Agricultural Meteorology and Climatology

ES Takle, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA

2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Synopsis

Agricultural meteorology draws on basic physical and biological sciences to discover, dene, and apply knowledge of weather
and climate to production of food-, feed-, ber-, and bio-based products. Agricultural meteorology is based on fundamental
principles of radiation and surface aerodynamics and thermodynamics. Models of atmospheric interactions with plants and
soil, made more applicable by expanding historical databases, nd increased application in risk management and climate
change. A highly trained workforce in agricultural meteorology is needed to address future needs for global food security in
a changing global climate.

Introduction a part of interannual planning by farmers and regional and

Agricultural meteorology is an interdisciplinary science con-
cerned with discovering, dening, and applying knowledge of
the interactions between meteorological and hydrological
factors and biological systems to practical use in agriculture. An
ultimate goal of agricultural meteorology is to extend and fully
deploy knowledge of atmospheric and related processes to
optimize agricultural production, and hence to increase prof-
itability, decrease risk, contribute to biofuel production, and
feed an expanding global population. A second goal that is
taking on increased importance is to help conserve natural
resources and protect our soil, plant, and water resources.
Environmental interactions of a wide range of agriculturally
related organisms are of interest to agricultural meteorologists.
Although most attention has been focused on agricultural and
horticultural crops and forests, this segment of atmospheric
science also includes environmental interactions with animals
grown to provide food and ber, insects, plant and animal
pathogens, and aquaculture species. Agricultural meteorology,
like the entire eld of meteorology, has its roots in the study of
temperate (midlatitude) regions of the northern hemisphere.
In parallel with its parent discipline, agricultural meteorology
has more recently intensied its focus on tropical agriculture,
with some of the same difculties of paucity of data faced by
tropical meteorology.
The vagaries of weather always have been a leading cause of
variability in agricultural production, but the technological era
has increased this vulnerability even as it has provided some
means of insulating agriculture from adverse conditions. So, for
instance, disease-resistant crops, wide availability of soil
amendments and chemicals for pest control, and efcient tillage,
planting, and harvesting equipment have reduced agricultural
vulnerability and increased yields; however, larger elds and
wide use of monocultures have exposed crops to vector-borne
diseases and insects and exposed soil to erosion by wind and
water. The use of chemicals, new varieties, and genetically
modied organisms has brought new weather dependencies.
Agriculture is arguably the most weather-sensitive sector of
society. Forty percent of the land surface of the Earth is classed
as arid, semiarid, and dry subhumid but is home to millions of
people, particularly in developing countries. For some of these
areas, frequent crop failure due to adverse weather must be
state policy makers. International agricultural meteorologists,
therefore, have signicant concern for famine and food security
because of their close link to interannual variability of weather
and climate. Even in areas having what are considered ideal
climates for crops, water management is a major concern,
particularly in regions where competing uses of fresh water put
increased pressure on agricultural uses of water.
The historical focus of agriculture to produce food and ber
for an expanding global population has been supplemented by
a new thrust at the beginning of the twenty-rst century. Agri-
culturists now also have roles in managing soil and landscapes
to regulate ows of carbon, nutrients, soil amendments, and
pesticides. Atmospheric transport of pesticides, spores, and
pollens (particularly those originating from genetically modi-
ed plant materials) must be quantied with increased accu-
racy. Although uncertainty remains large, consensus estimates
of sources and sinks of greenhouse gases such as carbon
dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide reveal that agriculture has
a signicant role. For instance, agricultural sources of methane
from ruminant animals, rice production, and biomass burning
are comparable to, or may exceed, natural emissions on
a global scale.
Agriculture may play a signicant role in moving society
from its fossil-fuel base for energy and materials to one that
relies more heavily on bioenergy and biobased materials.
Tillage practices on natural prairie lands have reduced soil
carbon by up to 50% in the US Midwest. Opportunities for
agricultural recapture of soil carbon by use of high-yield
plant varieties, reduced tillage, and improved management
of crop residues, fertilization, and irrigation are under
consideration.
Most biological and chemical processes in the biosphere are
highly temperature and moisture dependent, and meteorology
is the study of underlying physics and chemistry that governs
these processes. Emerging recognition of the importance of
biocomplexity and ecosystem services and the need for
sustainable methods of agriculture and economic development
are creating new roles for agricultural meteorology. Agricultural
meteorologists, therefore, can be expected to play an increas-
ingly larger role in working with scientists from many disci-
plines to meet the challenges of these new environmental
concerns.

92 Encyclopedia of Atmospheric Sciences 2nd Edition, Volume 1 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-382225-3.00009-8


Fundamental Principles
Radiation
Agricultural meteorology is built on a foundation of funda-
mental physical laws with applications to the plant, animal, and
soil environments. The principles of radiation describe how
radiant energy received directly from the sun and in diffuse form
from the atmosphere is made available to plants for photosyn-
thesis and converted by solid and liquid surfaces into other
forms of energy. Approximately 40% of the radiation emitted by
the Sun is in the visible wavelength band from 0.4 to 0.7 lm,
sometimes referred to as the shortwave band or, for biological
applications, as the band of photosynthetically active radiation
(PAR). Radiation with wavelengths just shorter than those in the
PAR zone is called ultraviolet radiation (UV-A from 0.32 to
0.40 mm and UV-B from 0.28 to 0.32 mm). Ultraviolet radiation
is not used by plants for photosynthesis, but it can damage living
tissue of plants and animals, particularly simple organisms.
Visible radiation may arrive at a leaf surface either directly
from the Sun or indirectly by reection from atmospheric
molecules, clouds, or solid or liquid surfaces (including other
plant leaves). Leaf orientations and solar zenith angle cause the
amount of radiation received to vary over the course of the day.
The fraction of plan area of leaves to ground area covered by the
plant (including only one side of the leaf) is called the leaf area
index and is used to describe the area of the plant available for
photosynthesis.
Radiation of wavelengths just larger than visible light is
called longwave or infrared radiation, with the band from
about 0.7 to 1.5 m being referred to as the near-infrared region,
which accounts for about 40% of the solar spectrum. Wiens
displacement law (eqn [1]) relates the wavelength of radiated
energy to temperature.
2897
l [1]
T
In eqn [1], l is the wavelength (in mm) and T is the temper-
ature in K. Wiens law can be used to show that most terrestrial
surfaces emit radiation of 812 mm, with most growing plants
radiating at about 10 mm. The amount of dry matter produced by
a plant per unit absorbed PAR is a measure of its light-use ef-
ciency, with typical values being from 1.5 to 4.5 g dry matter per
megajoule. Chlorophyll in leaves makes plants much less
reective in the PAR region than in the near-infrared (by a factor
of 4 for corn and soybeans), a fact that allows remote assessment
of photosynthesis by use of the normalized difference vegetation
index derived from satellite observations.
Heat Balance
Thermodynamic principles provide the basis for relations
among atmospheric pressure, temperature, and density (ideal
gas law), as well as the transfer and conversion of energy (rst
law of thermodynamics). A primary focus of agricultural
meteorology is the balance of energy (conservation of energy)
for the system being studied, such as a metabolizing organism
or a plant-covered or soil surface. For an organism, we can
describe the steady state-heat balance by eqn [2].
Rn M C LE G [2] wind speed over homogeneous surfaces. Proles inside crop
Agricultural Meteorology and Climatology 93
In eqn [2], Rn is the net gain of heat from radiation; M is the
net gain of heat from metabolism; C is the loss of sensible heat
to air by convection; LE is the loss of latent heat by evaporation
of water; and G is the loss of heat to ground and vegetation by
conduction. E is the evaporation rate (ux of water vapor per
unit area) and L is the latent heat of vaporization. All quantities
are considered to be averaged values per unit area. For appli-
cations to animal agriculture, M is likely to be a signicant
factor, but for a soil or vegetated surface, the metabolism
contribution is negligible. The radiant component of energy
consists of absorbed incoming shortwave energy less net
emitted longwave energy.
A plant canopy uses a portion of the shortwave component
of this net incoming radiant energy for photosynthesis. In
a balanced condition, the plant uses its evapotranspiration
capacity to regulate its temperature by converting excess
sensible heat to latent heat. Most agricultural animals, like
humans, also have the capacity to rid themselves of excess heat
by means of evaporation.
Surface Aerodynamics
The aerodynamics of plant interactions with the atmosphere
provides a basis for understanding how plants exchange
moisture, trace gases, and heat energy with and extract
momentum from the free atmosphere through turbulent
processes. Descriptions of the movement of pollen, spores,
insects, and chemical sprays also require information about
mean and turbulent ow processes on scales of centimeters to
hundreds of kilometers.
Simple representations of atmospheresurface interactions
are given by drag coefcient formulations of vertical uxes of
quantity S from a surface as given in eqn [3].


Fs Ut St  Ssurf [3]
Ut is the transport velocity for the interface and the values of
S are taken at height t and at the surface. The transport velocity
at the Earths surface is usually parameterized by use of a drag
coefcient (CDs) for the quantity S and the mean wind speed at
some level (usually taken to be 10 m), i.e., {V10} (eqn [4]).
Ut CDS fV10 g [4]
Drag coefcients depend on atmospheric stability but are
typically in the range 1  103 to 5  103 (dimensionless).
Concepts of gradient or Fickian diffusion have been used to
describe uxes by measuring vertical gradients and using
assumptions or additional measurements to estimate transfer
coefcients. Under this approach, the turbulent ux of
a quantity is proportional to the vertical gradient of its mean
quantities above the surface, eqn [5].
vs
Fs Ks [5]
vz
where Ks is the turbulent diffusion transfer coefcient for
variable s, usually estimated to be ku*z (k being von Karmans
constant (0.4) and u* being the friction velocity) with an
additional stability correction factor and constant for each
variable s. Equation [5] with an assumed form of Ks is used
to derive vertical proles of temperature and horizontal
94 Agricultural Meteorology and Climatology
canopies are more complicated and are usually specied by
empirical relations.
Evaporation and Precipitation
Agriculture is practiced over large regions of the Earth where
water excess or water decit is a major limitation for successful
crops. Therefore, a major focus of agricultural meteorology and
climatology is the study of precipitation and evaporation. The
heat balance equation can be used to provide an estimate of the
evaporation rate for a surface from knowledge of other
components of the heat budget by a type of PenmanMonteith
equation (eqn [6]).
DRn  HG FW
LE [6]
Dg
In eqn [6], D RHs vqs =vT, where RHs is the saturation
relative humidity and qs is the saturation specic humidity; HG
is the soil heat ux; Fw CE bRHp  RHa , where CE is the
bulk transfer coefcient for moisture, b u=C , RHp is the
D
relative humidity at the plant or soil surface, RHa is the ambient
relative humidity, u is the friction velocity, and CD is the drag
coefcient; and g cp=L, where cp is the specic heat capacity
of air at constant pressure. In some implementations, D and Fw
are replaced by factors that include canopy and atmospheric
resistances to ow of heat and momentum.
Both amount and timeliness of precipitation and evapora-
tion are of critical importance to agriculture. Irrigation sched-
uling requires reliable climate information as well as good
weather forecasts, particularly with increased competition for
fresh water due to increased population and expanded uses of
water. Food security exacerbates the vulnerability of many
precipitation-decient developing countries to interannual
variability of precipitation and raises the urgency of improved
seasonal to interannual forecasts of weather and climate.
Instrumentation, Measurements, and Networks
Agricultural climatology relies on records of basic meteoro-
logical measurements having been taken over extensive areas
and signicantly long periods of time. These records form the
basis for understanding climate variability and change and also
for extracting statistically signicant relationships between
meteorological variables and soil and plant processes, plant,
animal, and pest development, and seasonal yield. In addition
to standard atmospheric measurements, agriculturists need
measurements of soil temperature and soil moisture. These
measurements are less widely recorded although they (espe-
cially soil moisture) are being recognized for their role in
climate memory and hence seasonal forecasting. More such
measurements and networks for measurements are needed,
particularly in developing countries where use of technology to
reduce vulnerability to climate variability is severely limited.
The central role of the surface energy balance in agricultural
meteorology calls for accurate methods of evaluating uxes of
heat, momentum, moisture, and trace gases from crop, soil,
and forest surfaces. Unfortunately, this is not an easy task for
heterogeneous surfaces typically encountered in agricultural
applications. Estimates of surface uxes can be made by drag
coefcient formulations and gradient diffusion estimates or by
eddy correlation methods.
The most direct measurement of vertical uxes is accom-
plished by using eddy correlation methods, which have seen
increased use due to wider availability of improvements in
sensors and recording and in data archiving equipment and
methods. Eddy correlation methods are based on the principle
that turbulent ow near the Earths surface can lead to vertical
uxes of heat, moisture, momentum, or trace gases in the
absence of a mean vertical ux of dry air. We express the vertical
ux of quantity s as Fs cs rwtst, with a time-averaged value
given by fFs g cs rfwtstg, where cs is a constant for the
particular quantity being transported, r is the dry air density,
and w is the vertical wind speed. We can express w as a sum of
a time-independent mean and a time-dependent turbulent
component, w(t) w0 w0 (t), and similarly for s,
s(t) s0 s0 (t). We can then write eqn [7]:
Fs cs rw0 w0 ts0 s0 t
cs rw0 s0 w0 s0 t w0 ts0 w0 ts0 t [7]
After time averaging, this becomes eqn [8].
fFs g cs rfw0 s0 g cs rfw0 s0 tg cs rfw0 ts0 g
cs rfw0 ts0 tg [8]
The rst two terms on the right-hand side of eqn [8] are zero
because the mean vertical wind speed is zero. The third term
vanishes because, by denition, the mean uctuation of the
vertical wind is zero. The last term can be nonzero, however, if
the uctuation of the vertical wind has correlation other than
zero with the uctuating part of s. The time-averaged turbulent
ux of s then reduces to {Fs} given by eqn [9], which can be
computed by combining measured w0 and s0 taken from
simultaneous recordings of fast response measurements of w(t)
and s(t).
fFs g cs rfw0 ts0 tg [9]
The Bowen ratio is dened as the ratio of heat ux to
moisture ux near the surface (eqn [10]).
C cp fw0 T 0 g
B  0 0 [10]
LE L w qs
From eqn [2], ignoring metabolic contributions, we can
express the sensible heat ux and latent heat ux, respectively,
from the surface as in eqns [11] and [12].
BRn  G
C [11]
1B
Rn  G
LE [12]
1B
Flux measurements by the eddy correlation method present
challenges that can lead to uncertainty of 530%. For a partic-
ular situation being sampled, an appropriate averaging time
must be selected to be long enough to ensure a sufciently large
sample but not so long as to mix turbulent processes with
phenomena of longer time scales. Perhaps a more serious
problem is the representativeness issue: Fluxes at a point over

an agricultural eld are not completely vertical, particularly
where inhomogeneities exist in the eld. It can be difcult to
specify the surface footprint from which the surface ux advanced models might additionally use dew-point tempera-
emerged for situations having changing wind directions, terrain
irregularities, changing levels of atmospheric stability, or
inhomogeneities of surface vegetation, soil moisture, or soil
type. Yearlong measurements of CO2 ux over a mixed-species
forest in irregular terrain, for instance, would require consid-
erably more care in interpretation than daytime measurements
over a at eld of corn. Despite the additional expense and care
needed in conducting measurements and additional effort for
analysis, eddy correlation measurements are increasingly being
used for evaluating surface uxes of CO2 and other trace gases
and moisture.
Measurement networks have been established by some
local, state, federal, and international agencies to provide both
an expanding climate database and a basis for near-term and
seasonal agricultural decision making. There is an urgent need
to expand these networks to meet the increasing food needs,
particularly in developing countries. A US national measure-
ment network of soil moisture and temperature, as recom-
mended by a National Academies of Science report, would
benet both production agriculture and climate science
through improvement in seasonal weather forecasts. Remote
sensing by satellite is nding expanded use in providing large-
scale data of relevance to agriculture, but its use for individual
farmers is limited.
Modeling and Theory
Modeling of plant interactions with the atmosphere has
emerged from at least two directions: global climate modelers
seeking more accurate representation of energy, momentum,
and moisture budgets at the Earths surface and crop modelers
seeking ways of understanding plant responses to climate and
of projecting yields of agricultural crops. Climate modelers use
the so-called soilvegetationatmosphere transfer (SVAT)
models as surface packages to which they supply meteoro-
logical data at each surface grid point at each model time step
(a few minutes to hours). The SVAT model then calculates the
response of the soil and plants (e.g., evaporation or transpira-
tion, temperature change, soil moisture content, moisture
uptake by roots, rain or dew held on leaves, precipitation
runoff, and momentum extracted) and returns to the climate
model the surface uxes of heat, moisture, and momentum
consistent with these soil- and plant-based changes. Compu-
tational constraints limit the detail to which plant processes
can be described, but, as simplistic as they are, the models
provide a conceptual framework for eventual coupling of more
detailed crop, forest, and ecosystem models.
Crop models may be physiologically based or statistically
based. Crop growth models are built on plant biophysical
processes of agricultural crops and their relationship to envi-
ronmental factors. They predict growth, development, and
yield based on complex interactions between weather, soil
characteristics, nutrients, and plants. A practical application of
crop growth models is to estimate agricultural production as
a function of weather and soil conditions under alternative
management conditions. Basic meteorological information
Agricultural Meteorology and Climatology 95
needed to drive these models includes air temperature,
precipitation, and solar radiation (or sunshine hours). More
ture, wind speed, and soil temperature. Statistically based crop
models provide large-area yield predictions based on correla-
tions of past yields with regional average weather conditions.
These models tend to be much less computationally intensive
but also more location specic and hence less transferable to
other regions.
The fate of fugitive agricultural chemicals and movement of
insects and pollen are addressed by models of atmospheric ow
on scales of turbulent eddies to mesoscale meteorology. Large-
eddy simulation models and models developed for use in air
pollution regulation are sometimes adapted for simulating
transport of agriculturally related materials. Recent advances in
numerical simulation of turbulent ow through vegetation
have been used to understand the aerodynamic functioning of
agricultural shelterbelts. Extensions of these models to simulate
the complete microclimate provide opportunities for exploring,
by use of rst principles, complex physical relationships in
heterogeneous ecosystems and landscapes.
Concern for national and international food securities has
prompted the need for models of seasonal yield of various food
crops. Private organizations as well as governmental agencies
have developed yield models based on long-range weather
conditions. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations has developed agrometeorological models that
forecast yield on the basis of cumulative weekly or 10-day crop
water balances for providing early warning of potential food
security problems in developing countries. The Agricultural
Model Intercomparison and Improvement Project (AgMIP) is
an international effort to improve and couple crop and
economic models with the next generation of climate impact
projections for improved assessment of food security.
Manipulating Microclimates to Enhance Productivity
and Reduce Risk
Agriculturists have a long history of enhancing crop growth by
manipulating soil and plant microclimates, through use of
irrigation, glasshouses, shelterbelts and windbreaks, snow
fences, wind machines, surface mulches, certain tillage prac-
tices, alley cropping, and agroforestry. The design and opera-
tion of such modications require considerable information on
the mean, extremes, and interannual variability of climate at
the specic location where the practice is implemented.
Horticulture crops, which typically have a higher value per
unit area than grain crops, are sensitive to small changes in
microclimate. Also in contrast to grains, horticulture crops are
more sensitive to weather-induced reduction in product quality
or market value. For instance, the desirable red coloration on
some fruits is sensitive to optimal amounts of solar radiation at
a critical stage. Manipulation of microclimates for horticultural
crops is more cost-effective than for cereals because of both
their high value and their sensitivity of quality to microclimate.
Weather extremes may have multiyear impacts on agricultural
crops grown as perennials (e.g., fruits, nuts, and grapes), which
raises the cost-effectiveness of microclimate modications for
reducing such extremes.
96 Agricultural Meteorology and Climatology
Agriculture Meteorology Forecasts
Agriculturists can use weather forecasts with valid times of
a few minutes to several months. Weather forecasts are used for
planning tillage and planting operations, seed purchase,
chemical application, frost suppression, grain harvesting,
transport and storage, pest and disease management, and
marketing, as well as crop growth calculations and long-range
planning.
Major improvements over the past 10 years in our under-
standing of the El Nio/Southern Oscillation (ENSO)-related
phenomena have enhanced prospects for seasonal to interan-
nual forecasts of agriculture-sensitive climate information. Such
information now is being used in early warning systems for
planning, management, and operations in some tropical areas.
In regions where the climate correlation with ENSO is strong,
projected ENSO factors have been used to create projections of
stress indices. Current research on this and related areas may
offer future progress in seasonal to interannual forecasts.
Climate Data
Agricultural climatologists use long-term records of standard
meteorological data to compute derived agriculturally related
variables such as growing degree days, heat stress units, frost-
free days, Palmer drought index, and temperaturehumidity
index. These variables have been developed from physiological
concepts to correlate with crop development stage, crop yield,
weight gain in meat animals, daily milk production, or other
agriculturally important parameters.
Education and Training
Basic education for agricultural meteorologists is usually
acquired by supplementing a conventional meteorology,
physics, or environmental science curriculum with courses on
plant, soil, or animal science, forestry, or horticulture. Only
a few US and European universities offer undergraduate or
graduate degrees specically in agricultural meteorology. Most
courses of study with emphasis in agricultural meteorology are
connected with more traditional programs in agriculture such
as agronomy. India has taken a more coordinated approach
than almost any other country to the university education of
agricultural meteorologists. Increased needs in the developing
world have expanded the denition of agricultural meteo-
rology to include more frequent weather and climate disasters
that threaten production systems. The World Meteorological
Organization recently and in applications to developing
countries has cited the socioeconomic aspects such as irriga-
tion, storage, agroforestry, oods, drought, erosion and
desertication, frost, wind protection, simple articial growth
conditions, sustainable farming, and related farmers income as
emerging priorities in agricultural meteorology.
The practical applications of agricultural meteorology have
created needs for training programs aimed at changing the
knowledge, skills, and behavior of personnel to achieve the
objectives of the organizations they work for. The World
Meteorological Organization provides in-service training
through regional meteorological training centers that offer
specialized courses in basic agricultural meteorology, database
management, agricultural meteorology modeling, and hydro-
meteorology. These short courses tend to be task oriented,
focusing on improving and standardizing the practice of agri-
cultural meteorology, particularly in relation to observations
and data management.
Rapid advances in the eld of meteorology have increased
the need for more lifelong learning opportunities both in basic
education and in training. Increased interest in global
observing networks for monitoring a wider range of environ-
mental variables exacerbates this need. The Internet offers
a potential means of delivering standardized and authoritative
educational and training materials to larger fractions of the
global agricultural meteorology community.
Future Issues
The potential impact of global climate change on agriculture
has been a subject of intense study in recent years. Uncer-
tainties in projections of future climates at regional scales limit
the accuracy with which agricultural impacts can be estimated.
However, there is high condence that increases in atmo-
spheric carbon dioxide will have a benecial effect on crops
both through direct fertilization and through increased water
use efciency. The mean yield increase for C4 crops (e.g.,
maize, sugar cane, millet, and sorghum) under a doubling of
atmospheric CO2 is minimal, whereas increases for C3 crops
(most other plants) may be up to 30%, other factors being
equal. Loss of soil organic matter, leaching of soil nutrients,
and salinization and erosion of soils will occur in some
climatic zones, which will call for more effective agricultural
land use practices. Crop yields and productivity will vary
considerably across different climate zones under climate
change, with low-latitude and low-income countries being
most negatively affected and some high-latitude countries
experiencing more favorable crop growing conditions than
under the current climate.
Advances in our knowledge in the traditional areas of
agricultural meteorology surface uxes of energy, moisture,
and trace gases and the study of precipitation and evaporation
processes will be urgently needed for coping with interannual
variability and long-term change of future climates. And prac-
tical applications of this new knowledge require timely, ef-
cient, and worldwide distribution networks. Emergence of
social media fostered widespread use of cell phones and
internet provides rich opportunities for democratizing the
dissemination of time-sensitive weather and climate informa-
tion for agricultural decision making.
Better understanding of basic agricultural micrometeorology
and associated plant and soil processes will allow for
continuing advances in applied agricultural meteorology as well
as at larger scales of meteorology. Measurements of heteroge-
neities in soil and microclimate across a eld are increasingly
being used for site-specic management of plant environments
and yield improvement. At larger scales, the subtle processes
regulating the exchange of moisture and energy of plants and
soil with the atmosphere are key to improvements in numerical
models of mesoscale meteorology and global climate.

See also: Boundary Layer (Atmospheric) and Air Pollution:
Surface Layer. Data Assimilation and Predictability: Data
Assimilation; Ensemble Prediction. General Circulation of the
Atmosphere: Energy Cycle. Hydrology, Floods and Droughts:
Soil Moisture. Numerical Models: Large-Eddy Simulation.
Radiation Transfer in the Atmosphere: Ultraviolet Radiation.
Synoptic Meteorology: Forecasting. Weather Forecasting:
Seasonal and Interannual Weather Prediction; Severe Weather
Forecasting.
Further Reading
Carbone, R.E., Block, J., Boselly, S.E., Carmichael, G.R., Carr, F.H., Chandrasekar, V.,
Gruntfest, E., Hoff, R.M., Krajewski, W.F., Lemone, M.A., Purdom, J.,
Schlatter, T.W., Takle, E.S., Titlow, J., 2009. Observing Weather and Climate from
the Ground Up: A Nationwide Network of Networks. National Academies Press,
Washington, DC.
Doraiswamy, P.C., Pasteris, P.A., Jones, K.C., Motha, R.P., Nejedlik, P., 2000.
Techniques for methods of collection, database management and distribution of
agrometeorological data. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 103, 8397.
Hanks, J., Ritchie, J.T. (Eds.), 1991. Modeling Plant and Soil Systems. American
Society of Agronomy.
Hoogenboom, G., 2000. Contribution of agrometeorology to the simulation of crop
production and its applications. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 103, 137157.
International Rice Research Institute, 1989. Climate and Food Security, International
Symposium on Climate Variability and Food Security in Developing Countries.
International Rice Research Institute, Manila, Philippines.
Lomas, J., Milford, J.R., Mukhala, E., 2000. Education and training in agricultural
meteorology: current status and future needs. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology
103, 197208.
Maracchi, G., Prarnaud, V., Kleschenko, A.D., 2000. Applications of geographical
information systems and remote sensing in agrometeorology. Agricultural and
Forest Meteorology 103, 119136.
Monteith, J.L., 2000. Agricultural meteorology: evolution and application. Agricultural
and Forest Meteorology 103, 59.
Monteith, J.L., Unsworth, M.H., 1990. Principles of Environmental Physics, second ed.
Edward Arnold, London.
Agricultural Meteorology and Climatology 97
Ogallo, L.A., Boulahya, M.S., Keane, T., 2000. Applications of seasonal to interannual
climate prediction in agricultural planning and operations. Agricultural and Forest
Meteorology 103, 159166.
Parry, M.L., Canziani, O.F., Palutikof, J.P., van der Linden, P.J., Hanson, C.E., 2007.
Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of
Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Salinger, M.J., Stigter, C.J., Das, H.P., 2000. Agrometeorological adaptation strategies
to increasing climate variability and climate change. Agricultural and Forest
Meteorology 103, 167184.
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