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Energy Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers
Energy 165 February 2012 Issue EN1
Volume 165 Issue EN1
Pages 717 http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/ener.11.00003
Paper 1100003
Laterally loaded monopile design for Received 06/01/2011 Accepted 28/04/2011
offshore wind farms Published online 19/12/2011
Doherty and Gavin Keywords: codes of practice & standards/offshore engineering/
renewable energy
Expansion of the offshore UK wind energy sector has stimulated renewed interest in the response of piles to lateral
and moment loads. This paper compares the state of the art in foundation design with current industry trends in off-
shore wind turbine construction. The historical evolution of pile design for lateral loading is described in detail,
focusing on the American Petroleum Institute guidelines used by the offshore sector. The limitations of these design
codes are discussed in light of the specific requirements for the wind sector. Recent research efforts attempting to
bridge the gap between practice and industry are highlighted and further research needs are identified.
7
Energy Laterally loaded monopile design for
Volume 165 Issue EN1 offshore wind farms
Doherty and Gavin
2. Foundation design issues for offshore Figure 3. To date, monopiles have been the most economic
wind alternative due to their competitive fabrication and installation
The rst offshore wind farm was installed off the Danish coast costs coupled with the relatively shallow-water depths at
in 1991 and was supported on a gravity base, similar to those existing sites. However, the majority of sites planned for
used for the majority of onshore wind turbine foundations. development over the next 1015 years are located in water
However, a number of other substructure options have sub- depths ranging from 30 to 70 m and, as a result, are largely
sequently been used offshore, including monopiles, jackets/ outside the scope of existing installation experience. This is a
tripods and, more recently, oating turbines tethered to the specic and signicant concern for many of the round 3
seabed with tension anchors. These foundation concepts are development sites, which are also illustrated in Figure 2.
illustrated schematically in Figure 1. In shallow water, and
where the ground conditions below the seabed have adequate The average water depths for wind farms that are currently in
bearing capacity, concrete gravity bases have proved successful. the design phase are compared with those currently in operation
Gravity foundations resist the applied load through the bearing in Figure 4. The transition to deeper water, evident in the gure,
resistance of the underlying soil strata and the dead weight of will result in the span between the turbine superstructure and
the concrete base. In suitable ground conditions, monopiles the seabed also increasing. This, coupled with more extreme
(comprising a single large-diameter steel tube driven into the environmental loading from higher magnitude wind and
seabed) have proven to be an efcient solution in water waves, results in larger moments applied to the foundation.
depths up to 35 m. These piles resist lateral wind and wave While monopiles are an attractive solution for developers and
loading (and resulting moments) by mobilising horizontal designers alike, the increased water depths would result in
earth pressures in competent near-surface soils. In water larger diameters with stiffer cross-sections. The monopiles
depths ranging from 35 to 60 m, jacket structures have been used to date consist of a stiff pile of diameter 46 m and
used to support wind turbines. The jacket consists of a three- penetration depths ranging from 20 to 30 m. This results in
or four-legged steel lattice frame founded on single piles slenderness ratios of approximately 56. The design of these
placed below each leg. The applied loads are transferred foundation elements is normally performed using semi-
through the jacket structure into the foundation piles, where empirical formulas developed for the offshore oil/gas industry
resistance is generated through axial pushpull action. As a from eld tests on signicantly smaller diameter piles. Extrapo-
result, the tension pile capacity often governs the design process lating these methods to the geometries considered today
for jacket piles. A recent pilot project off the coast of Norway requires careful consideration of the applied loading and the
has demonstrated the possibility of using deep-water oating inherent limitations underlying the current design methods.
turbines. However, the commercial viability of oating designs
remains uncertain. Typical loading conditions for an offshore monopile are
illustrated schematically in Figure 5. The loads are shown to
The geographical distribution of offshore wind farms con- be acting at the interface level between the monopile and the
structed around the UK is illustrated in Figure 2. Monopiles turbine shaft. An axial load of approximately 6 MN and a
are by far the most common support structure, accounting for lateral load of 2 MN act at this point. In addition, a high
over 75% of existing turbine foundations, as shown in moment is generated by the turbine lever arm, which combines
lateral wind forces with the rotor height above the interface
level. The water depth will generate a further moment load on
Gravity base Monopile Jacket Floating the monopile at the seabed level (resulting from the 2 MN
structure platforms lateral component). It is clear from Figure 5 that monopile
design is controlled by the lateral and moment loads and ef-
cient foundations can therefore only be achieved by addressing
uncertainties in the lateral loading design processes.
8
Energy Laterally loaded monopile design for
Volume 165 Issue EN1 offshore wind farms
Doherty and Gavin
Monopile foundation
Jacket foundation
Moray Firth
Firth of Forth
Dogger
Bank
Irish Sea
Hornsea
East Anglia
Atlantic Array
Southern Array
West Isle of Wight
Figure 2. Locations of UKs existing offshore wind farms and
round 3 development sites
linear or non-linear curve, which describes the soil reaction p at 1956. Subsequent experimental research conducted by Matlock
a given depth as a function of the lateral movement y. The (1970) demonstrated that the soil resistance at a given point on
spring stiffness Epy is dened as the secant modulus of the py the pile is independent of the pile deections at points above and
curve (see Figure 6). below that point, supporting the underlying assumption that the
springs are uncoupled in the py approach. The original py
The Winkler approach was rst introduced in 1867, with curves for piles in cohesionless deposits were developed by
Hetenyi (1946) providing a solution to the problem of a beam Reese et al. (1974) and were empirically derived from the results
on an elastic foundation. Following on from this, the py of lateral load tests on two identical instrumented test piles at
concept was originally suggested by Reese and Matlock in Mustang Island in Texas described by Cox et al. (1974).
9
Energy Laterally loaded monopile design for
Volume 165 Issue EN1 offshore wind farms
Doherty and Gavin
Monopile
Gravity base
Tripod
Jacket
Floating
2 MN 6 MN
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Frequency: %
110 MNm
Figure 3. Foundation distribution for offshore wind turbines
60
Proposed wind farms
Operating wind farms
50
Offshore wind turbines: %
40
30
20
10
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Mean water depth: <m
Figure 4. Variation in water depths for existing and proposed
wind farms
10
Energy Laterally loaded monopile design for
Volume 165 Issue EN1 offshore wind farms
Doherty and Gavin
Linear The load tests reported by Reese et al. (1974) at Mustang Island
300 included a series of cyclic tests that were used to develop py
Linear
250
A B
Soil reaction p: kN/m
Parabola x = 15 m 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
0 0
200 Bc
(cyclic)
1 1
Ac As Bs
150 x=1m
(cyclic) (static) (static)
2 2
100
3 3
x/D
50 4 4
11
Energy Laterally loaded monopile design for
Volume 165 Issue EN1 offshore wind farms
Doherty and Gavin
4 80
30
35 70
3 60
C1 and C2
C2
k: MPa/m
C3
25 50 20
2 40
15 C1 30
10
1 20
C3
05 10
0 0 0
20 25 30 35 40 0 20 40 60 80 100
Angle of internal friction: degrees Relative density: %
(a) (b)
Figure 9. (a) C coefficients and (b) initial modulus of subgrade
reaction k for API RP2A (API, 2007)
curves that captured the pilesoil cyclic response. The mobilised 2a. pu min pus ; pud
resistance of the piles reduced during cyclic loading and the two
empirical factors A and B were introduced to account for this
2b. pus C1 x C2 Dx
degradation (see Figure 8). This type of analysis gives an ulti-
mate value for the py curves or a degraded curve. However,
it does not consider the transitional period between the static 2c. pud C3 Dx
and ultimate cyclic curve and thus does not provide a method
of considering the pile rotations or accumulated displacements x
A 3 0:8 5 0:9
during cycling. 3. D
A research study sponsored by the API compiled a pile test The py curve given by Equation 1 incorporates the pre-
database and tested the accuracy of the Reese et al. (1974) viously described empirical parameter A, which can be
model against three alternative py formulas (Murchinson calculated from Equation 3 for static loading or selected
and ONeill, 1984). A hyperbolic model, given by Equation 1, directly from Figure 8(a). For cyclic loading A 0.9 should be
was shown to provide better predictions of the lateral deec- used. By directly including this parameter to determine the
tions and the maximum moments than the traditional 1974 soil reaction at failure, API RP2A (API, 2007) is directly
approach and this model has been incorporated into current calibrated against the load tests conducted at Mustang Island
design methods (API, 2007; DNV, 2007). The ultimate resis- on exible piles. The pilesoil stiffness can be obtained by
tance for this model is determined using the same methodology differentiating Equation 1
(based on Rankine earth pressures) as previously established.
However, estimating pu is simplied by introducing the dimen- d kx kx=Apu
sionless coefcients C1, C2 and C3, which are functions of the Epy Apu tanh y Apu
4. dy Apu cosh2 kxy=Apu
friction angle (see Figure 9(a)). The ultimate soil resistance
can then be determined without the need to calculate the
Following Equation 4, the initial stiffness at a displacement of
Rankine pressures acting on the pile by using Equation 2. 0
zero gives Epy kx, which agrees with the originally adopted
assumption of linearly increasing stiffness with depth. The dis-
kx
p Apu tanh y crete values of k proposed by Reese et al. (1974) were replaced
1. Apu
in the current API design code API RP2A (API, 2007) by the
12
Energy Laterally loaded monopile design for
Volume 165 Issue EN1 offshore wind farms
Doherty and Gavin
curve shown in Figure 9(b) to allow an appropriate k value to with piles up to 1.22 m in diameter. However, there remains
be determined for a range of relative densities/friction angles. no lateral test data for piles in the range 46 m diameter,
However, this curve only shows values of k up to 80% relative where these design methods are currently being applied. This
density, which introduces considerable errors in the estimation empiricism underpins the major limitations of API RP2A
of k for very dense deposits, as commonly found in the North (API, 2007).
Sea.
4.1 Mode of failure
The Murchinson and ONeill (1984) database consisted of 14 A number of researchers have postulated that the pile response
load tests on piles with diameters up to 1.22 m installed in and failure mechanism depends on the exibility of the pile itself
loose to dense sand. However, the nal conclusion of the (e.g. Briaud et al., 1984; Budhu and Davies, 1987; Dobry et al.,
study was that 1982). Poulos and Hull (1989) used the rigidity parameter R,
dependent on the pile Youngs modulus Ep, moment of inertia
The database was small . . . Further high quality eld tests, of the pile Ip and soil stiffness Es, to classify the pile response
especially on instrumented, large diameter piles, are needed to
enlarge the database and to permit future reassessment of
Ep Ip 0:25
procedures for analysing laterally loaded piles in cohesionless R
5. Es
soils.
Unfortunately, 25 years later and the API code has largely Poulos and Hull suggested that a pile behaves rigidly if the
remained unchanged, despite the obvious limitations of the length is less than 1.48R and behaves exibly if the length
original formulations and the specic needs of the newly exceeds 4.44R. The length normalised by the rigidity param-
emerged wind energy sector. eter (L/R) is plotted as a function of slenderness ratio (L/D)
in Figure 10 for piles with a wall thickness of 50 mm. For
4. Limitations of existing standards typical monopile geometries, with slenderness ratios in the
The current API/DNV methods are a slightly modied version range 46, piles installed in loose sand are very likely to exhi-
of the original py method proposed by Reese et al. (1974) but bit rigid failure according to the relationships proposed by
the underlying principals and methodology remain the same. Poulos and Hull (1989). For very stiff sand with an Es value
The empirical basis of this method reduces condence in of 100 MPa, the failure mechanism is less certain, with typical
extrapolating this method beyond the original formation monopile geometries falling in the transition range between
dataset, which consisted of two 610 mm diameter exible piles rigid and exible behaviour. For most monopile installations
and a slightly larger test database by Murchinson and ONeill the soil stiffness will be signicantly less than 100 MPa and a
L/R L/R
0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8
0 0
4 4
6 6
L/D
L/D
8 8
10 10
12 12
L = 15 m Stiff
Stiff Flexible
L = 25 m
14 14 Flexible
L = 35 m
(a) (b)
Figure 10. Pile failure mechanism for soils with (a) Es 10 MPa
and (b) Es 100 MPa
13
Energy Laterally loaded monopile design for
Volume 165 Issue EN1 offshore wind farms
Doherty and Gavin
rigid failure mechanism will occur. This rigid failure mechan- pile diameter by using a simple hyperbolic soil model. These
ism is supported by observations from model tests of mono- studies concerned the modulus of subgrade reaction Epy. How-
piles installed in dense sand subjected to lateral loads (e.g. ever, the results can be considered applicable to the initial
0
Leblanc et al., 2010). modulus Epy or the stiffness parameter k.
The rigid mode of failure casts considerable doubts on the The contrasting ndings of previous researchers prompted
validity of applying the existing py curves (which were Ashford and Juirnarongrit (2005) to conduct a dedicated
developed to match the response of exible piles) to predict study into diameter effects. They employed a simple nite-
the behaviour of offshore monopiles. API RP2A needs to be element model (FEM) and varied the pile diameter while
urgently calibrated for rigid pile behaviour to determine the maintaining a constant bending stiffness. The analysis showed
initial stiffness and ultimate capacity. that increasing the diameter had a positive inuence on the
pile response, reducing both the displacements and the depth
API RP2A also assumes the pile to exhibit a Rankine-type fail- to the maximum moment. However, the research concluded
ure in determining pu. This assumes that a frictionless interface that the effect of increasing the diameter was relatively small
exists between the pile and the soil (or that the pile is perfectly in comparison with the impact of the pile bending stiffness.
smooth), whereas in reality the pile will exhibit friction as the The FEM results were supported by back-analysis of py
sand ows around the pile shaft. Briaud et al. (1984) proposed curves from static load tests, which showed a negligible
a model to consider both the frontal and shear components of impact of pile diameter. Further analysis by Ashford and Juir-
resistance; there are, however, limited experimental results narongrit (2005) involved measuring the accelerations of
with which to calibrate the model and the shear resistance has bored piles subjected to small lateral vibrations and comparing
not been incorporated into API RP2A. Another component the in situ frequencies with those determined from a numerical
of resistance that is neglected in the current approach is the model with an assumed soil modulus. Pile diameters of 0.6, 0.9
shear resistance mobilised at the pile base and the shear and 1.2 m were used in the study and the best match between the
resistance mobilised between adjacent soil layers (which is measured results and the predicted behaviour was obtained
discounted by the assumption of independent decoupled when a soil modulus independent of diameter was used. They
springs). As the pile fails rigidly, the soil will also mobilise a concluded that there was no signicant relationship between
passive wedge beneath the point of zero deection, which is Epy and the pile diameter, supporting the ndings of Vesic
not considered in the current methodology. The accumulated (1961) and Terzaghi (1955). Fan and Long (2005) also con-
errors from ignoring these components of resistance are pos- ducted an FEM investigation in which the pile diameter was
sibly partially offset by incorporating the empirical coefcient increased while maintaining a constant bending stiffness, EpIp.
A. However, it remains uncertain whether these components This research concluded that there was no signicant correla-
of resistance, combined with the rigid failure mechanism, are tion between pile diameter and initial stiffness. However, the
accurately accounted for when API RP2A is extrapolated to analysis considered traditional slender piles.
large-diameter piles.
Lesny and Wiemann (2006) conducted FEM analyses and
4.2 Impact of diameter showed the initial stiffness of the py curves developed along
According to API RP2A (API, 2007), the initial modulus of the shaft of a monopile varied according to a power law with
subgrade reaction is only dependent on the sand relative density depth, such that at signicant depths the stiffness was overesti-
and is independent of diameter a point worthy of question and mated by the traditional py curves and hence the API method
one that has received considerable attention in the literature. was unconservative for large-diameter piles. They concluded
that this could result in the current design methods predicting
Terzaghi (1955) examined the impact of geometry on the stress insufcient and unsafe pile embedment lengths. Srensen et al.
bulbs mobilised during failure of the soil and concluded that as (2009) reported 3D Flac analyses and laboratory-scale lateral
the pile diameter increased the mobilised stress bulb increased in load tests that conrmed these ndings. However, Srensen
size. This effect results in a greater displacement under the same et al. also determined that the initial stiffness of the py
soil pressure. However, the soil pressure acting at the pile shaft curves increased with pile diameter but was independent of
reduces as the pile diameter increases and, as a result, the both the pile bending stiffness and embedded length.
modulus of subgrade reaction Epy is independent of the pile
diameter. Vesic (1961) used elasticity theory to propose a Lam (2009) used concepts developed for drilled shaft founda-
modulus of subgrade reaction that was based on both pile and tions supporting electricity transmission pylons to explain the
soil properties. This relationship was shown to be relatively apparent increase in stiffness and resistance with increasing
independent of the diameter. In contrast, Pender (1993) pile diameters. Lam suggested that piles with a free-headed
showed that the initial stiffness was linearly dependent on the condition (like monopiles) developed additional resistance
14
Energy Laterally loaded monopile design for
Volume 165 Issue EN1 offshore wind farms
Doherty and Gavin
during lateral loading from the rotation of the pile shaft. 400
Implementing momentrotation springs parallel to lateral py
springs resulted in a diameter-dependent model that showed 350
improved predictions when compared with eld tests reported
300
by Lam and Martin (1986).
5
known as the strain wedge (SW) model, it assumes a 3D
4 wedge-type failure and considers pile stiffness directly in the
py analysis. Ashour and Norris (2000) used the SW method
3 Future
to investigate the impact of pile properties on the mobilised
practice ?
2 py curve and found the stiffness and ultimate resistance
increased dramatically as the piles bending stiffness (EpIp)
1
increased. By contrast, Fan and Long (2005) varied the
0 Youngs modulus of monopiles in an FEM analysis while
05 1 15 2 25 3 35 4 45 5 55 6 65 7 75
maintaining the diameter and moment of inertia constant, and
Pile width or diameter: m
found no signicant inuence on the py curves. To date,
Figure 11. Comparison of the API database used by Murchinson
there are insufcient experimental results to validate the conclu-
and ONeill (1984) with current practice and possible future practice
sions of either Fan and Long (2005) or Ashour and Norris
15
Energy Laterally loaded monopile design for
Volume 165 Issue EN1 offshore wind farms
Doherty and Gavin
(2000), and the inuence of pile properties on the mobilised py (c) Diameter effects are uncertain.
curves remains an open question. (d ) The linear increase in stiffness with depth is questionable.
(e) The underlying earth pressure coefcient is unveried.
4.5 Cyclic loading considerations (f) Pile properties are ignored in the existing approach.
Monopiles are typically designed to a strict serviceability toler- (g) Cyclic loading and accumulated rotations are poorly
ance, which is usually specied as a total rotation of less than considered.
18. The installation tolerance is usually 0.58 and therefore the
deection under in-service loading is usually designed not to Acknowledgements
exceed 0.58 rotation. Considering that the primary load compo- The rst author would like to acknowledge Mainstream
nents for wind turbine design are wind/wave/current and tidal Renewable Power, IRCSET, Enterprise Ireland and Science
loads, which all exhibit cyclic behaviour, the cyclic pile response Foundation Ireland for nancial awards which were gratefully
is a major design consideration. However, the change in stiffness received. I would also like to thank Dr David Igoe for providing
due to cyclic loading and accumulated displacements/rotation valuable technical comments.
over time are not considered explicitly in the current codes as
the cyclic py curves only consider the ultimate degraded resis- REFERENCES
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17