International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 60 (2013) 8894

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International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijhmt

Two-uid model for prediction of wet steam transonic ow

Sawomir Dykas , Wodzimierz Wrblewski 1
Institute of Power Engineering and Turbomachinery, Silesian University of Technology, Gliwice, Poland

a r t i c l e i n f o s u m m a r y

Article history: The paper presents a description of a two-uid slip velocity model dedicated to the steam condensing
Received 7 November 2012 ow modeling. The model solves separate ow governing equations for the compressible, viscous and
Accepted 14 December 2012 turbulent vapor phase, and for the compressible and inviscid liquid phase. The model is implemented into
Available online 26 January 2013
an in-house Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) code that has been successfully applied for the wet
steam ow calculations for many years now. The homogeneous condensation model is used for modeling
Keywords: the liquid phase formation. Calculations of spontaneous condensing, transonic ows in the turbine blade-
Steam
to-blade channel are presented. The comparison of the model predictions with the experimental data are
Condensation
Two-uid model
discussed.
Transonic ow 2013 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

1. Introduction crosses the saturation line in penultimate stages. It means that at

The steam turbine, as one of the key components in the fossil-
red and nuclear power plant, is clearly one of the areas where
the largest improvements can be made in the plant efciency, thus
enabling environmental operating improvements. An efciency
improvement can be achieved through, among others, the turbine
blade ow path optimization. Steam turbines are designed for par-
ticular operating conditions such as the steam inlet pressure, the
steam inlet temperature and the turbine exhaust pressure, which
affect the performance of turbines in a signicant way. Variations
in these parameters affect the turbine efciency. Anyway, any
improvement in the steam turbine efciency will produce signi-
cant economic benets. Efforts are made to design steam turbine
stages with a higher efciency in the entire range of working con-
ditions. In order to do that, novel numerical models for the dry as
well as wet steam ow eld predictions have to be made available.
The low-pressure turbine blades are one of the most important
components in the overall steam turbine design. A fully developed
3-D stage ow analysis can provide an optimum blade prole capa-
ble of minimizing the losses from shock waves resulting from the
supersonic ow and also from condensation shocks. The accuracy
of the modern 3-D analysis as a prediction tool has improved con-
siderably and it can now account for non-equilibrium condensa-
tion ows with different steam wetness conditions and phase
change variations (e.g. [1,2]).
The steam temperature in low-pressure turbines decreases due
to expansion. In turbines of large output, the state path usually
Corresponding author. Tel.: +48 32 2371971; fax: +48 32 2372680.
E-mail addresses: slawomir.dykas@polsl.pl, dykas@imiue.polsl.pl (S. Dykas),
wlodzimierz.wroblewski@polsl.pl (W. Wrblewski).
1
Tel.: +48 32 2371115; fax: +48 32 2372680.
least two stages of the low-pressure turbine operate in the two-
phase region, producing much more than 10% of the total output.
The presence of the liquid phase within the turbine causes thermo-
dynamic losses (caused by the internal heat transfer within the
uid), aerodynamic losses (losses that occur due to the interaction
of the uid with the walls and caused by aerodynamic shocks) and
mechanical losses or erosion (droplet impingement on the blades
damages the steam turbine blades). Therefore, any decrease in
these losses is worth striving for and can be aided by means of
numerical modeling only.
The liquid phase in the real steam turbine results from the non-
equilibrium condensation process, homogeneous or heteroge-
neous. The spontaneous or rapid condensation phenomenon was
already investigated experimentally and numerically many years
ago [3,4]. However, effective numerical algorithms that could be
used for the prediction of the wet steam ows in the turbine cas-
cades and for the estimation of the wetness losses have been devel-
oped and perfected for the last 50 years. Also the heterogeneous
condensation on soluble or insoluble impurities plays an important
role in the liquid formation in a condensing steam turbine [5], but
due to the lack of experimental data for heterogeneous condensa-
tion, it is very difcult to validate numerical models. Therefore, the
homogeneous condensation will be considered in this work only.
Modeling steam homogeneous condensation has been investi-
gated in the thermodynamic and gas-dynamic aspects by numer-
ous authors for many years now (see [68]). One of the rst
known numerical predictions of the condensing steam ow were
focused on the one-dimensional ow in the Laval nozzle using lin-
earized equations (e.g. [3]). A lot of experimental data for the ow
in the Laval nozzle and 2D blade cascades have been contributed to
the validation of the CFD methods with a variety of implemented
condensation models [9,1], but mainly for no-slip velocity models.

0017-9310/$ - see front matter 2013 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2012.12.024
 S. Dykas, W. Wrblewski / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 60 (2013) 8894 89

These models seemed to be well-suited for modeling the wet steam where
ow in the real turbine stages [2,5], but they cannot predict the trajec-
p 1
tory of the liquid phase, which can be crucial for the erosion process in Ev hv  uv j uv j
the last stages of the LP turbine. In order to predict mechanical losses,
qv 2
especially the trajectory of droplets and their possible impingement on and L is the latent heat calculated by means of the specic enthal-
the blade surface, a two-uid model has to be implemented, in which pies of vapor and liquid.
the velocity slip between the phases is taken into account. It allows a The liquid phase is in the form of a fog composed of small drop-
better understanding of the processes of the blade surface deteriora- lets. Therefore, at this stage of application, the authors decided to
tion. The model for this type of ow is much more complicated and, use an inviscid form of the ow governing equations for the liquid
consequently, much less popular. phase:
The aim of this paper is to examine the proposed two-uid
model for predicting the wet steam ow eld, which could be em- @qm n @qm nulj
J hom qm ;
ployed for loss estimation, and further for efciency improve- @t @xj
ment of the last LP turbine stages. The presented work focuses @ql a @ql auv j
C1 C2 ;
on an assessment of the proposed model with respect to the mod- @t @xj
eling of the place and intensity of homogeneous condensation in a 4
@ql auli @ql aulj uli apl dij @a
turbine cascade. C2 uint j F Dj pint ;
@t @xj @xi
The two-uid model is implemented into an in-house CFD code
@ql aEl @ql aulj Hl @a
used for many years at the Institute of Power Engineering and Tur- C2 Hl int pint uint j uint i F Di ;
bomachinery of the Silesian University of Technology in Gliwice for
@t @xj @xj
engineering applications. where
p 1
2. Physical model El hl  ulj ulj :
ql 2
The numerical algorithm modeling the wet steam ow must The sets of ow governing Eqs. (3) and (4) are closed by the local
solve the equations governing the compressible ow for vapor (v) state equations:
as well as for liquid phase (l) supplemented by the equation of state.
It should include additional relations describing phase transitions. p
v v ATv BTv =v v ;
For simplicity, it was assumed that the two phases are governed RT v
by the same averaged pressure: p 5
v v Ahv Bhv p;
hv
p pv pl : 1
v l Ahl Bhl p;
The following relationships connect the liquid and vapor phases:
where A, B are polynomials of the second order, and their coef-
V cients ai, bi (i = 0, . . . , 2) are the functions of temperature or specic
a l ;
Vm enthalpy only, and they are calculated from an approximation of the
qm 1  aqv aql ; thermodynamic properties of steam following the IAPWS-IF97 for-
2 mulas for the vapor or liquid region, respectively.
hm 1  yhv yhl ;
ql In Eqs. (3) and (4) uintj represents the interface velocity compo-
ya ; nents and for the well mixed phases may be calculated from
qm
relation:
where a is the volume fraction and y is the mass fraction of the li-
quid phase. The density of mixture qm, is a function of vapor density
ql ulj a qv uv j 1  a
uint j 6
qv, liquid density ql, and a. The enthalpy of mixture hm, is deter- qm
mined in a similar way. Mass fraction y depends on the volume frac- and Hlint, Hvint are the total enthalpies for liquid and vapor, respec-
tion, as well as on the ratio between the liquid and the mixture tively, which are associated with the interphase mass transfer and
density, and for the presented problem has a value by approx. 103 calculated, assuming saturated conditions, in the following way:
higher than the volume fraction.
In the two-uid model, in which the velocity slip between the va- 0 1
Hl int h p uint j ulj  ulj ulj ;
por and liquid phases is taken into account, separate sets of the gov- 2 7
erning equations for the vapor and liquid phases are used. The 00 1
Hv int h p uint j uv j  uv j uv j :
interaction between the droplets and the heat exchange between 2
the liquid phase and the solid boundary are not modeled here, either.
For the vapor phase they can be written as follows: 2.1. Turbulence model

@qv 1  a @qv 1  auv j

C1  C2 ; In ows through the Laval nozzle without shock waves, the
@t @xj inuence of turbulence can be omitted and a laminar ow model
@qv 1  auv i @qv 1  auv j uv i 1  apv dij @1  asji can be successfully applied for the steam condensing ow model-

@t @xj @xj ing. Whereas for the ow through the turbine blade-to-blade chan-
@a nel, a turbulence modeling is essential for the proper prediction of
C2 uintj  F Dj  pint ;
@xi the ow eld.
@qv 1  aEv @qv 1  auv j Hv @1  aqv j  1  auv i sji In NavierStokes analyses the effective viscosity is taken to be
the sum of laminar and turbulent components, i.e., l = ll + lt. In
@t @xj @xj
order to determine the turbulent viscosity, some kind of the turbu-
@a
C2 Hv int  L  pint uintj  uinti F Di ; 3 lence model has to be used. Due to the fact that the applied phys-
@xj
ical model consists already of 11 PDEs, a 0-equation turbulence
90 S. Dykas, W. Wrblewski / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 60 (2013) 8894

model (algebraic model) was chosen (for reasons of simplicity) in
the rst step.
The BaldwinLomax (BL) turbulence model [10] is generally
considered a good model for the prediction of attached ows. It
is relatively easy to implement because it does not require the
use of additional transport equations. Despite the drawbacks of
this model, such as the fact that it tends to predict shocks too far
downstream over the blade for separated transonic ows, it can
be applied at this stage of the two-uid model development for
simplicity.
The BL model is a two-layer model which gives the eddy viscos-
ity for the inner and outer layer as a function of the local boundary
layer velocity prole. The inner eddy viscosity is determined
according to the following relation:
2 F D;j  2 r uv j  ulj :
lt;BL;inner qv 0:4DBL D X;
where V is the volume of a numerical cell and S is the mean strain
rate.
2.2. Drag force
Taking account of the drag force in momentum equations is cru-
cial for the correct prediction of the velocity eld. The omission of
it for very small droplets in the transonic ow can lead to their
excessive slowdown. For smaller Reynolds numbers, the molecular
viscous forces have to be considered. Under  the laminar ow con-
2r q ju u j
ditions of the droplets Re v lv j lj 6 1 the molecular viscous
v
forces dominate, and the inertial forces can be omitted. According
to the Stokes law, the following relation can be written:
9 la
2
11
8 Cc

where An important assumption in the derivation of the Stokes law is that

DBL 1  expy =26
and D is the distance to the wall, X is the magnitude of the vorticity,
y+ is a dimensionless wall distance. In the outer layer, the eddy vis-
cosity is given by
lt;BL;outer 0:0168  1:6  qv F WAKE F BL ;
the relative velocity of the gas at the surface of the droplet is zero.
This assumption does not hold for small droplets whose size
approximates the mean free path of the vapor (Kn  1 or Kn > 1).
For this reason, the Stokes law has to be corrected with the
empirical Cunningham slip correction factor:
 
9 C c 1 2Kn 1:257 0:4e1:1=2Kn ;

where Cc depends on the ratio of the mean free path to the particle diam-
eter and thereby also on the Knudsen number.
F WAKE minDm F m ; Dm u2diff =F m  and F BL 1 5:50:3D=Dm 6 :
2.3. Homogeneous condensation model
Subscript m refers to the value at the location where function
F = DXDBL is at its maximum along the normal direction to the wall; In the applied wet steam model, the phase change is repre-
udiff is the difference between the maximum and minimum value of sented by two mass sources, according to the following relations:
the resultant velocity for boundary layers.
It is known that the BL turbulence model fails far from the solid 4
C1 pql r 3 Jhom qm ;
wall or in the free stream ow. Therefore, according to Camelli and 3 12
Lhner [11], the Smagorinsky turbulence model was used together dr
C2 4pql nqm r 2 ;
with the BL model. In Fig. 1 the principle is shown when the mod- dt
els are applied. Smagorinski eddy viscosity is switched on in the re- where C1 is the mass source of critical droplets of mass ml created
gion when it is greater then eddy viscosity in the outer layer due to the nucleation process, and C2 is the mass condensation rate
coming from the BL turbulence model. Smagorinsky eddy viscosity of all droplets per unit volume of two-phase mixture kgl =m3m s.
is calculated as: Nucleation rate Jhom is calculated from the relation obtained
p according to the classical nucleation theory [12]. This relation is
lt;Smag qv 0:15  3 V 2 jSj; 10
derived by an assumption of a thermodynamic equilibrium be-
tween critical droplets and vapor. Additionally, the non-isothermal
correction factor C proposed by Kantrowitz [13] is used because
the isothermal model assumption does not apply to vapor:
r  
2r qv 4pr 2 r
J hom C m3=2 exp b ; 13
p v ql 3kT v
where coefcient C is calculated from the relation:
 

c  1 hv  hl hv  hl 1 1
C 12 
c 1 RT v RT v 2
and r is the surface tension, mv the mass of a water molecule, and
b is the correction factor (in the presented calculations b = 1).
The radius of critical clusters r for the applied EOS (5) has a
form which differs from the known relation for the ideal gas:
2r
r ; 14
ql f pv  f ps  pv  ps

where ps is the saturation pressure and

0 p 1
q d2A 4pdB
dA 2 dA B1 dA C
f p ln p dA 4pdB  ln @ p A:
Fig. 1. Viscosity distribution for BaldwinLomax and Smagorinsky turbulence 2 2 d2A 4pdB
1 dA
models.
 S. Dykas, W. Wrblewski / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 60 (2013) 8894 91

dA ATRT; 1 1 1
dr
dr dr : 17
dt dt HK dt CON
dB BTRT:
Relation (17) can better predict the intensity of the spontaneous
The further behavior of the critical droplets can be described by the condensation process than the relations using a correction factor
suitable droplet growth law. Once the droplets are formed, they in- with the Knudsen number.
crease in size as vapor molecules condense on their surfaces. The
energy released in condensation leads to a rise in the temperature
of the droplets, and hence, the droplets become hotter than the sur- 3. Numerical model
rounding vapor during condensation. The droplet growth is thus
governed mainly by the mass transfer towards a droplet and the en- The described model was implemented into an in-house CFD
ergy ux away from it. In pure vapor, however, due to the release of code. The numerical simulation is based on time-dependent 3-D
a very high latent heat in the rapid condensation zone, the droplet RANS equations. The local equation of state for vapor and liquid
growth is dominated by the thermal transfer rate. phases and the condensation theory are the closure relations for
The Knudsen number, Kn, plays a key role in the coefcient of the applied L1 ow governing equations [5,8].
the heat transfer due to the wide range of the radii of the droplets. The system of governing equations was discretized on a multi-
The Knudsen number is the ratio of the mean free path l of vapor block structured grid using the nite volume method, and inte-

molecules to the droplet diameter, Kn  2rl . grated in time using the explicit RungeKutta method. An upwind
At the beginning of a homogeneous condensation process the scheme was used with the one-dimensional Riemann solver for the
size of ne droplets for vapor is much smaller than the mean free real gas equation of state.
path of vapor molecules (large Knudsen number). Therefore, the
growth of the droplets should be governed by considering the 3.1. Riemann problem
molecular and macroscopic transport process. The droplet growth
equation for the free-molecular regime is given by the kinetic Because the exact solution to the Riemann problem is computa-
HertzKnudsen model: tionally expensive, an approximate Riemann solver was used. The
   acoustic approximation of the Riemann problem applied for vapor
dr  ac p 1 1 [15] belongs to the FDS (Flux Difference Splitting) group, where
p p
 p ; 15
dt HK ql 2pR Tv Tl primitive variables are estimated. The solver assumes weak varia-
where ac is the condensation coefcient. tions across the left- and right-facing. To this end, the following
The further growth of the liquid droplets occurs at low Knudsen mass ux can be dened:
numbers and is controlled by thermal resistance between the cL cR qv L qv R
droplet surface and the surrounding vapor m ; 18
2 2

dr  1 kv T s  T v where indexes L and R denote the left and the right state of the Rie-
; 16
dt CON ql r L mann problem, respectively, and c is the speed of sound. The Star
state is obtained from the relations:
where Ts is the saturation temperature and a is the steam thermal
conductivity. pL pR uv L  uv R
p pL pR m ;
In order to determine the droplet growth in the entire range of 2 2
varying Knudsen numbers, the following interpolation combining uv L uv R pL  pR
u uL uR ;
the relations for the free-molecular and continuum regimes was 2 2m
assumed [14]:
 
m uv L  u 19
qL qv L ;
c2L
 
m u  uv R
qR qv R :
c2R

The general structure of the Riemann problem for the liquid phase
consists of shock waves and/or rarefaction waves in the u  c and
u + c characteristic elds, and contact discontinuities u.
Acoustic approximations (19) cannot be applied for the liquid
phase. Therefore, a simple linearization of the Riemann invariants
is used. The characteristic relations conforming with the denition
of the Riemann invariants can be written as follows:

c2 dq  dp 0;
qcdu dp 0; 20
qcdu  dp 0:
A simple linearization of the equations in (19) leads to the linear
algebraic system for state L

c2lL qlL  qlL  p  pL 0;

qlL clL ul  ulL p  pL 0; 21
qlR clR ul  ulR  p  pR 0;
which can be easily solved for ul, qlL, and p in the star area. An
analogical system of equations can be dened between state R
Fig. 2. Numerical grid. and R in order to nd ql,R star area. Such assumption makes it
92 S. Dykas, W. Wrblewski / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 60 (2013) 8894

possible to avoid using a complicated state equation for water to qm 1  aqv  aql ;
nd primitive variables. aql 
Next, having the primitive variables from the Riemann problem, y ;
qm
the uxes can be calculated.  2
The MUSCL technique is implemented to approach the TVD 1  aqv Ev  1 1  aqv uv ;i  23
ev  ;
scheme with the ux limiter to avoid oscillations. 1  aqv  2 1  aqv 
 2
aql El  1 aql ul;i 
3.2. Calculations of primitive variables el 
aql  2 aql 

In order to determine the primitive variables from the conserva- are constants and are calculated from conservative variables (in-
tive ones used in the governing equations, the system of a non-lin- cluded in square brackets) obtained from (3) and (4) after each iter-
ear equation has to be solved: ation step. The phase densities (or specic volume) are the
  functions of pressure and corresponding enthalpies and are calcu-
1 1y y
 0; lated from the state equations for vapor and liquid water in accor-
qm qv q
  l dance with (5).
p The set of non-linear Eq. (23) is solved by means of the Newton
ev  hv  0; 22
qv Raphson method.
 
p
e l  hl  0;
ql
4. Results
where the unknowns are p, hv and hl and the remaining values
The validation test case dealt with the ow through a blade-to-
blade cascade of the steam turbine stator. For this test the

Fig. 3. Static pressure distribution on the blade.

Fig. 4. Wetness fraction distributions.

S. Dykas, W. Wrblewski / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 60 (2013) 8894 93

Fig. 5. Slip velocity (m/s) distributions.

Fig. 6. Schematic view of circumferentially averaged velocity vectors at the outlet.

Fig. 7. Circumferential distribution of the droplets radii.

94 S. Dykas, W. Wrblewski / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 60 (2013) 8894
experiment reported by White et al. [9] was chosen. The prepared
numerical grid consists of 4 blocks and includes 40 k grid points
(Fig. 2). On the basis of measurement data, the L1 case with inlet
conditions p0 = 40.3 kPa, T0 = 354 K and outlet static pressure
p2 = 16.3 kPa, and the L3 case with inlet conditions p0 = 41.7 kPa,
T0 = 357.5 K and outlet static pressure p2 = 20.6 kPa were selected.
In both cases the inow angle was 0.
A comparison of the calculations and the experiment is pre-
sented in Fig. 3. It shows a good agreement of the computed static
pressure on the prole with the experiment. The location of the
condensation was correctly modeled. For the L1 case the predicted
condensation shock is located more downstream than in the exper-
iment. It is a commonly known feature observed in this test case
(e.g. [9]). The origin of the discrepancy was not determined.
Fig. 4 shows the wetness fraction distribution for both cases.
The beginning of the liquid phase formation corresponds to the po-
sition of the condensation onset. For the L1 test case, the wetness
fraction has higher values than for L3 .
The slip velocity, i.e. the difference between the vapor and li-
quid phase velocity is calculated in the whole calculation domain.
Fig. 5 presents the slip velocity distribution around the trailing
edge of the turbine blade. It can be seen that the slip velocity
reaches positive and negative values. Denitely negative values
are observed in the blade wake and on the shtail shock. It results
from the fact that changes in the vapor phase velocity are so vio-
lent in some areas that, due to the effect of the inertial force, the
liquid phase takes much longer to change and adjust its velocity
to the ow of the vapor phase. In the remaining area, the slip veloc-
ity has positive values.
However, the circumferentially averaged outlet values of the
vapor velocity are higher than the velocity of the liquid phase. It
is graphically presented in Fig. 6. The difference between the liquid
and vapor velocity at the outlet is very small (under 1 m/s) for the
L1 test case, and bigger (2.5 m/s) for the L3 test. The same tendency
is observed in the outlet angle. For the L1 case the difference be-
tween the angles calculated for the liquid and vapor phases is al-
most zero, but for the L3 case it is about 0.8o. In Fig. 7 the
droplet radius distributions in the cross-section at the outlet are
compared with the experimental data. The calculated distributions
give lower values than the experiment.
5. Conclusions
The two-uid model presented in this paper and implemented
into the in-house CFD code creates the possibility to predict the
wet steam losses in the low-pressure turbine stages accurately.
For the wet steam two-phase ow modeling, the presented
model can predict the place of condensation correctly in compari-
son with the experiment. The small differences in the position of
the condensation shock can be attributed to the applied algebraic
turbulence model and also to the homogeneous condensation
model, which uses no correction factors.
The velocity slip between the vapor and the liquid phases is ob-
served, which shows the correct behavior of the applied drag
forces. Therefore, by using this model in steam turbines, the ther-
modynamic and aerodynamic losses of the two-phase ow can be
predicted.
It was conformed that the calculations of the steam condensing
ow by means of the presented algorithms are very sensitive to the
ow parameters that are dependent on:
state equation for vapor and liquid,
Riemann problem,
accuracy of integration in time and differentiation in space.
Further work will concentrate on the application of the slip
velocity model for the wet steam ow in turbine stages in order
to determine aerodynamic and thermodynamic losses as well as
places of the liquid phase impingement on the rotor blade surfaces.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank the Polish Ministry of Science and
Higher Education for the nancial support for Research Project
3341/B/T02/2010/38.
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