft.

Microburst

A microburst isaverylocalizedcolumnofsinkingair.Therearetwotypesofmicrobursts,wetmicrobursts
and drymicrobursts.Theygothroughthreestagesintheirlifecycle:thedownburst,outburst,andcushion
stages. A distinction can be made between a wet microburst which consists of precipitation and a dry
microburstwhichconsistsofv irga.

As a Cumulonimbus cloud becomes mature, strong downdrafts occur, usually associated with
precipitationintheformofRain,Hail,orVirga.Thesedowndraftscanbeverypowerful,withverticalwinds
of 6,000 ft per minute. When a strong downdraft, referred to as a downburst or microburst, hits the
surface,thewinddivertshorizontallyoutwards.


When a headwind changes to a tailwind,airspeedwillrapidlydecreaseandtherewillbeacorresponding

decreaseinperformance.

JetStream

Jet Stream is defined as fast flowing, narrow, currents ofairlocatedattheboundarybetweenairmasses

near the tropopause. The two major areas of Jet Stream activity in the upper troposphere are the
SubTropical Jet Streams near the 30 degree latitudes and the Polar Jet Streams in midlatitudes. Both
arewesteast.

The Polar Jet Stream is formed as a result of the temperature gradient between the cold polar air mass
and the warmer subtropical air mass. Since the temperature difference is greatest in the winter, the
speed of the Polar Jet Stream is at its highest also in the winter. The Subtropical jet Stream is located
entirelywithinthetropicalairmassandisnotassociatedwithanysurfacefronts.

Part5





BasicNavigation

LongitudeandLatitude

The equator is an imaginary circle equidistant from the polesoftheearth.Circlesparalleltothe

equator (lines running east and west) are parallels of latitude. They are used to measure
degrees of latitude north or south of the equator. The angular distance from the equator to the
pole is onefourth of a circle, or 90.Thus,latitudewouldrunfrom90Northto90Southofthe
equator.

Meridians of longitude are drawn from the North Pole to the South Pole andareatrightangles
to the equator. The "Prime Meridian" which passesthroughGreenwich,England,isusedasthe
zerolinefromwhichmeasurementsaremadeindegreeseastandwestto180.

Any specific geographical point can thus be located by reference to its longitude and latitude.
From the earliestdays,determininglatitudewasrelativelysimplemeasuretheheightofthesun


with a sextant. Longitude was a different matter. Greenwich Observatory was set up by King
Charles II in 1675 to study means of fixing longitude, and the observatory became the
acknowledged world authority on the subject. The telescopes and other instruments there
determined the exact position of the meridian, and in 1884 an international conference in
WashingtonagreedthatGreenwichshouldbesitedatzerolongitude

By using meridians, direction from one point to another can be measured in degrees, in a
clockwise direction from true north. Draw a courselineonachartandmeasuretheanglewhich
thislineformswithameridian.

When moving north or south by one degree of latitude, the distanceremainsapproximatelythe

same whether the observer is at the equator or in London, New York, Tokyo, or Sydney. That
number would be unchanged vs. latitude if the earth were a perfect sphere, which it isn't. The
earthissomewhatflattenedatthepoles.

The distance situation is quite different when moving eastorwest.Notetheconvergenceofthe

meridian lines at the poles. Thusmovingeastonedegreeattheequatorisagreaterdistancein
feetormetersthanmovingonedegreeeastinLondon,NewYork,Tokyo,orSydney.

NauticalMilesandKnots

The circumference of the earth is divided into 360. Each degree is further divided into 60
minutes. If you move one minute east or west ontheequator,youhavegoneonenauticalmile.
Thus a nautical mile is the circumference of theearthdividedby360,givingthedistanceinone
degree,andthatisfurtherdividedbysixtyforthedistanceinoneminuteofarc.

Earliest estimates of the earth's diameter was 18,000 statute miles. As methods of
measurement improved over the years, the earth's circumference "increased" to 24,901.55
statute miles. Hence the distance of a nautical mile similarly increased with time, too. What a
nightmarethatmusthavebeenforcartographersandnavigators.

Regardless of calculationsoftheearth'scircumference,thenauticalmilehasbeenstandardized
at 6076.113 feet, plus another gazillion decimals. One nm =1.15statutemilesforthepurposes


of estimating. Again, there are a gazillion decimals in the actual conversion. Using1.15willnot
flyyouintoamountain.

There is a lot of lore behind the knot ... tying knots into lines and clocking the time for each to
pass a sailing ship, etc. Suffice it to say that a knot is one nautical mile per hour and hence is
1.15statutemilesperhour.

GreatCircle

Any circle drawn on the surface of the sphere, the plane ofthecirclepassesthroughitscenter.
Agreatcircleistheshortestpathbetweentwopointsalongthesurfaceofasphere.Theequator
andallmeridiansaregreatcircles.

SmallCircles

Any circle drawn on the surface of the sphere, the plane of the circle doesnotpassthroughits
center.Parallelsoflatitudeareallsmallcircles

RhumbLines

A rhumb line is a line crossing all meridians of longitude at the same angle (The true direction
remains unchanged). Although a great circle isashortestpath,itisdifficulttonavigatebecause
your bearing continuously changes as you proceed. Following a rhumb line covers more
distancebutitiseasiertonavigate.

All parallels, including the equator, are rhumb lines, since they cross all meridians at 90.
Additionally,allmeridiansarerhumblines,inadditiontobeinggreatcircles.

BarometricAltimeter

The Altimeter is connected only to the static port when the altitudeofanaircraftincreases,the
pressure within the case decreases and a sealedaneroidcapsulewithinthecaseexpands,this
expansionregisteredontheinstrumentface.

AltimeterErrors


HigherTemperature=LowerDensity/LowerTemperature=HigherDensity

An altimeter is an instrument which measures static pressure and in ISA conditions converts
that pressure into an altitude value. Usually you areflyingataconstantaltitudewhichmeansin
you are in reality flying at a constant pressure. The level of this constant pressure is dragged
downwardsinthecolderairduetothemoredenseairsinkingmore.

When you fly into colder air, you will be at a lower true altitude if you maintain the same
indicated altitude. This means in air temperatures lower than ISA, you will be lower than the
indicated altitude and therefore the altimeter is overreading. When flying from a highpressure
areatoalowpressurearea,theALTwillreadhigherthanactualaltitude.

The cold air is denser which means that it sinks more and dragging the pressure levels down
and pushing them closer together. A column of the same mass of cold air is not as tall as the
equivalent mass of warm air. Static pressure is based on the weight of air aboveyousoasthe
denser cooler airsinks,atthesametruealtitudethereislessairaboveyouinacoolerairmass.
Sothealtimeterreadslessairaboveyouwhichmeansindicateshigheraltitude.

FlightAltitudes

When flying a magnetic course of 0 to 179 fly at ODD thousands of feet plus 500 feet. In
nongov't. language, fly at 3500 ft. or 5500ft.,or7500ft.andsoforthifyourmagneticcourseis
from0to179.


And of course, from 180 to 359 magnetic course, your altitude should be EVEN thousands
plus500ft.like4500ft.,6500ft.,8500ft.,etc.

How does one rememberthatrule?It'seasy."EasternersareOdd"willdoit.Ifyourflightcourse

iseasterly,i.e.,from0to179flyatoddthousandsplus500ft.

If one leg of your flight is easterly and you are at 5500 ft., and the next leg is tothenorthwest,
needyouchangeyouraltitudetoadheretotherule?Yousuredo.

Notice that the term "magnetic course" has been carefully used throughout this altitude
discussion. With a crosswind, the aircraft's magnetic heading will differ from the planned
magneticcourse.