AP4

i
ADMINISTRATIVE CONSTRAINTS ON TEACHER EFFECTIVENESS

IN GOVERNMENT SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN
BENUE STATE, NIGERIA
________________________________________________________________
BY
KAJO, DIDACUS TYOTYEV

PG/Ph.D/06/42236
________________________________________________________________
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS

FACULTY OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA
MARCH, 2011
i
TITLE PAGE
ADMINISTRATIVE CONSTRAINTS ON TEACHER

EFFECTIVENESS IN GOVERNMENT SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN
BENUE STATE NIGERIA.
A RESEARCH THESIS PRESENTED TO THE FACULTY OF

EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA.
IN FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Ph. D) IN
EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND PLANNING
BY
KAJO, DIDACUS TYOTYEV

PG/Ph.D/06/42236
SUPERVISOR: DR. (MRS.) A. OBOEGBULEM
MARCH, 2011
ii
APPROVAL PAGE
This thesis been approved for the Department of Educational
Foundations, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
BY
_______________________ _______________________
DR. (MRS.) A. OBOEGBULEM INTERNAL
EXAMINER
SUPERVISOR
____________________ _____________________
EXTERNAL EXAMINER PROF. I, C, S, IFELUNNI
HEAD OF DEPARTMENT
_____________________
PROF.S,A,EZEUDU
DEAN OF THE FACULTY.
iii
CERTIFICATION
KAJO, DIDACUS TYOTYEV a postgraduate student in
the Department of Educational foundations, with registration
number PG/Ph.D/06/42236, has satisfactorily completed the
requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in
Educational Administration and planning.
The work embodied in this Thesis report is original and has not been
submitted in part or in full for any other degree or diploma of this or any
other university.
___________________________ _________________________
KAJO DIDACUS TYOTYEV DR. (MRS.) A. OBOEGBULEM
(CANDIDATE) (SUPERVISOR)
iv
DEDICATION
This Thesis is dedicated to Almighty God and all my colleagues in the
noble profession of teaching.

v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The researcher is thankful to his Thesis Supervisor, Dr. (Mrs.)
Oboegbulem whose humane disposition, and wealth of experience have
contributed greatly towards the successful completion of this work. He owes
much gratitude also to Rev. L.K. Ejionueme, for his encouragement. The
researcher expresses his gratitude to Dr. U.N. Eze, and Dr. F.A. Okwo, for
their untiring encouragement and assistance in many ways. The Departmental
and Faculty panel members for their contributions.
The researcher also expresses, without reservation, his immense thanks
to the Bishop of Nsukka Catholic Diocese, Dr. F.E. Okobo, His priests and
the parishioners of St. Victors parish Onuiyi who hosted me during the
period of the study. The catholic Bishop of Makurdi Diocese Dr. A.A. Usuh,
and his auxiliary Dr. W.A. Avenya, cannot be forgotten for their kind
sponsorship and understanding. The researcher remembers with
gratitude the inspirational care of Rev. Frs. Adumbu, N. Viashima, O. and
their assistants and parishioners, in the course of the study.
The researcher fondly acknowledges the kind understanding of his
mother; Mrs. Kajo Grace, and all family members for his frequent absence
from home during the course of this study. The principals and teachers who
responded to the study instrument cannot be forgotten. There are many others
who helped in diverse ways but whose names have not featured in this
column. To them, too, this researcher is no less grateful. May God reward
you all.
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page - - - - - - - - - i
Approval Page - - -- - - - - - ii
Certification - - - - - - - - iii
Dedication - - - - - - -- - - iv
Acknowledgements - -- - - -- - - v
Table of Contents - - - - - - - - vi
List of Tables - - -- - - - - - ix
Abstract - - - - - - - - - x
CHAPTER ONE: - INTRODUCTION
Background to the study - - - - - - - 1
Statement of the problem - - - -- - - 7
Purpose of the study - - - - -- - - 8
Significance of the study - - - -- - - - 8
Scope of the study - - - - -- - - - 11
Research questions - - - -- - - - 11
Research hypotheses - - - -- - - - 12
CHAPTER TWO: - REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Conceptual framework - - - - - - - 14
Concept of administration - - - - - - 15
Concept of teacher effectiveness - -- - - - 23

vii
Organization for curriculum implementation - - - 29
Aspects of supervision of instruction - - - - - 36
School plant management - - - - - - 46
School community relations - - - - - - 51
Motivational factors - - - -- - - - 48
Theoretical framework - - - -- - - - 67
Human relations theory - - - - - - - 67
Theories of job satisfaction - - - - - - 71
Review of empirical studies - - - - - - 78
Summary of literature review - - - - - 85
CHAPTER THREE: - RESEARCH METHODS
Design of the study - - - - - - - 87
Area of the study - - - - - - - - 87
Population of the study - - - - - - - 88
Sample and sampling techniques - - - - - 88
Instrument for data collection - - - - - - 89
Validation of the instrument - - - - - - 90
Reliability of the Instrument - - - - - - 90
Method of data collection - - - - - - 91
Method of data analysis - - - - - - 91

viii
CHAPTER FOUR: - RESULTS
Research Question 1 - - - - - - 92
Research Question 5 -- -- - - - - 101
Hypothesis One - - -- - - - - 103
Hypothesis Two - - -- - - - 104
Hypothesis Three - - -- - - - - 105
Hypothesis Four - - - - - - - 106
Hypothesis Five - - -- - - - - 107
Summary of Findings - - -- - - 108
CHAPTER FIVE: - DISCUSSIONS, IMPLICATIONS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS
Discussion of Results - - - - - - 110
Conclusions - - - - - - - 121
Implications of Research Findings - - - - 124
Recommendations - - - - - - - 128
Limitations of the Study - - - - - - 131
Suggestions for Further Research - - - - 132
Summary of the Study - - - - - - 132
References - - - - - - - - 135
Appendices - - - - - - - 144
ix
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Distribution of Principals /Teachers in government secondary

schools in Benue state - - - - - 144
Table 2: Distribution of Principals and teachers selected -- 146
Table 3: Results of SSCE O level and Neco O level examinations

in government secondary schools in
Benue State. 2005-2009 - - - - - 147
Table 4: Mean Ratings and standard Deviations of Responses of

principals and Teachers on Organisation for curriculum
implementation - - - - - - 93

Principals and Teachers on Instructional Supervision. 95
Table 6: Mean Ratings and Standard Deviations of Responses of

Principals and teachers on school plant management -97
Table 7: Mean Ratings and Standard Deviations of Reponses of

principals and Teachers on school Community Relations. -99

Principals and Teachers on Motivational Factors. 101
Table 9: Summary of z - test for Hypothesis one. - - 103
Table 10: Summary of z -test for Hypothesis two. - - 104
Table 10: Summary of z -test for Hypothesis three. - -- 105
Table 10: Summary of z -test for Hypothesis four. - -- 106
Table 10: Summary of z -test for Hypothesis five. - -- 107

x
Abstract.
The study was designed to investigate administrative constraints to teacher

effectiveness in government secondary schools in Benue state and
consequently suggest ways of curbing them. The study investigated the
following issues: organization for curriculum implementation, instructional
supervision, school plant management, school community relations and
motivational factors. Five research questions and five null hypotheses guided
the study. A questionnaire designed by the researcher, validated by experts
and tested was used as the research instrument. This was administered to 33
principals and 655 teachers of government secondary schools in Benne State.
The mean and standard deviation were used to answer the research
questions, while the z-test was used to test the hypotheses at 0.05 level of
significance. The findings amongst others, indicate that the following
constitute constraints to teacher effectiveness: organization for curriculum
implementation, school plant management, school community relations and
in-adequate motivation. Supervision of instruction however did not constitute
a constraint. The major implications of the findings are that teachers can
hardly be effective in the face of innumerable administrative constraints.
Based on the findings recommendations were made.
1
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background to the study
. Conscious of the fact that success in the realization of educational goals
depends largely on the teacher, the National Policy on Education, FRN (2004),
recognizes that the quality of education is guaranteed by teacher effectiveness.
The teachers task is to teach, educate, provide educational guidance, promote
the quest for scientific knowledge and conduct regular assessment (FRN,
2004).In view of the important and diverse nature of the teachers job, the
necessary resources and conducive working environment must be provided to
facilitate the effective execution of his/her task. The provision of favourable
physical and psychological working environment is the task of school
administrators.
The quality of such administrative service transcends location so that
principals and teachers in all schools are supposed to be offered a fair and equal
opportunity to be effective. This is particularly important because the practice in
the state has been that education zonal offices are located in the local
government council headquarters and they appear to concentrate on schools
nearby. As a result, teachers in the distant areas stand the risk of being deprived
of needed motivation because the officers in the zonal offices do not extend
their services to such areas.

2
The most important factor in teaching is the teacher, not technique
method or curriculum because he translates all these into meaningful learning
experiences for students, (Abiogu and Ugwuja 2007). Next to the quality of the
teacher is the quality of administrative services provided in schools to enhance
effective teaching. By implication, teacher effectiveness goes along with the
quality of administrative services provided, A teacher here refers to one who
guides and tutors another towards the acquisition of desired knowledge and
skills,
The concept of teacher effectiveness is elusive given that teaching is a
complex activity (Zeichner, 2006) However for the purpose of this study,
teacher effectiveness refers to the process of the teachers interaction with the
students in educating them and students performance in tests and examinations
(Hughes, 2001). In Benue State constraints to teacher effectiveness are multiple
Ada, (2000) identifies some to include: a)lack of professional training
b)physical characteristics of the teacher, c) personality traits, and d)
administrative constraints.
In the first instance, teaching is one of the most difficult jobs because
human behaviour is complex and difficult to modify or change especially if one
is not equipped to do so, (Abottchampman , Hughes & Wyld, 1992). This lack
of professional training becomes a major constraint to teacher effectiveness
.Physical characteristics such as voice quality and non-verbal communication
skills and such effective qualities as fairness, patience, humour and concern for
3
students can enhance teacher effectiveness (Dimmock, 2005). Therefore a
teacher who lacks these qualities will likely fail to foster the social, emotional
and psychological development of the child. Other personal attributes that can
affect teacher effectiveness include: good health, punctuality, regularity and
fairness (Okoh, 1990). In addition, personality traits such as self-concept,
aggressiveness, locus of control and attitude to work in general, are believed to
affect effectiveness. These personal attributes are particularly desirable if the
teacher is to view teaching as a cause beyond oneself (Dimmock, 2005). This
implies that love for the job itself will lead to greater commitment and self
sacrifices, without which teaching becomes a stop over to other jobs or just
another boring means of earning a living. In such a situation teacher
effectiveness is sacrificed.
Some of the contributing factors to teacher effectiveness, of course, lie on
the school administration. The decision to dwell on administrative constraints
stems from various factors. In Benue State, 90% of teachers in government
secondary schools are trained,(Benue State Education Summit Digest,2005).
The premise is that they possess adequate professional competencies. Secondly,
this researcher shares the views of Bello, (2000) that it is possible for teachers
lacking desirable physical and effective traits to be given adequate training and
provided conducive working environment. Thirdly, because of fewer job
opportunities in Benue State, due to lack of industrialization, some people going

4
into teaching are just looking for job and need to be highly motivated by school
administrators to be effective.
Finally, many of the decisions involving the organization and running of
schools in the state are made by school administrators. Such decisions as
organization for curriculum implementation, supervision of instruction,
provision of adequate facilities and equipment, provision of favourable school
community relations and staff motivation, rest with the school
administration,(Focho, 2006) Evidently, a proper articulation by school
administrators of these issues will enhance effective teaching or quality delivery
which will be reflected in high students performance in examinations. On the
contrary, if these issues are not handled satisfactorily by school administrators,
dissatisfaction sets in reducing motivation and effectiveness while promoting
teacher stress, (Oboegbulem, 2004).
A constraint here may be taken to mean a hindrance, therefore,
administrative constraints may include those hindrances emanating from the
way schools are managed. The term school administrator is not limited to any
one person or position, rather it refers to any one involved in the management
process of the school. These include principals, vice-principals, subject
masters, state ministry of education, teaching service board, and local
government education officers, director of secondary schools, curriculum
planners, the state government, the minister of education and the federal
government. Considering that teacher effectiveness is a function of teacher

5
characteristics (professional, and personal) and the quality of administrative
service, it is evident that administrative constraints can make a teacher
ineffective despite the possession of desired characteristics.
Another indication of constraints to teacher ineffectiveness which may be
due to administrative factors is noticeable in the fact that many students in the
researchers school attend private evening classes to ensure content coverage
and better understanding. Their complaint is that their regular teachers neither
teach well nor do they cover the scheme of work . This also seems to be the
trend in other parts of the state. Another evidence of constraints to teacher
effectiveness is noticeable in the frequent radio announcements made by
principals on the state radio demanding some teachers to report for work or face
disciplinary actions,(Torkula, 2004). There are also obvious cases that some
government secondary school teachers are involved in other income generating
activities.
Constraints to teacher effectiveness are again reflected in students poor
performances in external examinations. The contention that Benue students in
Government Secondary Schools perform poorly in external examinations is
corroborated by results of the Senior Secondary School Certificate
Examinations as conducted by National Examinations Council of Nigeria
(NECO) and West African Examination Council (WAEC).(see appendix III).
There have been complaints of a steady decline in performances. Therefore

6
indications of teacher ineffectiveness in some government secondary schools in
Benue State do abound.
In an effort to look at causes of teacher ineffectiveness fingers seem to be
directed to school administrators. From the researchers experience there is little
instructional supervision leading to lack of quality control and technical support
to teachers. Teachers in the researchers school tend to do as they please
because no one really checks if they follow or complete the syllabus.
Furthermore, teachers are often in conflict with the principal and this often
degenerates to exchange of angry words during staff meetings. To compound
the problem, these same teachers often express dissatisfaction with the
textbooks, the timetable, the length of syllabus, workload, class size and
inadequate allowances.
Based on the above, two fundamental questions arose; what exactly is the
nature of the teachers working conditions, and are the school administrators
providing the necessary conducive working environment?. Secondly, how
prevalent is this malaise in the state or is it peculiar to the researchers school?
Conversations with teachers from the area under study reveal that teachers in
other schools experience similar problems. It is the feeling of this researcher
that educational authorities in Benue State are not fully aware of the nature and
extent of the problems encountered by teachers. Probably, the issues raised by
teachers at joint meetings are not properly oriented For example, teachers
complain of poor working conditions and inadequate motivation but the nature
7
and extent of these problems have not been fully delineated. Thus, it becomes
imperative to investigate the nature and extent of their ineffectiveness that
relates to the administrative machinery.
Statement of the Problem
Benue state is often listed among the educationally backward states in
Nigeria. The administrative structure of schools in all ramifications should be
enabling rather than constituting a constraint to teacher effectiveness as
presently seems to be the case here. However, it is appalling to note that
statistics from the State Ministry of Education and its affiliate agencies reveal
that SSCE students are performing below expectation. The researchers
interaction with principals, parents and teachers revealed that the conditions
under which many students learn in many government secondary schools in
Benue State is un-conducive and deplorable and capable of rendering the
teacher ineffective and posing a hindrance to positive educational outcomes.
The Benue situation seems to be such that factors relating to poor teacher
disposition towards quality delivery and consequent administrative constraints
to efficient productivity are both at play here. The later however as a
consequence of the former and needing investigation especially in government
secondary schools where the situation seems most deplorably glaring. The
problem of this study therefore put in question form is: what are the
administrative constraints to teacher effectiveness in government secondary
schools in Benue State?

8
Purpose of the Study
The main purpose of the study is to investigate the administrative
constraints to teacher effectiveness in government secondary schools in Benue
State. Specifically the study intends to;
1. Find out how the organization for curriculum implementation constitutes
constraints to teacher effectiveness.
2. Find out how instructional supervision may constitute constraints to
teacher effectiveness.
3. Find out how the school plant management may constitute constraints to
4. Determine how school- community relations may constitute constraints to
5. Determine the extent to which in-adequate motivational factors act as
Significance of the Study
Teacher effectiveness had always been a function of both teacher
characteristics and management practices of school administrators. The present
study may be theoretically significant as a collaboration to the scientific
management or efficiency movements of the 19th centuries as well as the human
relations and job satisfaction theories of same period which posited that for the
worker to be efficient and effective he must be satisfied with his job and have a
9
conducive working environment. This study involved to a great extent
principals and teachers and thus seek to expose more recent trends as to the
effects of job satisfaction and conducive working environment on the teacher
especially in Benue State. This may be of benefit to future researchers who will
pick up on other aspects of administration that hinder teacher effectiveness or
cause job dissatisfaction that are not covered by this study.
Generally, results of this study may be of interest to government,
educational policymakers, principals, teachers, parents and other researchers
who can gain access to the findings through publications and seminars that can
be generated from the findings.
Specifically the findings of this study may help the government to adopt better
strategies aimed at increasing the level of teacher job satisfaction and efficiency
in the state. It is hoped that by seeking to pin point specific areas of
administrative hindrances and making recommendations, resultant issues may
be systematically clarified. This may make it possible for the state government
to adopt positive approaches aimed at curbing administrative factors that
hitherto hindered teacher effectiveness and thus enhance the teaching learning
process in all government secondary schools in the state to the benefit of present
and future generations. The results of the study may also convince government
that teachers are generally dissatisfied because they are ill motivated. This may
spur the government to address such motivational issues as allowances and
promotion opportunities. The findings of this study may help educational policy
10
makers in the state to come up with better strategies to improve teacher
effectiveness. For instance, curriculum planers and the director of secondary
education responsible for the approval of programs may review the
unfavourable aspects pertaining to the organization for curriculum
implementation. Identifying instructional supervision problems may also help
principals and instructional supervisors to improve their supervisory practices.
Publication of the results of the study may alert the Director of secondary
education in the state ministry of education about the poor state of facilities and
equipment particularly in rural schools with a view to remedying the situation.
This may benefit the rural students as they may be better placed to compete with
their counterparts in the urban schools.
The research findings may make school principals and parents aware of
the special needs and gains of school community relations. This may be made
possible through workshops and seminars that may be generated . These may
eventually alert parents and local authorities about their level of cooperation and
hopefully efforts may be made to canvas for more of their support to the benefit
of the school and society at large. The school may thus be enabled to represent
the society better.
The findings of the study may also give the teacher union leaders first
hand and concrete information as to the nature of teachers problems through
publication of findings. This may equip them better in negotiating welfare
issues with the ministry of education. In the event where identified problems are
11
redressed, it is hoped that teacher unrest by way of strikes may be reduced and
students academic achievements may improve.
Scope of the Study
The study was carried out among principals and teachers of government
secondary schools in Benue State of Nigeria. The study covered all
government secondary schools in the twenty three local government councils.
This is because all government secondary schools in the state operate under one
Ministry of Education and the school structure, curriculum content and SSCE
Examination structure are quite homogenous. The study does not include
Technical, Vocational and Private secondary schools.
The content area focuses on organization of curriculum implementation,
method of instructional supervision and school plant management. Also to be
considered will be school -community relations as well as motivational factors.
Research Questions
The following research questions were formulated to guide the study;
1 To what extent does organization for curriculum implementation
constitute constraints to teacher effectiveness?
2 To what extent does instructional supervision constitute constraints to
teacher effectiveness?
3 To what extent does the school plant management constitute constraints
to teacher effectiveness?
12
4 To what extent do school/community relations constitute constraints to
teacher effectiveness?
5 To what extent do in-adequate motivational factors act as constraints to
Research Hypotheses
The following null hypotheses were tested at P < 0.05 level of
significance:
1 There is no significant difference between the mean ratings of principals,
and teachers in government secondary schools of Benue State as to how
organization of curriculum implementation constitutes a constraint to
2 There is no significant difference between the mean ratings of principals
and teachers in government secondary schools as to how instructional
supervision constitutes constraints to teacher effectiveness.
3 There is no significant difference in the mean ratings of principals and
teachers of government secondary schools of Benue State as regards
school plant management constituting a constraint to teacher
effectiveness.
and teachers of government secondary school of Benue State with regards
to school community relations acting as constituting a constraint to
13
and teachers in government secondary schools of Benue State with
regards to how in-adequate motivational factors act as constraints to
14
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The review of literature in relation to this study is organized under the
following subheadings;
Conceptual Framework
Concept of administration
Concept of teacher effectiveness
Organization for curriculum implementation
Aspects of supervision of instruction
School plant management and maintenance
School community relations.
Motivational factors
Theoretical framework
Human relations theory
Theories of job satisfaction
Review of empirical studies
Summary.
Conceptual Framework
The purpose of this section is to establish the conceptual framework on
which the study is based. The increasing interest in the study of administration
has brought about the different concepts in administration. These concepts are
propounded so that school administrators would be able to use them for

15
guidance in the administration of their schools. We shall here look at the
concepts of administration and teacher effectiveness and attempt a study of the
variables that seek to substantiate this work.
The Concept of Administration
The concept of administration can be understood from the works of the
men and women who were pioneers in administrative theory and research. The
scientific study of administration began with the works of several people. One
of the first was Frederic K. W Taylor(1939-1971).. Taylor is today regarded as
the father of scientific management or efficiency movement. In his view an
organization must attain its objectives and that those responsible for its
administration must aim at achieving result, Carvel in Odo (2006) reported that
Taylor being the founder of scientific management perceived administration
from the mechanistic point of view.
Another pioneer scholar in this area was Henri Fayol (1940-1975)..
According to Edem (1998), Fayol describes administration as a function
involving, to a varying degree, everybody in the administrative behaviour,
namely, division of work authority, discipline, unit of command, unit of
direction, subordination of individual interest to the interests of the
organization, remuneration, co-ordination, scalar chain (line of authority).
Order, equity, stability of personnel, initiative, espirit de-corps. These principles
presupposes that administration must make provision for the co-ordination and
16
supervision of organizational functions and that the responsibility for doing so
rests with the chief executive who is the legitimate authority and the focal point
of the organization. Fayol looked at administration as planning of programmes
and goals of an enterprise and the organization of human and material resources
for the implementation of the plans in accordance with the established policies,
codes and regulations.
In the light of the above definition, which primarily focuses on the
purpose or function of an administrator, Edem (1998) noted that the term
organization as used here refers to any social system established specifically for
a purpose or purposes; for example, commercial firms, hospitals, banks, schools
and universities are all organizations. Edem (1998) identified the activities of
the administrator as including:
i. Describing the task to be performed to accomplish certain objectives
and assigning these tasks to carefully selected and trained personnel.
ii. Making the personnel perform efficiently by using the tools provided
for them and
iii. Co-ordinating some formal structure (administrative unit, system
office or department) which permits a hierarchical (vertical) allocation
of responsibilities and communication flow.
Similarly, Robbins in Odo (2006) sees administration as the universal
process of efficiently getting activities completed with and through other
people, while according to Mikios cited by Odo (2006), whenever collective

17
action is required, whenever there is a need for order on a series of activities,
and whenever a group seeks to obtain a goal, administration is required.
Presented in a simple and practical way, Simeon, Smithburg and
Thomson in Odo (2006) posited that; when two men co-operate to roll a stone
that neither could have moved alone, the rudiments of administration have
appeared. Edem (1991) also provided his own definition of administration to
include the capacity to co-ordinate many and often conflicting social energies in
a single organization so adroitly that they shall operate as a unit. Consequently,
Administration is the co-ordination of both material and human resources to
achieve set objectives. It involves the setting up of strategies to achieve specific
objectives. Musazi in Odo (2006), defined administration as the process of
guiding, leading and controlling the efforts of a group of individuals towards
some common objectives and creating interaction of human and material
resources. Administration therefore can be seen as the total of the processes
through which apropriate human and material resources are made available and
made effective for accomplishing the purposes of an enterprise. The
administrator oversees the planning, organization, commanding, co-ordination
control and staffing of his establishment.
Based on the fore-going clarifications on the concepts of management
and administration, Ezeocha (2001:29) outlined the differences between them to
include;
18
1. Business enterprise such as companies, corporations and firms usually as
a rule speak of management or managers. On the other hand, educational
institutions like colleges and universities as well as government agencies
use the term administrators to describe those who hold the mantle of
leadership.
2. Management tends to be service oriented while administration is decision
making oriented.
3. While management concentrates on efficiency, administration
concentrates on the effectiveness of the organization
4. Industries and business firms see administration as an aspect of
management concerned with routine matters. Coarsely, public service
regards management as less embracing than administration.
Based on the above views on administration its evident that management
and administration do not always mean the same thing and so cannot be
used interchangeably at all times. However, though used in slightly
different contexts, both management and administration have the same
purpose or goal. The term administration is more often preferred by
educational institutions such as colleges, and faculties of Education as
well as some other school organizations.
Educational administration according to Odo(2006) is an aspect of broad
spectrum of administration, seen as the mobilization of all the personnel and
equipment in schools for the realization of educational objectives, Okoro (1991)

19
identified the functions of administration as consisting of two major
components leadership and management. He emphasized that the function of a
leader is to initiate new procedures for accomplishing the organizations goals
and objectives. The educational leader is expected to supply initiative and
direction to the school community in order to further the educational objectives
of the school.
Stressing on the functions of the educational administrator, Walton
(1991) opined that educational Administration is concerned with the
management of school operations. In this connection, he outlined the following
activities as those which educational administration is involved in;
1. Employment of staff
2. Preparation of school budgets,
3. Directing the activities of all school personnel, and
4. Checking of school results.
Basically in agreement with Walton are Walter, Farine and Meck in
Odo(2006). For them, educational administration is a discipline which concerns
itself with the management of educational enterprise in communities, regions
and nations. According to them, educational administration involves knowledge
of the structures of educational organisation and the administrative processes
related to the management of those organizations. Equally expressing a similar
view, Nwaogu (1980) pointed out that educational administration means the
management of the available factor resources for the achievement of

20
educational objectives. To him, resources like personnel (manpower). Finance
and capital equipment would ensure the effective administration of educational
institutions and the achievement of the desired goals for the establishment of
those institutions.
As an advocate of the efficiency movement, Henri Fayol suggested some
administrative elements that could be employed to increase the productivity of
the workers. he conceptualized administration as being able to plan, to
organize, to command, to co-ordinate and Gullick ( Campbell and Gregg 1987)
developed fayols elements into more articulated principles mnemonically
expressed as POSDCORD, each letter representing one
aspect of administrative
behaviour,(planning,organizing,supervising,directing,controlling,observing,repo
rting and deciding).
Planning as defined by Fayol in Campbell and Gregg(1987) is a process
of studying the future and arranging the plans of action. The principal must
prepare in advance a plan containing what teaching and administrative duties
are involved in school posts and the qualifications of personnel required for
them. Okoro (1991) identified two basic planning functions of college
administrators to include: planning the curriculum and planning of courses. He
emphasized that planning the curriculum involves determining what courses or
educational programmes should be offered by the school or college. This
includes developing the syllabus, or course of study guide, and planning the
21
physical facility and equipment. In planning the curriculum the administrator
will need to determine what new course or programmes should be started,
whether any existing programmes should be revised, expanded or terminated.
Also planning of courses involves planning how approved courses could
be effectively and advantageously taught using the facilities and resources
available. It involves the management of time and the effective distribution of
tasks between various members of the teaching and non-teaching staff so that
the best possible use can be made of the skills and competencies of each staff
member.
In organizing, the principal as the chief executive requires an adequate
supply of staff and facilities. This means the quality and quantity of both human
and material resources. Also he had to organize the school in order to
effectively carryout state and federal government policies as they relate to his
institution.
The principal is more likely to handle external matters and the
relationship of the school with the state or federal government and ministry of
education, the state school management board, education services commission,
board of governors of the school, the zonal education office and local
government authority. Okoro (1991) opined that the principals of colleges
should be involved in the selection of their staff because they understand fully
the conditions under which the staff will work if employed. This means the
college principal must make arrangement for the regular supply of personnel,
22
for staff training, and for favourable conditions of service. As the principal
places order for teachers, he bears in mind the special skills and qualities that
are required of each members of staff if school is to operate effectively.
However, where teachers are clearly unsuitable, as a result of skill or general
character traits, the principal could recommend to the state. that such teachers
be transferred or reassigned.
The college administrator directs the affairs of the institution by
providing effective leadership, by making the right decisions. He has the final
decision regarding every activity that goes on in the institution. Directing
involves the continuous task of making decisions and embodying them in
specific and general orders and instructions and serving as the leader of the
enterprise.
The college administrator functions well as he co-odinates the activities
of various units within the institution. He has the all important duty of inter-
relating the various parts of the work. The need to co-ordinate the activities of
his staff stems from the concept of the division of labour. This calls for the
division of the schools task into constituent components which are assigned to
the teacher or staff members. Each staff member is then expected to perform
just what his assignment specifies. Asserting that everything is done in
accordance with established rules and regulations, Edem (1998) opined that, the
administrators of colleges device methods of regulating, curbing and checking
the excesses of members of staff in the pursuance of educational objectives.

23
Reporting involves keeping those to whom the principal is responsible to
inform as to what is going on which thus includes keeping himself and his
subordinates informed through records, research and inspection. Also the
principal is required to make and submit his budget to the government usually at
the beginning of every fiscal year. This involves fiscal planning, accounting and
control of resources.
The Concept of Teacher Effectiveness
The purpose o this study is not to find out the level of teacher
effectiveness in government secondary schools in Benue State Nigeria but to
identify what constitutes constraints to their effective teaching, it is however
important to underline correlates of teacher effectiveness. What then constitutes
teacher effectiveness? What must a teacher do to be considered effective? And
what prevents him from doing these duties?
Teaching is a complex activity which makes the definition of teacher
effectiveness difficult. To Brown and Atkins (1993) effective teaching can be
determined in relation to the set goals. Since the goals of teaching may be
cognitive, affective or psychomotor, a single definition of effectiveness hardly
suffices. It may also be observed that good teaching is the direct function of the
judges value system and judges do not always agree Brown and Atkins (1993)
further states that, although good teaching is in the eyes of the beholder, it can
be reflected in students performance. Consequently an effective teacher is one
who enables students to perform well in tests and examinations. This definition
24
is upheld by Akuezuilo (1999), who suggested that good teaching must bring
about learning. An effective teacher therefore can be assessed by student
outcomes. If students show signs of having learnt meaningfully, then the teacher
can be said to be effective. According to Ezeocha (2001) an effective teacher
should bring about learning in its cognitive, affective, and technical components
through the use of a variety of activities. While Wilson (2000) talks of quality
delivery in teaching which includes a range of objectives; whole class
instruction, group activities and individual attention, An effective teacher is
seen here as one who attains these objectives. Because of this plethora in
definition teacher effectiveness is often associated with the degree to which a
teacher uses desirable skills in task performance and the level of students
achievements in examinations.
The personality traits that make a teacher effective are largely inborn. A
few may be acquired through training, but a person who is born to be interested
in working with people and who has personal characteristic such as patience,
love for children, interest in helping others, a sense of humour; a pleasant
personality, smartness, sympathy; alertness; good human relations, emotional
stability among others, will certainly be more effective as a teacher. Such
attributes as skills in imparting knowledge, scholarliness, good judgment and
professional ethics can be acquired through training. An effective teacher is thus
born and made (Denga 2002)

25
The teachers task, according to Fordham (2003), can be grouped into two
categories; instructional and managerial. The basics of instruction in secondary
schools involve classroom teaching. The main feature of classroom teaching is
lecturing, but the wholesale use of lecture is often decried by educators because
it is presumed that verbal presentation alone does not promote meaningful
learning since it is directed only to one sense. The sense of hearing must be
associated with others for better understanding. Teaching is not mere talking to
the four walls of a classroom with a piece of chalk.
Consequently, instructional tasks must include a variety of activities. The
views of Alexander and George (2001) are that a variety of methods are needed
to achieve various instructional goals; whole class instruction for basic skills,
individualized instructions for individual responses, self discipline and personal
creativity; small group activities for group dynamics, learning to get along with
others and enhancing citizenship and community spirit and individual attention
to take care of students idiosyncrasies and to help them grasp topics covered in
the curriculum contents. To attain the above goals, the use of a variety of
instructional techniques and teaching aids is essential. lectures ought to be
complemented with such activities as questioning. role play, demonstrations,
use of audio and visual aids, book reviews, experiments, projects and field trips.
To assess students understanding, continuous evaluation and testing
becomes vital. There exist various forms of, and reasons for testing. Testing can
be done orally, written or in laboratories to monitor student progress, to

26
motivate or promote students, for guidance and counseling or to assess teaching.
Other managerial duties are geared towards class management and students
emotional needs. The importance of class control to any teacher can hardly be
under estimated. In class, discipline enables the teacher to carryout his
instructional activities in an orderly and less disruptive atmosphere (Orseer
2006) Having viewed the duties of a teacher, it can be concluded that an
effective teacher is one who carries out these duties to the maximum and one
whose students exhibit high learning out comes in achievement tests. Research
as reviewed in literature also indicates that certain characteristics are usually
associated with teacher effectiveness, some of which are reviewed below.
The following characteristics of effective teachers are an outcome of
three sets of questionnaires, one for pupils, one for secondary schools and the
third for university students following an investigation on teacher effectiveness
conducted by Denga (2002). The list is meant to be used as a guide. Those who
find themselves inadequate on the criteria can try hard to acquire these traits of
effective teachers. However, it must be noted that, it is not likely that an
effective teacher has to possess all these characteristics. He may possess as
many of them as possible, but not all of them. These include: Interest in helping
people and performing other social services; mental alertness in detecting praise
worthy as well as anomalous behaviours among children; Emotional stability
and poise; sympathy, kindness and empathy; Ethical and professional
behaviours; considerations and generosity; Flexibility; Verbal fluency for

27
communication; personal attractiveness which easily helps pupils want to learn;
Good and balance judgment (fairness); physical energy and dives;
Scholarliness; Objectivity and consistency in all his dealings; Forcefulness;
Dependability; Patience and tolerance; Democratic and cooperative (but firm
when firmness is called for); Highly capable in his subjects (imaginative and
clever); cheerful and good humoured; Capable of motivating students
(stimulating personality); Avoids Sarcasms and denigrating language (minds his
language); confident and Self-actualizing; Acceptance of self and others; Good
understanding of the pupils.
Also, Okoli (1990;31) carried out a research to develop an instrument for
evaluating the effectiveness of secondary school teaching by students and
principals. He came up with six criteria of teacher effectiveness summarized
thus.
1. Personal attributes; he should be regularly, punctual and healthy.
2. Teaching Principle and skill; he should write clearly, be audible, logical
and involve students. He should use instructional materials and prepare
well.
3. Knowledge of subject; explains well, teaches all topics, use more than
one book and is confident.
4. Knowledge of the learner; seeks to understand students, uses increasing
activities, gives clear instructions and is available to students.

28
5. Inter-personal relations; Objective in marking, rewards and punishment
concerned with student poor performance, sympathetic, approachable.
6. Evaluation method; tests regularly, tests only matter taught; fair in
grading, returns and discusses test. These items are example from the
instrument and they summarize the overt and observable attributes of an
effective teacher.
Generally, teachers effectiveness can be viewed from two distinct
perspectives; the qualities possessed and exhibited by a teacher while teaching
and the amount of learning exhibited by students in achievement tests. This is
only natural to Farrant (2000) who states that teaching and learning are opposite
sides of same coin, for a lesson is never taught until it has been learnt.
Everything being equal, an effective teacher must know what to teach, how to
teach it and then assess students level of understanding and if necessary reteach
it to make sure more than three quarters of the students have understood it and
are capable of passing any examination on it.
The relationship between administrative machinery and teacher
effectiveness is evident, Phillip, Juan and John (2001) view academic emphasis
as the focus of school management. Administrators must employ teachers with
good personal and professional characteristics. They should also make the
working condition conducive (physically and Psychologically) and should
supervise to ensure that identified tasks are effectively carried out. In
Ezeugbors (1995) students, secondary school principals and teachers both

29
agree on the fact that administrative problems such as poor facilities, lack of
supervisors, high enrolment, inadequate staff and poor working conditions
generally hinder teacher effectiveness. Conditions of work constituting
obstacles to effective teaching as identified by Bukar and Buba (2006) include;
large class sizes; lack of teaching aids, inadequate textbooks, technical
equipment and funding. Thus, even a teacher possessing desirable personal and
professional characteristics can be ineffective by the poor quality of
administrative service directed towards teaching activities. This study is
however designed to identify those poorly provided administrative services that
have the potentials of hindering teacher effectiveness in government secondary
schools in Benue state as may be observed in the variables discussed below.
Organization for Curriculum Implementation
Learning is organized and structured on the basis of the curriculum.
Although the teacher is considered the key to student achievement, the
importance of the relationship between curriculum and teaching must be
emphasized. The curriculum, according to Denga (1993), is that which is
intentionally taught. Curriculum is goal oriented and three questions precede the
development of curriculum; what is to be learnt? What should be the order of
the content? How is learning to be evaluated? Therefore the range, length and
depth of curriculum content as well as the guides, books and materials are
matters that affect teaching. In the literature, it is also indicated that classroom
composition has a bearing on teaching. Generally, the manner in which

30
curriculum is organized for its implementation will affect teacher bahaviour
and competence. A closer look at these issues will elucidate the point
particularly since decisions in this respect are taken by the school
administration.
Curriculum and Content Materials
The problem of what to teach has implications for teacher effectiveness.
To Aboho (2000), the starting point should be the provision of clear curriculum
goals that the teacher can accomplish within a specified period of time. For each
subject, there should be a guide as to what the teacher is expected to teach or the
students to learn. For a subject like Literature in English for example, simply
recommending text books to be taught is not sufficient. Depending on the level
of the students, basic issues to be treated ought to be outlined in a guide or work
book. Absence of this may encourage teachers to emphasize on one aspect (for
example the plots) to the detriment of other (such as literary techniques),
leading to ineffective teaching. Another consideration is the relevance of
curriculum content (Ada 2000) and (Gbamanja 2002). According to these
authors, subject matter that is relevant to the students becomes interesting and
lively. To be relevant, the students should be able to identify with the topic and
relate it to their environment, life experience and future needs and aspirations.
Ada (2000) says that students are less likely to disrupt lessons seen as
interesting, relevant and worthwhile, but more likely to disrupt those seen as
lifeless, boring and difficult to understand. also Aboho (2000) believes that
31
interesting and relevant curriculum facilitates teaching and reduces boredom
and frustration for the student as well as the teacher. He further notes that
curriculum that is outdated, irrelevant, boring and unrelated to students culture
and future needs generates misbehaviour that disrupts teaching.
The choice of curriculum materials should match subject content and
objectives. The basic material is the textbook and the topics there in must reflect
those in the curriculum guide. A textbook that is accompanied by a teachers
book and students workbook contributes more to teacher effectiveness. Since
equipment is not always available (especially in Benue State) to run test and
assignments, the students Workbook facilitates continuous assessment and
homework. Sometimes due to personal interests and political reasons textbooks
that are often recommended do not meet the necessary criteria (Ada 2000), The
provision of basic instructional materials such as chalk, paper, pens, pictures,
maps, charts, posters and illustrations is important for effective teaching. In
Benue state it is not uncommon to find teachers who teach lessons without
writing on the board with the excuse that chalk has not been provided.
Similarly, some teachers refuse to give lengthy tests that would cover the
syllabus for lack of paper or equipments to administer them. Such constraints
invariably reduce the teachers effectiveness.
In planning the curriculum, the sequence, the depth, or ordering of
learning experiences should be carefully considered. Ada (2000) states that
Blooms taxonomy of learning is an important guide since it ranks types of

32
learning into lower, intermediate and higher levels. According to this taxonomy,
learning is effective if the subject matter is presented from the easy tasks to the
more difficult ones. According to Bloom, lower level tasks are memory (recall
and recognition) and translation (change of information to different symbolic
forms or language). Intermediate level tasks are; interpretations) and analysis
(careful examination of the interpretation and application of facts). Higher level
tasks involve: synthesis (Original and creative thinking) and evaluation (Critical
judgment). Aboho (2000) taking a cue from Blooms taxonomy, explains that
topics in the syllabus and the prescribed textbooks have to be ordered from
lower to higher level tasks. A Mathematics teacher, for example, will find it
difficult to make students understand the multiplication of figures if the students
have not been taught simple addition. Content structure thus is a factor affecting
teacher effectiveness. School administrators in charge of curriculum
development and textbook selection should take decisions with this in mind to
enhance teaching and learning.
Teaching Load and Time Tabling
It is the duty of the school administration to implement curriculum
through teaching programs which involve assigning teaching load and drawing
up a time table. Offorma (2004) is of the opinion that teachers should not be
assigned to teach subjects they are not specialized in. This can lead to
frustration and ineffectiveness. Teaching load generally refers to the number of
hours taught per week by a teacher. In Benue state for example, the maximum
33
number is normally twenty four hours per week. Denga (2002) states that, the
workload should consider the number of hours, the number of students per class
and the number of classes to be taught by a teacher. There should be a conscious
effort to distribute work fairly with reference to the teachers qualification
competence, nature of subject, time required for marking and student
characteristics. A teacher overwhelmed by a heavy work load will be forced to
reduce teaching to lecturing.
Time tabling, as described by Akubue (1991) is the allocation and
regulation of time, place and people. It is concerned with the allocation of time
in order that places may be put at the disposal of people. In essence, the
classroom is put at the disposal of teachers for the implementation of the
curriculum. Effective time tabling enables teachers to come to class motivated
thus reducing boredom and frustration on teacher and students alike. The length
of each period per week should depend on the nature of the subject and the age
and maturity of the students. Offorma (2004) explains that certain subjects
should not be scheduled at particular periods. She opines that students handle
mathematics and foreign Languages best before noon; and they concentrate less
after a physically active lesson like sport and manual labour. Transition from
one subject to the other should take this into consideration. No matter how
qualified or competent a teacher might be, if the conditions are not favourable to
learning, he will have a hard time trying to make students understand. It is the
duty of the administration to assign teaching load and make the timetable to the
34
satisfaction of the teachers so as to reduce inefficiency. In Benue State, for
example, it is the usual practice for teachers to be at school only when they are
scheduled to teach. There are cases where a teacher has only one period in the
morning and another in the afternoon, with a break of four hours in between.
Such time tabling encourages teacher absenteeism since he will be tempted to
skip one of the periods.
Class Size and Composition
The question of class size is obviously a fundamental one to the quality of
teaching, probably because of the diverse nature of the job. A manageable class
size permits the teacher to have class control and to run an effective classroom,
allowing each individual child the opportunity to develop, Ada (2000) drew the
conclusion that smaller classes had higher achievement levels. He opined that,
in smaller classes there is more room for individual attention, effective use of
material and frequent homework and tests. An experimental study of the effects
of class size by Shapson, Wright, Bason and Fitzgerald in Focho (2001)
confirms that individual attention to students decreased with increase class size.
Thus the quality of instruction is bound to drop as the class size increases.
Mccluskey in Focho (2001) states that class size by itself does not make a
difference in academic achievement, but the type of academic activity such as
group work and individual attention. This appears contradictory since these
activities will definitely be more effective in smaller classes. It is evident that a
crammed classroom hinders practical and group activities, strains the teachers
35
nerves, causes irritability and therefore makes the teaching job stressful and
ineffective.
In Benue State, the maximum class size mandated by the Ministry of
Education is forty students but class size some times runs up to eighty and
above. Such large classes make the teacher feel insecure. Class control becomes
a major problem and teachers spend more time on problems of order and control
than on academic activities. This is particularly true of beginning teachers who
lack experience in class management and control skills. Class size is thus seen
as the main indicator of job satisfaction and job quality and effectiveness (Ada
2000).
Class composition refers to the intellectual and physical characteristic of
students. In grouping students for instruction, the issue of gifted students and
slow learners should be taken into consideration. Should student with similar or
different abilities be grouped together? Ideally, a near homogenous classroom
makes teaching easier (Williams 1988) but since the tendency in recent years is
towards mainstreaming, Anderson (1991) says that provision must be made for
special students. Programs and material must be put in place to take care of fast
and slow learners to avoid frustration. Similarly, physically challenged students
such as the blind and hard hearing should be given special attention if they are
to be mainstreamed. The social and academic arrangement of students is
important in teaching. According to Majasan (1995) teachers should be given
some training on the use of methods and materials for special students if the
36
school policy is to group them together. In addition, the provision of special
material and teaching aids is a necessity.
The situation in Benue state is such that it is the Ministry of Education
which formulates polices regarding curriculum content, textbook, class size,
class composition, teaching load, assessment procedures and provision of
materials. Since the government has taken it upon herself to define school
policy, Simon (1992) recommends that, it is her responsibility to ensure its
effective implementation by putting the necessary machinery in place to help
teachers work efficiently. Hindrances to teacher effectiveness abound in the
classroom and ought to be solved or reduced to the barest minimum if the
teacher is to be effective (Nwaorgu.1991).
Aspects of Supervision of instruction
Logically following a well planned and organized curriculum the next
move by school administration is to implement it. This ushers in the role of
instructional supervision which according, to Ezeocha (1990), is the
improvement of instruction delivery through professional help. Supervision
helps teachers to diagnose educational problems, to seek solutions and to
promote a favourable setting for teaching and learning. Effective supervision
will give the teacher confidence and a sense of direction (especially new
teachers). It helps to bridge the gap between theory and practice and this makes
it the decisive factor concerning the teachers future attitude to work. Ada
(2000) states that an uncomfortable teacher may feel inadequate, leading to

37
ineffectiveness. Consequently it is the place of the supervisor to provide the
much needed moral and technical support. Therefore there is a great need for a
formal system of supervision. Some of these formal systems of supervision are
presented here below:
Formative Supervision
Research in the history of supervision in schools indicates that
supervision started as the general inspection of the school grounds and records
(Burnham, 1976). Classroom visitations were meant to assess the teachers skill
on class control. This was the situation in Benue state as recorded by Ada
(2000). In fact supervisors were referred to as inspectors and their main function
was to evaluate teachers (by giving marks) for the purpose of advancement.
Their visits were infrequent and caused teacher anxiety since their advancement
depended on the supervisors assessment. This led to teacher hostility towards
supervision, a view upheld by Timperley in Focho (2001) Timperley says
tension between summative and formative evaluation necessarily leads to a
preference to the later. In the sixties, as seen in the work of Goldhammer (1969-
75), the need for a developmental approach to supervision surfaced.
Educators emphasized the need for teachers to grow or develop in the
profession. Lee in Focho (2001) states that, the teacher who does not continue to
grow personally and professionally will wither both as a person and as a
teacher. To him, supervision aims at improving the teachers skills and helping
him/her re-alise his/her creative talent, not repressing it. The process of teaching
38
and learning is not static but dynamic, constant changes occur in instructional
methods and materials. For a teacher to be effective, he must keep abreast with
recent changes. Nwaogu (1980) says, supervision has to improve teaching
through periodic criticism of existing activities with regard to current trends and
issues.
In his clinical approach to supervision, Goldhammer in Focho (2001)
stipulates that instructional supervision ought to be as methodical and objective
as the best approach to improve teachers effectiveness. Clinical supervision,
according to Segiovanni and Strarrant in Afianmagbon (2007) is a face to face
encounter with teachers about teaching, usually in a class room with a double
barreled intent of professional development and improvement of instruction.
Cogan in Afianmagbon (2007) was regarded as the Chief exponent of clinical
supervision. He defined clinical supervision as the rationale and practice
designed to improve the teachers classroom performance. It takes its principal
data from the events of the classroom. The analysis of these data and the
relationships between the teacher and the supervisor form the basis of the
programme. Clinical supervision involves procedures and strategies designed
to improve the students learning by improving the teachers classroom
behaviour (Cogan. in Afianmagbon 2007)
Cogan had developed an eight step model of clinical supervision
technique. The eight steps are:

39
a) Establishing the teacher supervisor relationship:- here a rapport is
established between the supervisor and the teacher. The essence is
for the teacher to see the supervisor as a friend and professional
colleague who he can confide in.
b) Planning with the teacher The supervisor and the teacher
discusses freely the teachers classroom problems
c) Planning the strategy of observation- based on the nature of the
teachers classroom problem, the supervisor plans with the teacher
on the best approach to be adopted in observing the teaching
learning situation.
d) Observing the instruction The actual observation of the
instructional process is done at this level.
e) Analyzing the teaching This is the state at which the data of
information collected during observation is collated and analyzed.
The results are then interpreted in line with the teaching learning
process.
f) Planning the strategy of the conference/instruction This entails
the supervisor agreeing on a better strategy to be proposed and
adopted during the conference stage. The supervisor uses his
superior knowledge and experiences in teaching to plan the
ultimate strategy for instruction.

40
g) The conference phase - This is the stage at which all the
observations made during the instructional process are tabled and
discussed by the supervisors and the teacher(s). During the
conference stage various ideas are shard and the best solutions
towards solving the perceived problem (classroom) is adopted.
h) Reviewed or Renewed Planning -- This involves the production of
alternative and improved strategies of instruction. This is done
cooperatively with the teacher and the supervisors, taking into
account the teachers opinion and special problems. The reviewed
plan must be an improved instructional method capable of
improving learning, which is the sole aim of supervision of
instruction(Cogan in Afianmagbon 2007:95-96).
The advantage of clinical supervision according to Nwanguegbe (2004),
is that discussion is on face to face basis as against other forms of supervision. It
affords the supervisee and the supervisor the grudges mistakes or faults that
occurred during the performance of the required task.
A number of studies have been carried out in the area of clinical
supervision as a technique of supervising the instructional process, for example,
Adiele (1987) investigated the effects of the application of Cogans clinical
supervision technique on teacher effectiveness and students performance in
integrated science in secondary schools in Nsukka Educational Zone. He found
that Cogans technique of supervision induced a higher positive correlation

41
between teachers effectiveness and students performance than other
techniques. He also established that a high positive correlation exists between
teachers effectiveness and students performance in each treatment group,
though a systematic increase in correlation between these variables was
produced by Cogans clinical supervision technique only.
Having studied the effects of the traditional and modified form of
Cogans clinical supervision approaches on pupil and teacher performance in
Anambra State, Ani (1990) found that primary and secondary school teachers
perform better when supervised with modified Cogans clinical supervisory
approach and that the students/pupils perform better when taught by teachers
supervised with the modified approach. Anis (1990) finding emphasized that
the modified form of Cogans Clinical supervision approach enables primary
and secondary school teachers to perform better. To him (based on his finding)
the modified from of Cogan;s clinical supervision is better than the pure form
of Cogans clinical supervision which Adiele (1987) reported to be better then
the other techniques of supervision studied.
Researching on the effects of Cogans clinical supervision model on
social studies instruction in primary schools in Ankpa Education Zone of Kogi
State. Omalle in Affinmagbon (2007) found that, among primary school
teachers who were supervised by supervisors using Cogans clinical supervision
model, a significantly large number of them indicated acceptance of the method
of supervision compared to their counterparts who also were supervised using

42
the same method. Omalles (2000) study also lent credence to the acceptability
(effectiveness) of the technique of clinical supervision as enhancing effective
teaching and learning, hence the teacher is better equipped to perform his/her
duties. Thus teacher effectiveness is implied (Afianmagbon 2007)
In general, Ogunsaju (1983) encourages teachers not to fear supervision
for it affords them the opportunity to grow and to discover their abilities.
Teachers with special qualities and abilities could be encouraged to help others
in what is referred to as peer supervision.
Peer Supervision
The notion of peer supervision emerged as a response to the shortage of
specialist supervisors, because of the nature of clinical supervision (which is
considered most effective), there is great need for supervisors who are
specialists in one subject matter, such specialists are often in short supply and
the principal and his vice are often expected to play the role of supervisor. Oliva
(1984) holds that these are generalists supervisors and are hardly effective
since they lack expertise in supervisory techniques, lack time and at best have
expert knowledge only in their subject of specialization. The alternative then is
to introduce colleagueship in supervision; Alfonso and Godsberry (1982) define
this as the use of teachers with special talents and abilities to supervise others.
However, these teachers must be trained in the rudiments and techniques of
supervision to have better results. In this regard, the current status of heads of
department could be raised to that of semi specialist supervisors. They should be

43
chosen with respect to their special abilities and made to undergo special
courses in instructional supervision through staff development programs. Their
teaching load could be reduced to demonstrative lessons so as to allow them
enough time to observe and help all teachers in their departments regularly.
Another advantage of peer supervision according to Bang-Jensen (1986) is that
it reduces the fear and anxiety often generated by generalists and supervisors
who often have to give an evaluation mark to the teacher.
For supervision to be effective the duties of a supervisor should be clearly
defined. From the observation of his behaviour in relation to his duties, it can be
concluded whether a supervisor is effective or not. His supervisory style is also
an indicator of his effectiveness. Generally, the supervisors task as indicated by
Glover and law (1996), is to add to the teachers professional knowledge; to
improve the teacher skills and to clarify professional values, all in an attempt to
educate students more effectively , specific duties, as outlined by Elders (1987)
include: the induction and socialization of new teachers, assigning teaching
duties; time tabling of subject matter, and providing opportunities for
professional growth through workshops, conferences and seminars. According
to Acheson and Gall (1980) all these begin with classroom observation to see if
teaching is effective or not. Observation of in-class teaching will help the
clinical supervisor to effectively plan staff development programes with
teachers.
44
In this vein, Nwaogu (1980) posits that it is the supervisors duty to teach,
so as to demonstrate old methods and to introduce new ones. The promotion of
non-material motivation and emotional support to teachers which Nwaogu
advocates, falls within the realm of supervory tasks. To his list of duties,
Glickman (1985) adds the following; providing feedback and follow up,
involvement in curriculum development and review, engaging in group
development activities to encourage peer supervision and to carry out action
research. Thus the supervisor is to assume the role of a master teacher, group
leader, organizer, communication, public relations officer, evaluator, researcher
and change agent (Oliva, 1984),
The supervisors style is also viewed as important in the supervisory
process given that he is expected to develop and promote a favorable setting for
teaching through a democratic and cooperative process (Burnham in Focho
2001) such an atmosphere is expected to reduce anxiety on the job and hostility
towards supervisors in which case teachers will readily adopt and maintain good
teaching practices. Three basic supervisory styles have been identified by
Glickman (1985) namely, directive, collaborative and non directive styles. Each
style, he cautions, should be used depending on the characteristics of the
teachers. When teachers have little expertise, little commitment and no
accountability, the directive style is appropriate. The supervisor is to give
instructions and directions. The collaborative style should be used when
teachers have some expertise, moderate commitment and some accountability.

45
When teachers have strong sense of accountability. Then the non-directive style
best suits the situation. According to Glickman, most teachers prefer the
collaborative and non-directive style. Similarly, as a group leader, the
supervisors style depends on the maturity level of the group. (in terms of
expertise, commitment and responsibility) this will determine his use of telling,
participatory or delegating group leadership style. Supervisor behavior will thus
influence teacher behaviour.
One of the most crucial and outstanding aspects of supervision is
evaluation which involves a systematic and critical appraisal of the techniques
to determine how far desired objectives have been attained. This is done
cognizant of the fact that the effective supervision is committed to significant
and lasting teacher growth and productivity. Pursuant to this, the supervisor
consistently asks: To what extent have my objectives been achieved? This is the
cardinal question that underscores the process of evaluation.
For this situation to be objectively addressed, Osita (1997) points out that
programme evaluation should emphasize the following: Evaluation should be
diagnostic,, causes of poor performance should be identified through evaluation,
and evaluation should be aimed at improving results.
To cope with the stated challenges the efficient supervisor instead of
adopting a haphazard approach uses a number of evaluative processes to
determine the effectiveness or otherwise of the learning programme. These
according to Osita (1997) should include: Direct observation during classroom

46
visits, conferences, evaluation through learner behavour, students appraisal and
teacher self evaluation.
The cardinal objective of supervision of programme is to enhance all-
round positive change in behaviour of the educand. This achieved indirectly
through the process and control of mobilizing, criticizing, directing, galvanizing
and controlling of teachers so as to enhance their quality of work. Aware that
the educand is endowed positively, the aim of supervision programme is to
ensure that his potentials are realized within the all embracing ambit of the
curriculum. It can thus be concluded that instructional supervision is
fundamental to teacher effectiveness.
School Plant Management
The school plant is usually defined to include the site, the buildings,
equipment and all the facilities of a school. (Udoh & Akpa & Gang 1990). In
other words it is the controlled environment which facilitates the teaching
learning process while at the same time protecting the physical well being of the
occupants, as Ani (1997) sees the school plant as a term which refers to the
location of the school, the school buildings the equipment in the schools and
other material resources provided in the school for the purpose of enhancing
teaching and learning processes. It includes the fixed and mobile structures and
materials in the school such as laboratories and laboratory equipment, the
school furniture, the chalk boards, tools and machines the chalk, audio and
visual aids etc.

47
The school plant planning starts and ends with the children and so the
buildings are to be designed to satisfy the childrens physical and emotional
needs(Caudil in Udoh &Gang 1990). Okeke (2004) in the same vein maintains
that, in order to meet the physical needs of the children, a safe structure,
adequate sanitary facilities, a balance visual environment, an appropriate
thermal environment and sufficient shelter space for work and play should be
provided. It is hoped that children will learn more and work harder when
facilities are adequate, but in the absence of the essential facilities, the children
and the staff will always be anxious, not feeling at ease to carry on with the
teaching learning process. The anxiety thus affects their productivity.
Man is a rational and creative being who loves beauty and is often
attracted by it, Kajo (2005) thus maintained that the urge to be creative and
beautiful is common and natural to man. In effect, creativity requires some
element of imagination which on the other hand is limited by ones level of
understanding, knowledge or ability to think critically. Therefore, to be creative
in the planning of the school plants, one has to acquaint himself with the basic
needs of the immediate society, the economy and availability of scarce
materials. Above all, the individual has to be open minded and work in an
atmosphere of absolute freedom. Creative schools do not just happen, thus Ani
(1997) observed that there is need to involve individuals of different talents to
make for healthy, safe, comfortable and convenient school environment which
can promote high standards of academic work in the school. Ani therefore
48
advocated for the involvement of an educator, an economist, a quantity
surveyor, a designer like an artist, an architect and a health worker while
planning the school plant.
The functions to be performed by these groups of individuals to make for
the uniqueness of the school plant cannot be over emphasized. The educator
possesses the capacity to determine the building and material needs of the
school, the architect may help to translate these building needs as conceived by
the educator into practical terms through designs and specifications. The health
worker may help in choosing a healthy and safe environment which will form
the school site. The artist will help in the location of trees and choice of colour
for the buildings while the economist will ensure and advise on the judicious
use of the financial resources available.
Some authorities like Adiele (1987) have seen school administration as
management or judicious use of human and material resources to achieve the
objectives of the school. In order words, if there are no human and material
resources in a school, there will be no administration. Since the material
resources have to do with the school plant there is need for well planned and
organized school plant to make for effective school administration if there is
shortage of accommodation, furniture, equipment or other material resource,
this can affect the productivity of the teachers, the administrator teacher
relationship and even administrator student relationship. The authorities
concerned are therefore supposed to plan, organize the school and provide
49
necessary school plant to enhance cordial relationship between the school
administrator and, the teachers and the students for effective school
administration or management.
One of the greatest problems facing government Secondary schools in
Nigeria is that of poor maintenance of buildings and equipments. It is perhaps
correction to say that; in education the hood does not make the monk, but it is
equally important to observe that the most lasting impression of any educational
institution is that made by the physical appearance of the buildings. School plant
maintenance, therefore Ezeocha (1990) perceives, is the keeping of the school
buildings and equipment as near their original state as possible. It is natural to
see these buildings and equipments depreciate in outlook and some factors are
responsible, Ani (1997) points them out to include: Constant usage, effects of
the weather, age, and carelessness, negligence or abandonment.
Apart from maintaining the school plant through repairs and
replacements, there is every need for every school to maintain the services of
compound clearing, sweeping, trimming of flowers and washing of toilets,
cutting the grass around dormitories and fields. No meaningful teaching and
learning can take place under filthy environment, Fobis (1985) identified three
types of maintenance services to include; Regular maintenance given to special
equipment on periodic basis. These repairs may be done by skilled workers in or
outside the school. Emergency maintenance which may be done once in a while
as the need may arise and preventive maintenance aims at reducing the
50
possibility of repairs or breakdown of equipments. The of preventive
maintenance follows from the belief that prevention is better than cure.
Financial Resources
Financial resources are imperative for the implementation of educational
programmes and management of the school plant. Money is needed for the
purchase of such basic materials as chalk, paper and pens. The libraries and
laboratories have to be well equipped and updated regularly. Equipment has to
be procured and maintained constantly. Money is also vital for instructional
activities such as excursions, the running of class experiments, seminars,
workshops and other staff development programmes. To facilitate the teachers
job, other personnel have to be hired which include secretaries, counselors,
librarians and laboratory and workshop attendants. In general, the working
environment has to be improved for to improve the work place is to improve
teaching. As such, any increase in the school population must be matched with a
corresponding increase in expenditure on infrastructure, materials, facilities and
equipment, (The world Bank; 1988:35)
Thus adequate financial resources are needed to improve conditions of
work and teaching processes. However, adequate finances on a regular basis can
be guaranteed only when a substantial amount is made available for
teaching material either by shifting funds from other expenditure categories or
by mobilizing additional resources (The World Bank, 1988:35) only then, the
51
document states, can teachers in African schools became Pedagogically
productive
School Community Relations
Describing a school as a small community of staff (tutorial and non-
tutorial) and pupil with a life of its own, which at same time is an integral part
of a much wider community, with its pattern of thinking individuals and
organizations who influence thought and action. Akubue (1997) said that, the
school does not exist in a social vacuum. He held it as a social institution, an
agency by which disired social needs may be met and therefore a means to an
end and not an end itself. More than any other public institution, a school
derives its existence and life blood from the community which often supports it
with her material and human resources.
Cibulka (1978) described a community as a people obliged to one another
not because of the place of birth, race, sex and religion. Cibulka (1978) also
saw in a community a people bound to one another and governed by sheared
taste, specific needs or common interest. Ayih (1988) pointed certain traits by
which some communities are known and grouped to include; technical,
political, religious, social and educational. Communities can be said to be
modern or traditional, literate or illiterate, liberal or authoritative, orthodox and
fundamentalist or secular and pluralized, urban or rural. The urban communities
where some of our schools are cited are comparatively modern, pluralized,
liberal, literate, rich and perhaps more receptive to innovation and change. The
52
rural communities on the other hand are traditional, authoritative, and generally
not so literate, in most cases poor and tend to be little more resistant to change.
Akubue (1997) therefore, identifies two types of schools and principals
depending on the nature of the community.
Types A are schools and principals that are located in Urban
communities with the schools built either by the mission, or the government.
Some of these schools have made name and already have fame. There is hardly
any development problem. He sees principals in such schools as more
concerned with maintenance and consolidation tasks, since most of them have
reached their optimum level of infrastructural development. The problem with
type A schools, Akubue envisaged to include: the fact that the principal has to
deal with a faceless community heterogeneous in nature, a community with
no direct commitment to the school except those who have their children in such
schools. The principals main source of rescue he maintains comes from a few
literate, well informed and dedicated parents of students. His other sources of
assistance are the Parents Teachers Association (PTA) as well as an active and
viable old boys association.
On the other hand he sees type B schools and principals to be those
located in a rural setting. These are built by the local community. He sees these
schools he sees as usually saddled with development and maintenance problems
which in type A school settings are undertaken by old boys association and
active Parents Teachers Association(PTA). Type B school he observes are

53
indigenous and homogenous. With less effective power such as man-power,
capital equipment, finance which are provided by the community which
generally identifies with the school as their own and takes it as a symbol of their
pride. The boundaries of the school are not in doubt. This community identifies
with the school problems and would deal with anyone who encroaches on
school property. The principal knows whom to run to and where to invoke help.
This distinction makes one appreciate the fact that some principals have much
more loads to carry then others, and much more problems to handle than their
other counterparts over issues related to role expectation in school community
relations.
Throughout history, the relationship of the school to the community it
serves has been a matter of major significance. To what extent may a school
teach what it is committed to teach without regard to the wishes of the people?
How much support can a principal of a school expect if he is pursuing values
not accepted by the community? Has the community not been instrumental in
substantially determining the quantity and quality of educational inputs? These
questions suggest that the school and the community are mutually influencing.
Consequently principals should view community relations as a means of
defending and preserving the school. According to Arthur (1957 -1970) school
community relations demands the society and its instrument, the school, a
genuine cooperation in planning and working for schools, with the community
giving as well as receiving, a two-way flow of ideas for effective team work.
54
The character of the community varies from one area to another. An
institution may be in a small and relatively underdeveloped village, or it might
be situated on a large densely populated and highly developed urban area,
Which ever is the case, there is a common and basic important responsibility
of dealing with members of the community in matters which affect the growth
and development of institutions. It demands that the principal should establish,
develop and maintain satisfactory relations with the community in which his
institution is situated. To this end a three point strategy of learning about the
community, informing the community and involving the community, has been
proposed (Bortner, 1972-75)
The Principal and School Community Relations
The principal on assuming office in any school should, as one of his
primary tasks try to systematically study and familiarize himself with the local
community because of their educational value to the schools. Akubue (1997)
observes that what the principal does is very vital. The communitys
expectations of his roles as an adviser, consultant, peace maker, and community
leader are quite high. He proposes that, all sorts of people will come to see the
principal for various reasons and a lot of his time will be spent receiving them.
Some of the visitors will be officials who come to discuss official matters;
others may be people who have business dealings with the college. There are
55
people who will come to seek personal favour and parents may come to discuss
the problems of their children while local dignitaries may pay courtesy calls. As
a public relations man, Akubue (1997) opines that, what the principal says, how
he says it and what he does, have their significant impacts on the community.
They may help to build up or run down the reputation and make or mar the
school. He however cautions that, whatever the motives of visitors, the
principal should in the interest of building good school public relations, try to
demonstrate courtesy, cheerfulness, understanding and cooperation without
however sacrificing official stands for personal convenience.
Admitting that personal contacts made in the community by the principal
help to shape public opinion of the school which the principal epitomizes to a
large extent. Kajo (2005) saw the principal as having the responsibility of
purposefully widening his or her personal community contacts in civic, social
clubs and other community organizations. Opportunities abound for the
principal who is armed with facts and positive information about the community
for correcting distorted impressions, ending rumours and developing goodwill
and rapport with a wide and cross section of the citizenry during the course of
his day to day social contacts. This makes for effective teaching and learning
The Teacher and School Community Relations
The teachers are important factors in school community relations. They
sometimes have greater opportunities to influence the communities attitude
towards the school. A majority of the teachers are known to reside within the
56
community, which paves the way for increased association with residents. The
advantage accruing from this is obvious they gain insight into the community
value orientations, parental expectations for the school and students concerns
and problems (Akubue 1997). As residents of the community, teachers become
involved in a variety of leadership opportunities. Not only is this type of
involvement beneficial in fostering positive community attitude towards the
school, it also accommodates the need for social interaction.
The teachers instructional behovour is also of prime importance here, his
inter-personal relationship with colleagues, and the administration and with
students is also contributory to the school community relations in that it ushers
in a spirit of togetherness and commitment. Ames and miller (1994) maintained
that teacher commitment to each other is an important ingredient in improving
teacher practice and effectiveness which in turn improves the image of the
school. Teacher commitment to students and the school as an institution
encourages him to go the extra mile (Hoffman 1994). He is likely to spend extra
time to motivate and nurture students. Committed teachers are ready to help
each other with instruction and this paves way for peer supervision, a necessary
component of instructional improvement and school image making. The
teachers attitude towards the school administration is important in view of the
fact that the success of a leader depends in part on the level of cooperation of
his subordinates. No matter how hard a principal may try to provide a
favourable school community relations if the teachers do not appreciate and

57
respect institutional rules and regulations, any disciplinary action by the
principal will be ill-received by the teachers and mis-interpreted to the public.
The teacher must be made to understand school goals and programs and thus
desist from making damaging idle comments about the school, and or the
students. He must also avoid disseminating speculative, premature, or
incomplete information about changes or innovations that are merely under
consideration, before such changes are realized. However he must air
grievances and criticisms of colleagues, superiors, or school policy to the
persons involved and not before neighbours and friends.
The teacher should also generate positive feelings of love, respect and
trust in the students. Hastings (1992) holds that such good relations, as making
the students feel the importance of the teacher and learn from him are eventually
transmitted to their homes. If the teacher is self-disciplined and learning is made
easier, it translates to improved school community relations. Pointing out that
todays students become tomorrows adult citizens and tax payers, Akubue
(1997) warns that hostility towards the school among adults can sometimes be
traced to bad experiences with teachers. Similarly, supportive attitudes are often
rooted in pleasant memories of professionally dedicated and caring teachers
who treat students with respect and consideration. Self discipline on the part of
teachers with regards to school rules and community expectation will also
translate to good school community relations. It must be realized too that where
some communities will not tolerate mediocre teaching, others may stubbornly
58
resist it, but no community is pleased with teacher truancy in their teaching
functions.
The Student and School Community Relations
No emissary group has more extensive contact with the community than
the student body. For example, parents receive substantially more information
about schools from their children than from any other source (Akubue 1997).
Most parents build their impression of the school from their Children. The
affection of parents provides the students with a sympathetic audience at home
and their opinions are readily accepted.
Where students opinions about the school are unfovourable, a poor
image of the school is painted to the public whose interest and support for the
school is consequently affected.( Akubue 1997). Pointing out that the ideal for
any principal is not only educationally sound but also politically advantageous
to ensure that students experience success during every school day,
Akubue(1997) notes that when a students sense of satisfaction and
belongingness are enhanced, he will identify with and become a positive
ambassador of the school.
Conversely, it is difficult for a community whether in urban or rural
setting, to support schools where their children overwhelmingly and continually
carry negative reports about In addition, students behavior in the community
and at school sponsored events is often watched as a barometer of school

59
effectiveness. Therefore students must be made aware of their responsibilities
in shaping public opinion about their schools.
The Non-Teaching Staff And School Community Relations
Taking a serious stance, Akubue (1997) proposes that the role of the non-
teaching staffing in building school community relations is another important
sector to watch in school community relations. The typist, clerks, cooks bus
drivers, security-men, e.t.c are men and women who often have longer tenure in
the school than the principal. These are usually members of the community.
Often their opinion regarding the school are eagerly sought and sometimes
readily shared. Hence, through regular meetings these employees should be
encouraged to convey and share objective, accurate and timely information
about the school.
The Parents Teachers Association (P.T.A) and School Community
Relations
The Parents Teachers Association (PTA) of every school is a stakeholder
in the welfare of the school and its image making. To allow for close school-
community relations so as to reap the advantages of parental support and
community involvement. Students discipline has to emanate from the home.
However Adesina (1990) notes that most mothers are working and have little
time to instill such values as discipline, respect, honesty and hard work.
According to him, this explains why students behave like animals. The
60
implication is that parents must be involved in and support student discipline, a
view supported by Edmond (1999). Apart from discipline, Edmond thinks that
parental support towards the provision of books and other materials for the
students is important. Teaching becomes ineffective if students cannot do
exercises in class or at home for lack of textbooks since teachers are often
reluctant to write lengthy exercises on the board. In addition, absence of
working materials sometimes contributes to students poor attitude towards
studies.
For better school community relations, decisions about the school have to
involve parents through the local Parents-Teacher Association (PTA), Although
parents lack of interest in PTAs has been noted by Adesina (1990), it is believed
that if parents are personally involved in school affairs, teachers feel more
committed and accountable. Similarly parents become committed and help
teachers to enforce school rules and regulations which are jointly formulated.
This will avoid the kind of situation where a teachers hair was cut-off in class
by an enraged parent because she objected to the wearing of make up in class by
the parents child (Majason, 1995)
Other members of the community must also lend their support to the
school. As part of the social system, the schools integrity depends in part on the
communitys input. Local political leaders for example should avoid interfering
unnecessarily in school affairs. As stated by Bryk & Lee & Holland (1993)
teachers hate negative interference from the community which may lead to
61
unhealthy school community relations. However, Bryk et al says community
influence is helpful in the procurement of resources (financial, material and
human) and may force teachers to meet parents demands or complaints
regarding students education.
The communitys image of the teacher is also a matter of concern to
Majasan (1995) contends that if the society looks down on them, treats them
like dirt, and refuses to give them any place of honour and sometimes attacks
them unjustifiably, these will make teaching un-attractive and the teachers
undedicated and thus compromise efficiency. lamenting Government
maltreatment of teachers and consequent constant strikes, Akarue(1990)
points out that this is likely to affect the image of teaching and pull down
morale. Teachers image, Jones (1985) says has to be improved to meet up
other professionals in the society and warns that a society that undermines its
teachers undermines the foundation of its present and future progress. For, no
society can rise above the quality of its teaching force.
There is no doubt that efforts aimed at promoting school community
relations will meet with difficulties, consequently, the principal will be
confronted by problems of local politics, rise in school fees, rise in price of
commodities, in-adequate funding, hostile attitudes, indifference or lack of
cooperation on part of staff, parents and students, etc however the problem of
how to act responsively to the community carries with it a host of philosophical
and strategic dilemmas which Akubue (1997) points out to include: the
62
demands on the part of the school board which may conflict with
responsiveness to the community. Another is that the community may not
always be of clear mind or of one mind about what it wants, or what it wants
may contradict the professional vision of the principal. Akubue also notes that;
in school community relations, certain leadership qualities are on trial namely;
the technical skills, traits of personality, ability to work with people, cooperate
with people and make them feel important. One must note that, the principal
needs the skill of tact because it will succeed where other abilities fail him. He
further notes that, hence all communities are distinct in nature, peculiar types of
problems created by the very nature of the types of community one is called to
serve will need peculiar tact and approaches. This must never be taken for
granted in public relations and school administration.
Motivational Factors
Observing that in every human organization what induces people to work
may differ or change with time, Nwankwo(2007) however notes that staff
motivation has always been of prime importance to the smooth functioning of
any organization. Motivation is viewed by Focho (2001) as the drive, need or
incentive which determines the workers attitude to work. Thus motivation
theorists have over the years tried to explain why people behave the way they
do, and to determine the cause of their behaviour. Here we shall look at two
main perspectives of motivation. Content and process theories. Content theorists
like Alderfer (1972), Herzberg (1959), Maslow (1943) and McClelland (1962)
63
contend that the content of individual needs dives people to work to satisfy
these needs. In other words, what constitutes a need is the main motivating
factor. Such needs include food, existence, water, sex (physiological) and
safety, love esteem, status, achievement and power (psychological). On the
other hand process theorists like Cameron (1973), Lowler (1971), Locke
(1969), Skinner (1969), and Vroom (1964), strive to explain the process by
which workers can be motivated. They are concerned with how desirable
behavior can be started and maintained. The general consensus is that
administrators have to look for ways to satisfy workers needs for them to be
motivated to work effectively. Financial remuneration and opportunities for
growth and achievement are examples of such processes. Motivation in this
study is based on the latter perspective, that is, ways of maintaining or
improving the teachers level of job commitment and task performance.
Considering the fact that some employee needs require finances for
satisfaction, pay is considered a major means of compensating and motivating
workers. Gerhart and Milkovich (1992:481) stated that compensation is at the
core of the employment exchange between organizations and individuals. One
of the problems has been how much to pay a worker to make him satisfied.
This is particularly true of the teacher who sees his salary as inadequate in
comparison to that of another with comparable qualifications, which according
to Akubue (1991), is not only low but embarrassing .Akubue further
observed that because teachers feel grossly underpaid compared to other

64
professions, there is a brain drain in the teaching profession. Majasan (1995)
adds that because of such paltry wages, society tends to believe that those
who teach cannot do any thing else or are intellectually weak. This is
contributory to the low image of teachers in the society.
The recommendation of the International Conference on Education
(UNESCO, 1978) was that the economic situation of the secondary school
teacher is supposed to enable him devote himself entirely to his job to avoid
seeking other remunerative employment which could jeopardize the functioning
of his job. On the contrary the low salaries of Nigerian teachers do force them to
do other business to supplement their salary. Dissatisfaction inevitably leads to
lack of dedication, absenteeism, and poorly planned and taught lessons.
Apparently the same situation exists in Benue state where teachers in Gboko
town have been observed to be increasingly absent from work due to low
salaries which force them to look for supplementary income elsewhere (Orseer
2006)
Basic salary goes along with such benefits as; housing; transport, health,
risk allowances and child support. These allowances must be adequate and
together with basic salary, must be paid regularly to ensure not only survival,
but also a positive attitude towards work that will yield effectiveness. Any
irregularity in payment of salaries according to Olaitan (1987), is due to the fact
that proportion of school budgets allocated to teachers salary is low. It is in
this light that Simon (1992) proposes that the procedure for determining
65
employee compensation should be just and satisfactory to the workers. For
teaching to be recognized and respected as a profession, salary and other
benefits must compare favourably with that of other professions. Any
discrepancies may usher in dissatisfaction and lack of job commitment.
Material benefit is not the only factor that is known to motivate workers.
Indeed some worker may shun a good paying job because of lack of
advancement or promotion opportunities. Absence of clearly defined policies
for advancement and promotion had constituted part of teachers grievances.
Advancement should be regular and according to specified criteria.
The zeal for promotion or appointment to posts of responsibility, is
inherent in every worker (Akarue 1991), Focho (2001) points out that teachers
often aspire to be heads of departments, principals, directors in the Ministry of
Education or even ministers. Apparently, Nigerian teachers are un-aware of
what criterion is used to appoint people to these posts. Teachers with many
years of service, training and high evaluation records become frustrated when
inexperienced, untrained and often incompetent colleagues are appointed to
posts of responsibility. A teacher caught in this situation will get the message
that qualification and hard work does not pay. The consequences are obvious.
The school administration must thus provide equal promotion opportunities if
they want to maintain a motivated and effective teaching staff.
The nature and manner of implementation of school policies in general
can be predictors of teachers motivation. Policies concerning recruitments,

66
retention, transfers, dismissal, sanctions, leave of absence and retirement must
be fair and justly applied. Any interpretation of favouritism plants feelings of
mistrust and injustice. This is also true of teacher evaluation procedures. Any
assigned mark, which seems arbitrary to the teacher, only generates feelings of
frustration. The importance of other motivational factors as teachers
cooperative, insurance polices, staff parties and teacher- of- the- year medals
should not be overlooked. Teachers feel appreciated even by verbal praises or
other non formal forms of appreciation for a job well done. Kirby (1998) points
out that respect for the teachers human and constitutional rights had the
potential of motivating. The teachers right to adhere to and militate in any
opposition political party or teachers union, for example, should not be taken as
an affront to the administration. In this regard, Jones (1985) asserts that teachers
unions are the only legitimate forums where teachers can express their
grievances and with which the government can negotiate. This is because
teachers unions advocate worth while salaries and decent working conditions, a
view shared by Barber (1992) Majasan (1995) is more emphatic in stating that
teachers must form a strong union to tackle educational problems and those of
teachers working conditions. In friths (1998) opinion, effective school
management should ensure the effective implementation of all policies so as to
encourage teachers stability. A stable working force has a lot of advantages
including a high sense of belonging and commitment, if teachers feel dismissals
or transfers are uncalled for, lack of dedication ensues. On a formula for job
67
performance, Gibson, lvancevich and Donnelly (1985) propose thus;
performance is equal to ability times motivation. Therefore job performance can
be zero if motivation is zero despite ability. Though an overstatement, the
implication is that a poorly motivated staff is bound to be ineffective. The
potentials of motivation to teacher job performance should not be overlooked by
any school management.
Theoretical framework
The purpose of this section is to establish the theoretical framework on
which the study is based. Although, the study is based generally on the human
relations management theory, it leans heavily on the theory of job satisfaction
since this provides a better operational and working definition. However, a brief
over-view of human relations theory approach to management is deemed
necessary before we go to into the theories of job satisfaction.
Human Relations Theory
The proponents of human relations approach to administration and
management share the view that developing and maintaining harmonious
relations between employees and supervisors and among employees is quite
fundamental to all organizations. Follet in Focho (2001) was one of the early
advocates of this theory, and in her works, she emphasized the human side of
administration .The underlying principle behind this theory is that a satisfied
worker is an effective one. The theory therefore emphasizes that an increase of
employee motivation and morale will increase his productivity.

68
This theory emerged as an opposition to the classical organization or
scientific management movement advocated by Taylor in (Focho 2001), which
viewed man as a machine that needs to be directed to achieve high level of
productivity irrespective of his personal feelings and needs. Man has to obey
instructions without protest despite individual idiosyncrasies and lack of inter-
personal relations with supervisor and colleagues. Follet and others began to
argue that employees are human beings and not machines, whose individual
differences and inter-personal relations at work ought to be taken into
consideration. As a result, questions relating to the physiological and
psychological factors of the work environment began to emerge followed by
research on the salient issues. The human relations theory basically holds that
financial remunerations though a significant motivator is not the only driving
force behind workers effectiveness. (Focho 2001). Other non-economic factors
such as the physical and psychological work atmosphere can be powerful
motivators. (Usuman 2005).
According to Eneasator (1997), the main criticism against the human
relations theory has been that, it ignores the formal structures of organizations.
For example, it assumes that a participatory leadership style will be effective in
all situations thus ignoring the need for employees to obey superiors in formal
organizations. Despite these criticisms, that theory still holds important
implications for schools as organizations, primarily because schools are

69
basically involved with people and not machines as is the case with some
organizations.
Schools as organizations are constituted of different groups of people
who interact to achieve organizational goals. These include teachers,
administrators, students, auxiliary staff and parents. The key personnel here are
the teacher whose duty is to teach in such a way as to enable students learn. By
implication he has to be effective and this has to be enhanced by the cooperation
of the others involved. While the administrator has to provide the needed
financial and material resources and conducive school plant and community
relations, the students, support staff, parents, and colleagues have their own
contributions to make towards a harmonious working environment. This in
essence is what the human relations theorists advocate, (Focho, 2001). The
teachers and others and other staff had to be satisfied with the different facets of
their job and this lead to the theory of job satisfaction.
The concept of Job satisfaction as viewed by scholars is a complex and
multifaceted one with no universally accepted definition. Job satisfaction could
be viewed as the effective orientation of the individual towards work roles that
they are currently occupying and that a person could be said to be satisfied to
the extent that his Job fulfils his dominant needs and is consistent with his
expectations and values ( Usuman 2005). Studies in Herzbergs (1959-1965)
two factor theory revealed that, Job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction have
different causal variables. Variables such as promotion, recognition and respect

70
among others increase satisfaction but does not cause dissatisfaction when
absent. Though variables such as salary, good working conditions may be
present and yet have no effect on satisfaction. Herzberg considers the first
variables, (recognition, promotion and respect) as motivators or satisfiers, while
the latter variables (salary, working conditions and good social interaction
among others that can cause dissatisfaction responsibility, prospect, work itself
and achievement), as hygiene or maintenance factors (Usuman 2005)
Secondary School teachers working in rural areas with no or very little
social amenities such as pipe-borne water, bole-holes, electricity, comfortable
accommodation, good health care services for their families, feeder roads etc.
These, coupled with lack of social recognition and prestige is most likely to
affect teachers job satisfaction which may in turn have a significant impact on
students academic achievement.
The happiness and success of teachers are generally affected by their
living conditions as maintained by Stinth and Hugett in Bukar and Baba (2006).
If they have desirable rooms and apartments, good meals and adequate transport
facilities, their adjustment is much more likely to be satisfactory and
subsequently enhance students academic achievement. Thus, job satisfaction
can be seen as the state of a person with respect to satisfied needs in relations to
his job. Agreeing with this view Olaitan (1987) observes that job satisfaction is
the degree to which material and psychological needs are satisfied with respect
to the job and evidently this can be best expressed by those concerned. An
71
employee has to be satisfied with both the intrinsic and extrinsic aspects of his
job. While intrinsic factors are those emanating from the job itself, extrinsic are
those external to the job. Both have been demonstrated to affect job satisfaction.
To have a better working definition of job satisfaction it is necessary to look at
some theories of the concept.
Theories of Job Satisfaction
To get a satisfactory look at the theories of job satisfaction Focho (2001)
opines that we must go back to the works of Schaffer (1953) Herzberg (1959)
Locke (1969). Maslow (1970) and Locke (1972) and Aldefer (1972). A brief
look at each of them may help us substantiate our study.
Presenting the fulfillment theory of Schaffer(1953) as positing that job
satisfaction is the extent to which a mans needs that can be satisfied by the job
are actually satisfied, Focho (2001) points out for example that if one views
certain financial remuneration and his salary as fulfilling this need, then one
becomes satisfied. But someone with same salary may have a different or
stronger need for a leadership position or recognition and if this need is not
fulfilled then he/she becomes dissatisfied with this same job. Therefore the
stronger the need, the more will job satisfaction depend on its fulfillment. In
the school setting the needs of individual teachers vary from salary, promotion,
inter-personal relation and adequate instructional materials. Their level of job
satisfaction will depend on the extent to which the
most strongly desired needs are fulfilled.

72
According to Focho, in about 1959, Herzberg came up with his two-
factor theory of job satisfaction. According to him, job satisfaction depends on
two factors, Hygiene factors or dissatisfies and motivators or satisfiers.
Hygiene factors are extrinsic since they do not emanate form the job itself.
These factors include; salary job of inter-personal relations amongst peers,
superiors and subordinates, status and quality of technical supervision. These
factors are referred to as dissatisfies because their absence will lead to dis-
satisfaction. Herzsberg believes that these factors must necessarily be fulfilled
for there to be job satisfaction. Motivators, on the other hand comprise such
factors as achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement, work itself
and possibility of growth. These are called intrinsic factors because they stem
directly form the job. Research on this theories indicates that the two factors
(dissatisfies and satisfiers) are mutually exclusive. This means that the presence
of motivators, for example may increase job satisfaction, but its absence may
not necessarily lead to job dissatisfaction. The implication for the school
administrators is to tackle these two uses on parallel lines: improving on the
dissatisfies and at the same time increasing the satisfiers. This will better
improve teacher job satisfaction and effectiveness.
Lockes discrepancy theory surfaced between 1969-1972 with the idea
that difference in values, emotions and needs determine job satisfaction.
Discrepancy sets in as the difference between the workers expectation from the
job as outcome and what he actually gets widens. If the teacher views the
73
demand of his job as greater than the salary he receives, there is discrepancy and
hence dissatisfaction. This explains why people on same job have different
levels of satisfaction or dissatisfaction (Focho 2001).
The Existence, Relatedness and Growth (E.R.G) theory of Alderfer
(1972-1975) assumes that job satisfaction exists if the job provides the worker
an opportunity to fulfill these particular needs. Existence refers to material and
physiological needs such as salary and good working conditions. Relatedness is
inter-personal relations with superiors or co-workers, which must be cordial.
Growth is the opportunity offered for personal development through creative
and productive contribution on the job. A teacher could have job satisfaction if
teaching fulfils his needs for existence relatedness and growth (Focho 2001).
Another theory of job satisfaction is the hierarchy of needs theory by
Maslow (1970-72). For Maslow, human needs are in a hierarchical order from
lower to higher order. He further posits that lower order needs must be fulfilled
first; the fulfillment of which leads to the emergence of higher order ones.
According to this theory, human needs are placed in this hierarchical orders;
physiological, safety and security, belonging, esteem and self- actualization.
Hunger, shelter and clothing are physical needs that can be fulfilled through
pay. Job security, danger, fear and anxiety are safety needs. The need for
belonging and love can be realized through social activities and inter-personal
relations. Esteem needs refer to respect from others, achievements, status,
dignity and recognition to be derived from the job. Self-actualization is

74
maximum self development and can only come with the satisfaction of all the
other needs. A self actualized person, presumably, is highly motivated and loyal
to value and beliefs. The most effective teachers, is one who is self actualized.
School administrators must then make it a priority to satisfy the teachers lower
order needs to help them attain self actualization (Focho,2001).
The Equity theory as presented by Focho (2001) holds that there can be
job satisfaction only when benefits from the job are comparable to that of
similar professions. This theory is often referred to as the social comparison
theory, because an individual values his job by comparing his benefits with that
of some one in another organization with similar educational qualification and
experience. Equity is thus perceived if what he gets out (outcome in terms of
salary and other benefits) is equal to what he puts in (input in terms of
qualification, skill and experience). With respect to the equity theory, the
teacher can hardly be satisfied with his job if a policeman, for example, with
less academic qualification and experience has better benefits from his job.
Similarly, if a medical doctor with comparable qualifications and experience has
higher benefits, then the teacher becomes grossly dissatisfied.
The various theories of job satisfaction seem to be unanimous on the
general principle that job satisfaction depends on two main variables: economic
compensation and working conditions in general (both physical and
psychological) it is also evident that managers in every organization are in a
position to boost employee satisfaction. They make planned attempts to improve

75
the performance of individuals. A satisfied and happy worker is generally a
productive one. From this perspective this study intends to investigate those
administrative (management) constraints to teacher effectiveness in government
secondary schools in Benue state Nigeria. Although the work does not set out
to find out the level of job satisfaction of teachers, it is indicative that
hindrances to the effective performance of certain tasks will necessarily
constitute job dissatisfaction in the task performance and hence in effectiveness.
Researchers do not agree as to whether satisfaction leads to performance or
performance leads to satisfaction, the Human Relation theorits advocate the
former. They rationalize that a worker needs to be satisfied with pay, other
benefits and working conditions for him to be motivated to work well. How
then can the administrator determine if his workers are satisfied or not? How
can job satisfaction be measured?
Measurement of Job Satisfaction
The measurement of job satisfaction is as elusive as its definition. Some
might measure the workers overall appraisal of his job in one question, for
example, how satisfied are you with your job?
However, instruments have been developed to measure different facts of job
satisfaction. These instruments are usually questionnaires whose items require
workers to indicate their level of satisfaction on the various components of their
jobs. The main dimensions tested by Herzberg, Mausner and Snyderman (1959-
65) are; pay promotion, the job itself, relation with immediate supervisor and
76
relation with co-workers.(Odo,2006). These dimensions are reflected in the
widely used Job Descriptive Index (JDI) developed by Smith, Kendall and
Hulin (1969-70) .The sub-scales of this instrument are: type of work, pay,
promotion and advancement opportunities, and relation with supervisors and
relations with co-workers. Cross (1973-75) worker opinion survey is similar
to the above instruments but he added one item to assess workers overall
satisfaction with the organizations.(Odo,2006)
In the field of Education, Holdaway in Focho (2001) developed a
questionnaire to measure the job satisfaction of teachers with respect to different
facets of their work. He came up with seven job satisfaction factors, recognition
and status, students, resources, teaching assignment, involvement with
administration, work load, salary and benefits. To suit the purpose of this study
and local realities, this researcher shall come up with five areas of
administrative control directly related to teaching. However some of the facets
of job satisfaction identified by experienced researchers and developed into
standardized instruments shall be incorporated. The five dimensions of this
study are:
1. Organization for curriculum implementation; Items related to teaching
load and instructional materials here are also found in Holdaways
instruments. Other items will relate to the sub-scale job itself in the
other instruments.
77
2. Aspects of instructional supervision; though this category is absent in
Holdaway, it is similar to the sub-scale of relations with supervisors and
quality of technical supervision in the other instruments.
3. School plant management and maintenance; This is directly related to
Holdaways resources factors and some items shall fall under job
itself in the others.
4. Relationship with the school community; Items here shall be similar with
Holdaways involvement with administrators in the other instrument.
Items related to students shall be similar to those in Holdaways student
factor. Items related to co-operation amongst teachers reflected relations
with co-workers in the other instruments.
5. Motivational factors. This category shall be similar to those in all the
standardized instruments mentioned above. Items such as pay, allowances
and opportunity for advancement and promotion shall be common in all.
This study did not set out to measure teacher job satisfaction; however, related
issues must be necessarily present for a satisfactory working environment that
will enhance teacher effectiveness. Thus, the instrument for this study shall
cover most of the indicators in general and for teacher job satisfaction in
particular as indicated in standardized instruments and literature

78
Review of Empirical Studies
School Administration
A research was carried out by Torkula (2004) on the assessment of the
management of public secondary schools in zone B senatorial district of Benue
state. Using a survey research design he sampled the opinions of 12 principals
and 397 teachers . The purpose of his study was to assess the management of
public secondary schools in zone B senatorial district of Benue State. Torkula
formulated three research questions and three null hypotheses. The instrument
for the data collection was a 36 item questionnaire which was organized and
analysed using mean for the research questions while the null hypotheses were
tested using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) at 0.05 level of significance.
Torkula found that in management, plans are usually not backed with strategies
to ensure success; security personnel are not involved in planning. Principals are
not involved in recruitment of personnel and new employees are not given
orientation on school rules, polices, and procedures. The study further found
that there were staff, financial and equipment related factors affecting the
management of public secondary schools in the area. These include; insufficient
number of qualified staff, inadequate plans for retaining qualified staff,
insufficient funds, poorly maintained facilities and equipment, inconsistency in
government polices and inadequate monitoring of material resource utilization.
Studying an evaluation of the administrative practices of government and
private secondary schools in zone A senatorial district of Benue state, Agee

79
(2005), used a descriptive survey research design to sample the opinions of 42
principals, 360 teachers and 42 non-teaching staff. Means and t-rest were used
to analyze the data obtained using a 32 item questionnaire. Results indicated
that physical facilities and equipment were adequately provided and supervision
was carried out to a great extent. However, the above issues were investigated
from a general perspective, while the present study will specify items to find out
the nature of facilities and instructional supervision.
Teachers perception of the effect of the principals leadership style on
their task performance formed the basis of Ayoo (2004) study. Using a survey
research design and a sample that consisted of 80 teachers from eight private
and government secondary schools in Markurdi and Gboko local government
areas. He used a z-test and chi-square to analyze the data from a 24 item
questionnaire and concluded that, private school teachers saw their principals as
democratic and as having a positive influence on their teaching. To find out the
impact of principals school management style on teaching and student
achievement, Oryima (2005) conducted a descriptive survey eliciting responses
from 60 teachers of selected secondary schools in Ukum local government
Area using a 24 1tem questionnaire. Data analysis using Chi-square led to the
conclusion that teaching and learning were effective (as indicated in students
high success rates in national examinations). The following factors were viewed
as contributory to the success; strict discipline, selective recruitment of trained
teachers, regular pay of teachers and student participation in decision making

80
and a strong P.T.A. It could be inferred that the leadership style here was
participatory and that the school community relations were conducive to both
teaching and learning.
The influence of the economic crises on teachers behaviour constituted
the main purpose of Ijoho (2005) study. He used a survey research design to
sample the opinions of 120 teachers from six schools in Katsina-ala local
government area. Using Chi-square to analyze the data from a 30 item
questionnaire he concluded that, due to salary cuts and delay in salary payment,
there was increased teacher absenteeism and less student evaluation. The result
also did show that about 69% expressed lack of motivation while 90 percent
had a poor self-image. Similarly Apavtars (2006) study set out to find out why
secondary school teachers had a low consciousness and commitment level to
their jobs. Using a survey research design and simple random sampling he
gathered the opinion of 120 teachers from six schools in Buruku local
government area with a 32 item questionnaire. The results from chi-square
analysis showed that teachers have a low level of commitment to their job due
to dissatisfaction with; salary, advancement opportunities, poor library facilities
and principals leadership style.
A more comprehensive study with respect to Benue state is that of
Akpallah (2006) who sought to determine the factors linked with teacher job
satisfaction and dissatisfaction. The sample of study consisted of 200 teachers
from government secondary schools across the state. because teachers were on
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strike at the time, it was impossible to get a representative sample through
random sampling (hence the use of accidental sampling). The instrument was
an adapted version of the Job Descriptive index, a facet free job satisfaction
scale and an interview. He investigated the five-job dissensions of teaching
itself, pay, promotion, and supervision and relation with co-worker. Findings
(using ANOVA) show that teachers are satisfied with teaching itself,
supervision and relationship with co-workers. On the other hand, teachers were
dissatisfied with pay and promotion. Because the sample was not representative,
the researcher cautions that findings should be interpreted cautiously and no
generalizations should be made beyond the sample. The researcher also
recommends a comparative study of teachers in urban and rural areas. The
above limitations call for further exploration of the problem.
The studies reviewed above underline the effect of school management
practices on teachers and teaching. From each study can be recognized
administrative constraints to teacher effectiveness. Given that the sample and
study areas were small with respect to Benue state, the present study will be
based on a wider sample and area so as to further illumine the problem.
Teacher Effectiveness
The purpose of Apavtars (2005) study was to find out the perception of
professional geography teachers about their competences. Using a survey
research design with a 20 item questionnaire and a sample of 14 teachers from
10 secondary schools in Kwande local government Area, he came to the

82
conclusion that (ANOVA used for analysis) trained teachers perceived
themselves as more competent while untrained teachers felt in-adequate.
Results of the study also did show that out of the 14 teachers only 6 had
professional training. The major problem of the work was that it had no report
on sampling procedure and the sample is small compared to the total number of
teachers and schools in the whole state. However, the results demonstrate the
need and importance of instructional supervision to teacher effectiveness, and
the need for further research on the issue.
Ochefus (2004) quasi experiment set out to find the difference in
students achievement in mathematics when taught by trained and untrained
teachers. He randomly assigned 160 students from five secondary schools in
Oturkpo local government area to experimental and control groups. Using the
pre-test, post-test design and ANOVA and a t-test to analyze the data, he
arrived at the conclusion that trained mathematics teachers were more effective
than untrained ones as reflected by the scores of the two groups of students.
The need for supervision is again indicated. Although the study was limited to
one local government area in Benue state it is indicative of the fact that
untrained teachers are not as effective as trained ones. One of the aims of this
study was to find of if teachers are regularly supervised.
In the same vein, Amehs (2005) study aimed at investigating the effects
of training and experience on teachers in Ogbadibo local government of Benue
state. With a sample of 50 teachers from 13 primary schools, using a 24 item

83
questionnaire in a survey research, Chi-square was then used to analyze the
data. The results were that experienced teachers are more effective than trained
ones. The researcher however, did not indicate if experienced teachers were all
untrained or if the trained teachers were all inexperienced. In any case, the
findings substantiate the need for school administrators to attract and maintain
teachers whose experiences over the years will enhance their effectiveness.
Another study by Shamange (2004) investigated the factors militating
against the effective teaching and learning of French in post primary institutions
in zone A senatorial zone of Benue state. With a sample of 120 teachers and
students from 6 government secondary schools and a 26 item questionnaire he
came up with a conclusion using simple percentages for analysis that the result
of the survey research indicated that, inadequate training, non-availability of
modern instructional materials, lack of language laboratories and non
professional training of staff as well as dilapidating school plant and facilities
affected negatively the teaching and learning of French as a second language in
these schools and called on administrators to step up efforts at rectifying the
problem if educational goals envisaged by the study of the language were going
to be achieved.
Attempting to find out students perception of the extent to which
communication skills, classroom organization and questioning skills enhance
student performance, Nguaigba (2003) sampled all SS III student of
government model secondary school Katsina-ala. A chi-square analysis of the

84
data from a 28 item questionnaire indicated that students who perceived their
teachers as using a lot of questioning skills, group organization for instructional
activities and feed back performed better in SSCE examinations. This result
supported the need for teachers professional training and staff development
programs .
Another study by Orseer (2006) was aimed at finding out teachers
perception of factors that enhance effective teaching .The descriptive survey
was made up of 245 teachers from 20 Governments Secondary Schools in
Benue state. Analyzing the data from a 32 item questionnaire using Chi-square,
he arrived at the following conclusions; teacher effectiveness is enhanced by
participation in seminars, use of instructional materials, increased pay, clinical
and peer supervision and conducive school community relations.
All the above studies have identified some administrative factors
influencing teacher effectiveness. The general conclusion is that the provision of
such administrative services as staff development programs, supervision of
instruction, instructional material, a positive school community relations and
staff motivation enhance effective teaching. In view of some limitations of
these studies, the present study shall attempt to fill the gaps by specifically
seeking to identify the administrative constraints to teacher effectiveness
especially as they affect teachers in Benue state .

85
Summary of Literature Review
The literature in relation to this study was reviewed under the following
subheadings; conceptual framework, concepts of administration and teacher
effectiveness, organization for curriculum implementation, patterns of
supervision of instruction, school plant management and maintenance, school
community relations, motivational factors, theoretical framework and empirical
studies.
The theoretical foundations of this work were seen to be the human
relations management theory and theories for job satisfaction. Both theories
emphasize the human side of administration in that the physical and
psychological work environment must be conducive for a worker to be
effective. Providing such an environment was viewed as an administrative duty.
The concept of teacher effectiveness was reviewed to highlight the nature of the
teachers job, the possible constraints arising there from. The relationship
between teacher effectiveness and organization of curriculum implementation
was also reviewed.
The review of the literature also revealed that instructional supervision is
necessary for monitoring the quality of teaching and for providing technical
support to teachers. Similarly, it is evident from the literature that teachers
work harder in a positive school climate characterized by cordial school
community relations.
86
Teacher motivation was viewed in the literature, as providing a powerful
incentive for hard work. Motivational factors were seen to include: pay and
allowances, advancement, promotion and appointment opportunities as well as
other institutional policies concerning sanctions, transfers, dismissals, leave of
absence and insurance or personal benefits.
The review of related research literature seems to expose certain gaps in
research on the topic. Some studies were limited to one or two variables. Only
few of them covered the whole State in scope.. Others had problems with
sample and sampling procedure. Finally none took into account such
background variables as location. In view of these shortcomings, the present
study aims at providing further clarifications on what constitutes administrative
state and to what extent, by exploring more variables with a more
representative sample and by comparing the views of principals and teachers.

87
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHOD
This chapter discusses the method and procedures adopted in carrying out
the study. It discusses the design of the study; area of the study; population of
the study, sample and sampling techniques; instrument for data collection;
validity of the instrument, reliability of the instrument; method of data
collection and method of data analysis.
Design of the Study
The design of the study was a descriptive survey research design. Which
was a study centered on individuals and their opinions on a given subject.
According to Nworgu (1991), this design was used to collect data on a given
population so as to describe or present the facts of that population as it is. Ali
(1996) maintained that a survey research design was one in which a group of
people or items are studied by collecting and analyzing data from a few people
or items that are representative of the entire group. This design was chosen in
line with the purpose of the study which was to identify and describe existing
administrative constraints to teacher effectiveness in government secondary
schools in Benue State of Nigeria.
Area of the Study
The study was carried out in Benue state of Nigeria. The State was
created on the 3rd of February, 1976 with the capital city at Makurdi. As one of
88
the 36 States of the federation, it is situated in the North Central geo-political
zone of the country. Benue State has three educational zones, namely A, B, and
C, these were covered by the study.
Zone A comprises of Kastina-ala, Konshisha, Kwande, Logo, Ukum,
Ushongo and Vandeikya. Zone B comprises of Buruku, Gboko, Guma Gwer,
Gwer-West, Tarka and Markudi. Zone C comprises of Ado, Apa, Agatu,
Ohimini, Ogbadibo, Oju, Okpokwu and Oturkpo.
Each zone has a Zonal Director and three (3) assistants. The Directors
oversee the activities of principals, teachers and administrative staff in each
secondary school and submit reports to the Executive Secretary State Teaching
Service Board, who in turn reports to the state Ministry of Education in
Markudi. The area is known to be educationally backward.
Population of the Study
66 principals and 1,490 teachers formed the population of the study, this
represents all teachers and principals in all government secondary schools in
Benue State. This is in accordance with statistics from the Benue State Teaching
Service Board for 2008/2009 academic session, which indicated that this is the
number of principals and teachers under government employment in the state.
(See appendix 1)
Sample and Sampling Techniques
The sample will be made up of 33 principals, and 655 teachers giving a
total of 688 respondents. These will represent fifty percent of the principals and
89
fifty percent of teachers in government secondary schools in Benue State. (See
Appendix II)
The stratified random sampling technique was used in the selection of
principals and teachers. This is in line with Omu (2006) who stated that no fixed
number is ideal, rather it is the circumstances of the study situation that
determine what number or what percentage of the population that should be
studied.
Instrument for Data Collection
The instrument for data collection is questionnaire titled Administrative
constraints to Teacher Effectiveness Questionnaire (ACTEQ); it is a structured
questionnaire, developed along the lines of the research questions formulated
for study. The questionnaire contains two sections, A and B.
Section A of the instrument requested for the demographic data of
respondents such as status; principals or teacher. Section B has five clusters
with 40 items, cluster A sought information on organization for curriculum
implementation as reflected in items 1 10, cluster B sought information on
instructional supervision, (items 11-18). Information regarding school plant
management constituted cluster C (items 19 26) cluster D presents aspects of
school community relations as seen in items 27 to 33. And cluster E, presents
items on motivational factors (items 34 40)
To rate the items, a four-point rating scale will be used to identify what
constitutes administrative constraints to teacher effectiveness. The response

90
pattern used for clusters A, D & E is Very High Extent (VHE), High Extent (H.
E) Little Extent (L.E) and Very Little Extent (VLE). Cluster B has Very Regular
(VR), Regular (R) Irregular ( I ) and Very Irregular (VI). For Cluster C, the
following Pattern was used; Available, Adequate and Functional (A.A.F)
Available Adequate but Non-Functional (A.A.N), Available Inadequate but
Functional (A.I.F), Non-available, In-adequate and Non-Functional (N.I.N).
Validation of the Instrument
The instrument was face validated by five experts, three from the
Department of Educational Foundations, one from the Department of Arts
Education and another from the Department of Science Education of the
University of Nigeria Nsukka
The experts were requested to assess the suitability of the language; and
relevance of the items in addressing the research questions bearing in mind the
purpose of the study. Their corrections and advice gave rise to the modification
of the drafts and the final draft. (See Appendix VII attached)
Reliability of the Instrument
The instrument was trial tested using 30 teachers from Nsukka Education
Zone of Enugu State which is outside the area of study. Since the five clusters
contain non-dichotomously scored items, the internal consistency of the clusters
was determined using Cronbach Alpha. The internal consistency reliability
estimate yielded for organization for curriculum implementation is 0.90; for
instructional supervision 0.85; for school plant management and maintenance

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0.89; for school community relations 0.83; and 0.69 for motivational factors.
The instrument had an overall reliability estimate of 0.97 which indicates that
the instrument is reliable. (See Appendix VIII attached)
Method of Data Collection
The direct delivery and retrieval method was employed in the
administration of the instruments. Five trained research assistants were
employed to assist the researcher in the administration of the instrument. The
research assistants were constituted of staff of the college of education in
Katsina-Ala, Benue state. They were briefed on the purpose of the exercise and
trained on how to assist the respondents in filling the questionnaire. Direct
administration by personal contact ensured a speedy and high return rate of one
hundred percent of filled questionnaires..
Method of Data Analysis
Descriptive statistics (mean scores and standard deviation) were used to
answer the research questions. The researcher employed the weights attached to
the scale to compute the mean scores for the items as well as for all the items of
the questionnaire. For the research questions, real limit of numbers; 0.00-1.49,
2.50-3.49 and 3.50 4.00 were used in analyzing the data and answering the
research questions. Any items with a mean of 2.50 3.49 and above was
considered accepted, otherwise it was considered rejected. The z- test statistics
was used to test the null hypotheses since the sample was over thirty.
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CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS
This chapter presents the results of the analyses of the data collected
based on the five research questions and the five null hypotheses formulated to
guide the study. The results are presented in the order of the five research
questions and the five null hypotheses. The major findings of the study are also
presented in this chapter.
Research Question One
To what extent does organization for curriculum implementation

constitute constraints to teacher effectiveness?
The data for providing answers to the above research question are
presented on table 1 below.

93
Table 1: Mean Ratings and Standard Deviations of Responses of Principals

and Teachers on Organization for Curriculum Implementation.
S/N Questionnaire item Principals Teachers
X SD Decision X SD Decision
1 Recommended textbooks
are not accompanied by
teachers hand books 3.12 0.75 VHE 3.08 0.76 VHE
2 The approved syllabus is

too vast considering the
academic year 2.86 1.01 HE 3.11 0.62 VHE
3 The recommend work

load is too heavy on
teachers and students 3.00 0.92 VHE 3.06 0.65 VHE
4 Time table is not

satisfactory 2.92 0.77 HE 2.83 0.92 HE
5 The class size is more

than the recommended
number per class 3.50 0.63 VHE 3.50 0.62 VHE
6 Special programmes and

materials are not
provided for special
3.58 0.62 VHE 3.50 0.65 VHE
students
7 Teachers are assigned to

teach subjects they are
not specialized in 3.58 0.64 VHE 3.58 0.60 VHE
8 Appropriate instructional
materials are not
provided for use during 3.50 0.69 VHE 3.44 0.72 VHE
lessons
9 Teachers lesson plans

are not marked 2.50 0.94 HE 2.50 1.00 HE
10 Scheme of work is not

followed by teachers 2.00 1.00 LE 1.96 1.02 VLE
Cluster mean 3.06 0.80 VHE 3.06 0.76 VHE

* VHE = Very High Extent HE = High Extent LE = Low Extent VLE = Very
Low Extent
94
Data presented on Table 1 above shows the mean ratings of principals
and teachers in government secondary schools in the state with regard to how
organization for curriculum implementation constitutes constraints to teacher
effectiveness. The data indicates that the mean ratings of principals for items 1
to 10 are: 3.12, 2.86, 3.00, 2.92, 3.50, 3.58, 3.58, 3.50, 2.50 and 2.00 with
corresponding standard deviations of 0.75, 1.01, 0.92, 0.77, 0.63, 0.62, 0.64,
0.69, 0.94 and 1.00. The teachers rated these ten items thus: 3.08, 3.11, 3.06,
2.83, 3.50, 3.50, 3.58, 3.44, 2.50, and 1.96 with corresponding standard
deviations of 0.76, 0.62, 0.65, 0.92, 0.62, 0.65, 0.60, 0.72, 1.00 and 1.02.
Based on the cut-off point of 2.50 both the principals and the teachers
rated 1 to 9 acceptable indicating that recommended text books not being
accompanied by teachers hand books, vast nature of the approved syllabus; the
work load being too heavy on both teachers and students; unsatisfactory time
table; class size being more than the recommended forty students per class;
special programmes and materials not being provided for special students;
assigning teachers to teach subjects outside their area of specialization; absence
of appropriate instructional materials; and teachers lesson plans not being
marked are considered by the principals and teachers to constitute constraints to
teacher effectiveness. Both the principals and the teachers rated scheme of work
not being followed by teachers 2.00 and 1.96 respectively which indicates that
they do not consider that as a constraint to teacher effectiveness. The cluster
means are 3.06 (for principals) and 3.06 (for teachers).

95
Research Question Two

To what extent does instructional supervision constitute constraints
to teacher effectiveness ?
The data for answering the above research question are presented on table
two below.
and Teachers on Instructional Supervision.
11 The principal
supervises instruction 2.75 1.02 R 2.64 0.88 R
12 Pedagogic advisers
supervise instruction 2.92 0.75 R 2.68 1.08 R
13 There is usually time

for post supervision
conferences 2.68 1.04 R 2.64 0.98 R
14 Teachers comply with

post supervision
conferences 2.61 1.04 R 2.86 1.06 R
15 Colleagues help to
supervise each other 2.61 1.04 R 2.67 1.03 R
16 Heads of department
help solve
instructional 2.84 0.94 R 2.88 1.02 R
problems
17 Opportunities for on-

going staff
development
programmes are
provided 2.68 1.04 R 2.67 0.98 R
18 Supervisors often
recommend measures
to improve
incompetent teachers 2.68 0.92 R 2.68 1.04 R
Cluster mean 2.72 0.97 R 2.72 1.01 R

* R = Regular
96
The data presented above show that the principals rated the eight items in
this cluster well above the cut-off point. Their ratings of items 11 to 18 are:
2.75, 2.92, 2.68, 2.61, 2.61, 2.84, 2.68 with corresponding standard deviations
of 1.02, 0.75, 1.04, 1.04, 0.94, 1.04 and 0.92.
The teachers equally rated all the 8 items above the cut-off point of 2.50.
Their ratings of the 8 items are 2.64, 2.68, 2.64, 2.86, 2.67, 2.88, 2.67, and 2.68
with corresponding standard deviations of 0.88, 1.08, 0.98, 1.06, 1.03, 1.02,
0.98, and 1.04.
Based on the data the respondents share the view that instructional
supervision is regular in their schools. According to them the principals
supervise instruction; pedagogic advisers supervise instruction, there is usually
time for post-supervision conferences; teachers comply with post-supervision
conferences, colleagues help to supervise each other, heads of departments help
solve instructional problems, opportunities for on-going staff development
programs are provided; and supervisors often recommend measures to improve
incompetent teachers. The cluster means are 2.72 (for principals) and 2.72 (for
teachers), which indicates that they share the view that instructional supervision
is regular in secondary schools in the state, and therefore does not constitute

97
Research Question Three
To what extent does school plant management constitute constraints

presented on table three below.

and Teachers on School Plant Management
19 Electricity 2.45 0.64 AIF 2.48 0.94 AIF
20 Water Supply 2.46 0.64 AIF 2.44 0.98 AIF
21 Classroom facilities 2.32 0.65 AIF 2.31 0.61 AIF
22 Building for laboratories 2.44 .100 AIF 2.32 0.91 AIF
23 Buisldings for home 2.14 0.89 AIF 2.16 0.89 AIF
economics
24 Sports facilities 2.76 1.02 AAN 2.68 0.82 AAN
25 Staff-room, Furniture and
facilities 2.54 0.96 AAN 2.42 1.02 AIF
26 Workshop for introductory
technology 2.36 0.57 AIF 2.38 0.62 AIF
Cluster mean 2.43 0.80 AIF 2.40 0.85 AIF
* AIF = Available Inadequate but Functional.
* AAN = Available Adequate but non-Functional.
The data presented above show that both the principals and teachers rated
items 19, 20, 21, 23, and 26 below the cut-off point of 2.50. In other words,
according to them electricity; water supply, classroom facilities buildings for
laboratories, buildings for home economics, and workshop for introductory

98
technology are all available, inadequate but functional and thus constitute
constraints to teacher effectiveness. Both the principals and the teachers rated
sports facilities as being available, adequate but non-function implying that it
equally constrains teacher effectiveness. The principals rated staff-room
furniture and facilities as being available, adequate but non-functional while the
teachers rated them as being available, inadequate but functional. This means
that staff-room, furniture and facilities constrain teacher effectiveness because
they are inadequate. The cluster means are 2.43 (for principals) and 2.40 (for
teachers) in a four-point rating scale which means that the items in the cluster
are either available, adequate but non-functional or available, inadequate but
functional and therefore constitute constraints to teacher effectiveness.
Research Question Four
To what extent does school community relations constitute

constraints to teacher effectiveness?
The data for answering the above research question are presented on table
four below
99

and Teachers on School Community Relations.
27 Principal is not democratic 2.45 0.62 LE 2.80 0.96 HE
28 PTA does not have high

opinion of school
administration 2.67 1.05 HE 2.67 1.01 HE
29 School does not often

engage other schools in
co-curricular activities 2.17 1.01 LE 2.24 0.68 LE
30 Cordial, principal, staff,

and student relations do 2.72 0.84 HE 2.72 0.85 HE
not exist
31 The host community is

hostile to teachers 2.46 0.94 LE 2.42 0.98 LE
32 School management is
hostile to teachers
involved in community 2.76 0.74 HE 2.72 0.84 HE
politics
33 Principal has poor image

in the community 1.89 0.88 VLE 2.58 0.60 HE
Cluster mean 2.45 0.87 LE 2.59 0.85 HE

* LE = Low Extent HE = High Extent
The data presented on table 4 above show that the respondents are not
unanimous in all the items as regards the extent that school community relations
constrain teacher effectiveness.
The principals ratings of the seven items in this cluster are: 2.45, 2.67,
2.17, 2.72, 2.46, 2.76, and 1.89 with corresponding standard deviation of 0.62,
100
1.05, 1.01, 0.84, 0.94, 0.74 and 0.88. The teachers rated the seven items thus
2.80, 2.67, 2.24, 2.72, 2.42, 2.72 and 2.58 with corresponding standard
deviations of 0.96, 1.01, 0.68, 0.85, 0.98, 0.84 and 0.60. This implies that the
two groups of respondents share the view that low opinion of the school
administration by the PTA, absence of cordial principal, staff and community
relations; and hostility of the school management to teachers involved in
community politics all to a high extent constrain teacher effectiveness. Both
respondents share the view that not often engaging other schools in co-
curricular activities, and hostility of host community to teachers do not
constitute constraints to teacher effectiveness. However, where as the principals
share the view that undemocratic leadership of a principal, and poor image of
principal in the community do not constrain teacher effectiveness, the teachers
on the other hand by their ratings claim that these two things constrain teacher
effectiveness. The cluster means are 2.45 (for principals) and 2.59 (for teachers)
in a four-point rating scale.

101
Research Question Five

To what extent do inadequate motivational factors act as constraints
presented on table five below.
and Teachers on Motivational Factors.
34 Salaries and allowance are
comparable to other
2.42 0.88 LE 2.42 0.86 LE
professions
35 Salaries and allowances

are paid promptly 2.24 0.77 LE 2.22 0.81 LE
36 Staff advancement is done

regularly 2.38 0.65 LE 2.32 0.61 LE
37 Salary structure is
favorable to staff 2.36 0.98 LE 2.22 0.88 LE
38 Teachers are transferred

with due consultation 1.83 0.91 VLE 1.96 1.14 VLE
39 Staff dismissal policies are

clearly stated 2.92 0.73 HE 2.86 1.06 HE
40 Principal shows
appreciation to teachers
2.64 0.88 HE 2.56 0.98 HE
work
Cluster mean 2.40 0.83 LE 2.34 0.91 LE

* LE = Low Extent VLE = Very Low Extent
* HE = High Extent.
The data presented on table five above show the principals, and teachers
mean ratings of the implementation of motivational factors for teachers in

102
Government secondary schools in Benue State the two groups rated items 34,
35, 36, 37 and 38 2.42, 2.24, 2.38, 2.36, and 1.83 respectively with
corresponding standard deviations of 0.88, 0.77, 0.65, 0.98 and 0.91. The
teachers ratings of items 34, 35, 36, 37, and 38 are: 2.42, 2.22, 2.32, 2.22 and
1.76 respectively with corresponding standard deviations of 0.86, 0.81, 0.61,
0.88 and 1.14 respectively. This implies that these motivational factors are
being implemented to low extent: salaries and allowances being comparable to
those of other professions; prompt payment of salaries and allowances; regular
staff advancement; favourable salary structure, and due consultation of teachers
before transferring them. In so far these motivational factors are not
effectively/highly implemented they constitute constraints to teacher
effectiveness.
The two groups of respondents rated items 39, and 40 as being
implemented to a high extent. The principals rate the two items 2.92 and 2.64
respectively with corresponding standard deviations of 0.73 and 0.88
respectively while the teachers rated the two items 2.86 and 2.56 respectively
with corresponding standard deviations of 1.06 and 0.98 respectively. This
means that the respondents are of the view that: dismissal policies are clearly
stated, and that principals show appreciation to teachers work. It then means
that the implementation of those two motivational factors do not constitute
constraints to teacher effectiveness in secondary schools in Benue State. The
cluster means are 2.40 (for principals) and 2.34 (for teachers) in a four-point
103
rating scale which indicates the low rating of the implementation of
motivational polices.
Hypothesis One
There is no significant difference between the mean ratings of

principals, and teachers of Benue State as to how organization of
curriculum implementation constitutes a constraint to teacher effectiveness
To test the hypothesis, a z test analysis was carried and using the cluster
mean scores and standard deviations obtained from items 1 to 10 of the
instrument. Table 6 below shows the summary of the analysis.
Table 6: Summary of z test for Hypothesis one

Subjects n X SD DF LS z -cal z -table Decision.
Principals 33 3.06 0.80 686 0.05 0 1.96 Accepted
Teachers 655 3.06 0.76
Table 6 above presents the independent z test analysis of the mean
difference the response opinions of principals, and teachers on how
organization of curriculum 0implementation constitutes constraints to teacher
effectiveness.
It is observable from the table that the calculated z -value is 0 at 686
degree of freedom and 0.05 level of significance. Since the calculated z -value
of 0 is less tan the critical table value of 1.96, this hypothesis is accepted. There
is therefore no significant difference between the opinions of principals and
teachers in government secondary schools in Benue State on the extent to
which organization of curriculum implementation constitutes constraints to
104
Hypothesis Two

principals, and teachers in government secondary schools as to how
instructional supervision constitutes constraints to teacher effectiveness.
A z -test analysis was carried out with the cluster mean scores and
standard deviations obtained from item 11 to 18 of the instrument. Table 7
below shows the summary of the analysis
Table 7: Summary of z -test for Hypothesis two

Principals 33 2.72 0.97 686 0.05 0 1.96 Accepted
Teachers 655 2.72 1.01
Table 7 above presents the independent z-test analysis of the mean
difference in the response opinions of principals, and teachers on how
instructional supervision constitutes constraints to teacher effectiveness.
Looking at the table one can see that the calculated z value is 0 at 686
of 0 is less than the critical table value of 1.96 this hypothesis is accepted. In
other words, there is no significant difference between the opinions of
principals, and teachers on the extent instructional supervision constitutes

105
Hypothesis Three

principals, and teachers as regards school plant management constituting
standard deviations obtained from items 19 to 26 to the instrument.
Table 8 below presents the summary of the z -test analysis.
Table 8: Summary of z -test for Hypothesis Three

Principals 33 2.43 0.80 686 0.05 0.21 1.96 Accepted
Teachers 655 2.40 0.85
Table 8 above present the summary of the z-test analysis of the mean
difference in the response opinions of principals, and teachers as regards school
plant management constituting constraints to teacher effectiveness.
From the table one can see that the calculated z -value is 0.21 at 686
of 0.21 is less than the critical table value of 1.96 this hypothesis is accepted.
There is therefore no significant difference between the mean ratings of
principals, and teachers with regard to school plant management constituting

106
Hypothesis Four

principals, and teachers with regards to school community relations
constituting constraints to teacher effectiveness.
standard deviations obtained from items 27 to 33 of the instrument. Table 9
below presents the summary of the z -test analysis
Table 9: Summary of z -test for Hypothesis Four

Principals 33 2.45 0.87 686 0.05 -0.92 1.96 Accepted
Teachers 655 2.59 0.85
Table 9 above presents the independent z -test analysis of the mean
difference in the response opinions of principals, and teachers as regards school-
community relations constituting constraints to teacher effectiveness in
government secondary schools in Benue State.
Looking at the table, one can see that the calculated z -value is 0.92 at
686 degree of freedom and 0.05 level of significance. Since the calculated z -
value of 0.92 is less than the critical table value of 1.96 this hypothesis is
accepted. This means that there is no significant difference between the mean
ratings of principals and teachers as regards school-community relations
constituting constraints to teacher effectiveness.

107
Hypothesis Five

principals, and teachers with regards to how in-adequate motivational
factors constitute constraints to teacher effectiveness.
standard deviations obtained from items 34 to 40 of the instrument. Table 10
below presents the summary of the z -test analysis.
Table 10: Summary of z -test for Hypothesis five

Principals 33 2.40 0.83 686 0.05 0.40 1.96 Accepted
Teachers 655 2,35 0.91
Table 10 above shows the independent z -test analysis of mean difference
in the response opinions of principals and teachers as how inadequate
motivational factors constitute constraints to teacher effectiveness in
Looking at the table one can see that the calculated z -value at 686 degree
of freedom and 0.05 level of significance is 0.40. Since the calculated z -value
of 0.40 is less than the critical table value of 1.96 this hypothesis is accepted.
That means that there is no significant difference between the mean opinions of
principals and teachers as regards to how inadequate motivation constitutes

108
Summary of Findings
The following constitute the summary of the findings of this study
i. Organization for curriculum implementation has a lot of impact on
ii. Organization for curriculum implementation constitutes constraints to
teacher effectiveness in government secondary schools in Benue State.
iii. Some of the ways in which organization for curriculum implementation
impede teacher effectiveness include: recommended textbooks are not
accompanied by teachers handbook; the approved syllabus is too vast;
time table is not satisfactory, class size is more than standard per class;
teachers are assigned to teach subjects they are not specialized in.
iv. Instructional supervision does not constitute constraints to teacher
effectiveness in Benue State secondary schools.
v. Management of school plant constitute constraints to teacher
effectiveness in Benue state secondary schools especially as it relates to
electricity supply, water supply, classroom facilities, laboratories and
workshops.
vi. School community relations constitute constraints to teacher effectiveness
in Benue state secondary schools because the principals are not
democratic, the PTAs do not have high opinion of school administrations,
cordial relationships are absent.

109
vii. Inadequate motivation constitutes constraints to teacher effectiveness
because salaries and allowances are not comparable to other professions,
salaries and allowances are not paid promptly staff advancement is not
regular, salary structure is not favourable to staff.
viii. There is no significant difference between the mean opinions of
principals and teachers as regards administrative constraints to teacher
effectiveness in government secondary schools in Benue State.

110
CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS, IMPLICATIONS,
RECOMMENDATIONS, CONCLUSIONS AND SUMMARY
This chapter presents the discussion of the findings of this study,
conclusions, the implications of the research findings, recommendations,
limitations of the study, suggestions for further research and summary. The
procedure adopted is that all the five research findings were discussed with the
corresponding hypotheses. The implications of the research findings,
recommendations, limitations, and suggestions for further research as well as
the summary of the study are then presented.
DISCUSSIONS
Organization for Curriculum Implementation as a Constraint to teacher
Effectiveness
It was the opinion of the principals and teachers in government secondary
schools in Benue State that organization for curriculum implementation in the
state constitutes a constraint to teacher effectiveness in the state. They indicated
to a very high extent that; recommended text books are not accompanied by
teachers handbooks, the approved syllabus is too vast considering the academic
year, and that recommended work load is too heavy on teachers and students.
These confirm the views of Denga (1993) who pointed out that, the
length and depth of curriculum content as well as the guides, books and
materials are matters that affect teaching. To Aboho (2000) the starting point
111
should be the provision of clear curriculum goals that the teacher can
accomplish within a specified period of time. For Ada (2000), in each subject
there should be a guide as to what the teacher is expected to teach and students
to learn. He stressed that the absence of this may encourage teachers to
emphasize on one aspect to the detriment of the other.
That the class size is more than the recommended number of students per
class and thus constituting a hindrance to teacher effectiveness confirms the
view of Ada (2000) who drew the conclusion that smaller classes had higher
achievement levels since there is more room for individual attention, effective
use of material and frequent homework and tests. That special programmes and
materials are not provided for special students could be counter productive as
noted by Williams (1988) and Anderson (1991) that a near homogenous
classroom makes teaching easier but since the tendency in recent years is
towards mainstreaming, programs and materials must be put in place to take
care of fast and slow learners to avoid frustration, and that physically challenged
students should be given special attention if they are to be mainstreamed.
The consequences of assigning teachers to teach subjects they are not
specialized in is obvious as noted by Akubue (1991). Such arrangement
constitutes a direct constraint to teacher effectiveness as the teacher is likely to
be deficient in content and method. The non-provision of appropriate
instructional materials as indicated in the findings constitutes a hindrance to
teacher effectiveness as Ada (2000) had pointed out that it is not un-common to
112
find teachers who teach lessons without writing on the board with the excuse
that chalk had not been provided.
Inspite of the fact that the findings point out to a very low extent that
scheme of work is not followed by teachers, thus indicating that, teachers are
more inclined to following their scheme of work which is a positive move
towards teacher effectiveness. It must be noted that if the other factors are more
on the negative they may embellish the good in this one factor. This is in line
with Nwaorgu (1991) who opined that hindrances to teacher effectiveness
abound in the classroom and ought to be solved or reduced to the bearest
minimum if the teacher is to be effective.
Analysis of hypothesis one, on table 6, indicated that there is no
significant difference between the opinions of principals and teachers in
government secondary schools in Benue State on the extent organization for
curriculum implementation constitutes constraints to teacher effectiveness. This
is to say that even though the magnitude of the mean scores of principals, 2.43,
is greater than that of the teachers, 2.40, the difference is not statistically
significant. In other words both principals and teachers of government
secondary schools in Benue State indicated no significant difference
Instructional Supervision and Teacher Effectiveness
It was the opinion of principals and teachers of government secondary
schools in Benue State that on a regular basis the principal supervises
instruction and that pedagogic advisers (specialist subject supervisors) supervise

113
instruction. Both principals, and teachers agreed that on a regular basis there is
usually time for post supervision conferences and colleagues regularly help
supervise each other (per supervision).
These are some positive findings as Lee in Focho (2001) upheld that, the
teacher who does not continue to grow personally and professionally will wither
both as a person and as a teacher. To him, supervision aims at improving the
teachers skills and helping him/her realize his/her creative talent, not repressing
it. The process of teaching and learning is not static but dynamic, constant
changes occur in instructional methods and materials. For a teacher to be
effective, he must keep abreast with recent changes as Nwaogu (1980) affirmed
that supervision has to improve teaching through periodic criticism of existing
activities with regard to current trends and issues. Clinical supervision finds its
affirmation in these findings hence Segiovanni and Starrant in Afianmagbon
(2007) holds it to be a face-to-face encounter with teachers about teaching,
usually in a classroom with a double barreled intent of professional
development and improvement of instruction. The findings here confirm Adiele
(1987) who found that Cogans technique of supervision induced a higher
positive correlation between teachers effectiveness than other techniques.
The notion of peer supervision finds support in Oliva (1984) who held
these as generalist supervisors and as hardly effective since they lack expertise
in supervisory techniques, lack time and at best have expert knowledge only in
their subject of specialization. The alternative then is to introduce colleagueship

114
in supervision which Alfonso and Godsberry (1982) defined as the use of
teachers with special talents and abilities to supervise others. However, these
must be trained in the rudiments and techniques of supervision, as advocated by
Bang Jenson (1986), in order to have better results. In this regard, the current
status of heads of department could be raised to that of semi-specialist
supervisors, chosen with respect to their special abilities and made to undergo
special courses in instructional supervision through staff development programs.
Their teaching workload could be reduced to demonstrative lessons so as to
allow them enough time to help all teachers regularly. This may reduce the fear
and anxiety often generated by generalists and supervisors who often have to
give an evaluative mark to the teacher.
This study further reveals that, colleagues help supervise each other and
heads of departments help solve instructional problems. Also, that opportunities
for ongoing staff development programmes are provided and supervisors often
recommend measures to improve incompetent teachers.
The supervisors task as indicated by Glover and Law (1996), is to add to
the teachers professional knowledge; to improve the teachers skills and to
clarify professional values, all in an attempt to educate students more
effectively. Specific duties as outlined by Elders (1987) include: the induction
and socialization of new teachers, assigning teaching duties, time tabling of
subject matter, and providing opportunities for professional growth through
workshops, conferences and seminars. This agrees with the Benue situation.
115
According to Acheson and Gall (1980) all these begin with classroom
observation to see if teaching is effective or not. Observation of in-class
teaching will help the clinical supervisor to effectively plan staff development
programmes with teachers. Analysis of hypothesis two, table 7, indicates that
there was no significant difference between the mean ratings of secondary
schools principals and teachers in government secondary schools in Benue State
as to the extent to which instructional supervision constitutes constraint to
teacher effectiveness. This is to say that the cluster mean scores of principals,
2.72, which is same with that of teachers, 2.72, leaves no statistically significant
difference. In other words both principals and teachers indicated no significant
difference
School Plant Management and Teacher Effectiveness
It was the opinion of principals and teachers of government secondary
schools in Benue state that electricity, water supply, classroom facilities,
buildings for laboratories, buildings for home economics, staffroom, furniture
and facilities and workshop for introductory technology were available,
inadequate but functional. Therefore school plant management constituted a
constraint to teacher effectiveness.
The findings are in line with Ezeocha (1990) who perceived one of the
greatest problems facing government secondary schools in Nigeria to be that of
poor maintenance of buildings and equipments. As regards the factors
responsible for the depreciation of buildings and equipment, Ani (1997) pointed
116
these out to include: constant usage effects of the weather, age, carelessness,
negligence or abandonment.
That sporting facilities are available adequate but non-functional confirms
the findings of Okeke (2004) who pointed out that the absence or non
functionality of a proper play environment will prompt anxiety in staff and
students and inhibit the teaching learning process. He then called for efficient
play facilities as a way of increasing productivity in a school environment.
Investigating the factors militating against the effective learning of
French in post primary institutions in zone A senatorial zone of Benue state,
Shamange (2004) came up with a conclusion which affirms the present study,
that, inadequate training, non availability of modern instructional materials, lack
of functioning language laboratories as well as dilapidating school plant and
facilities affected negatively the teaching and learning of French in schools and
called on administrators to step up efforts at rectifying the problem if
educational goals envisaged by the study of the language were going to be
achieved. Analysis of hypothesis three, table 8, indicated that there is
no significant difference between the mean ratings of principals of government
secondary schools and teachers in Benue state as to the extent school plant
management constitutes constraints to teacher effectiveness. This is to say that
even though the magnitude of the mean scores of principals, 2.43, is greater
than that of teachers, 2.40, the difference is not statistically significant. In other
117
words both principals and teachers indicated no significant difference in
opinion.
School Community Relations and Teacher Effectiveness
The opinion of principals and teachers as to what extent school
community relations constitute a constraint to teacher effectiveness was not
unanimous in all items. That the principal is not democratic was rated low
extent by principals themselves while teachers rated it high extent. This means
that what the principals saw themselves as doing with regards to their leadership
styles was viewed differently by their teachers. This confirms Akubue (1997)
who observed that what the principal does is very vital and the communities
expectations of his roles are quite high and he must therefore be cautions in
undertaking his duties in the midst of a fully conscious society.
The study of Oryima (2005) who studied the impact of principals school
management style on teaching and learning in secondary schools in Ukum Local
Government area, came out with a conclusion that where leadership style was
participatory school community relations yield to conducive teaching and
learning.
Principals and teachers in government secondary schools of Benue State
both opined to a high extent that, PTA does not have high opinion of school
administrations and that cordial principal, staff and student relations do not
exist, and also that school management is hostile to teachers involved in
community politics.
118
These findings agree with Akubue (1997) who held that where students
opinions about the school are unfavourable, a poor image of the school is
painted to the public whose interest and support for the school is consequently
affected. For better school community relations Adesina (1990) called for the
involvement of the local PTA in school affairs since teachers become more
committed and accountable and parents become more committed in helping to
enforce school rules and regulations which are jointly formulated.
It is a positive occurrence, that the community is rated by both principals
and teachers as being to a low extent hostile to teachers, and that the principals
rate themselves to a very low extent as having a poor image in the community,
even though their teachers feel otherwise. The views of Majason (1995) are that,
if the community looks down on principals and teachers and sometimes attacks
them unjustifiably, these will make teaching un-attractive and the teachers un-
dedicated and thus compromise efficiency.
Lamenting government maltreatment of teachers and consequent strikes,
Akarue (1990) affirmed that this is likely to affect the image of the teacher and
lower his morale. Teachers image, Jones (1985) affirmed had to be improved to
meet up other professionals in the society and warns that a society that
undermines its teachers undermines the foundation of its present and future
progress. For no society can rise above the quality of its teaching force.
119
Analysis of hypothesis four, table 9, indicated that there was no
significant difference between the mean scores of principals and teachers of
government secondary schools in Benue State as regards the extent that school
community relations constitute constraints to teacher effectiveness. This is to
say that even though the cluster mean of principals, 2.45, was less than that of
teachers, 2.59, the difference is not statistically significant. In other words, both
the principals and teachers indicated no significant difference in opinion
Motivational Factors and Teacher Effectiveness
The study revealed that in-adequate motivational factors do constitute
state. It was the opinion of both principals and teachers that salaries and
allowances of teachers are to a low extent, comparable to other professions.
Also rated low extent was the promptness in payment of salaries and allowances
as well as staff advancement and salary structure as being favourable to staff.
To compound issues both rated, to a very low extent, the fact that teachers are
transferred with due consultation. Even though both noted to a high extent that
staff dismissal policies are clearly stated and that principals try to show
appreciation to teachers work, the general opinion here is that motivational
factors are grossly insufficient thus constituting a constraint to teacher
effectiveness in the state.
Observing that in every human organization what induces people to work
may differ or change with time, Nwankwo (2007) confirmed that staff
120
motivation has always been of prime importance to the smooth functioning of
any organization. Motivation is viewed by Focho (2001) as the drive, need or
incentive which determines the workers attitude to work. Thus motivation
theorists have over the years tried to explain why people behave the way they
do, and to determine the cause of their behaviour.
The findings corroborate the views of Ijoho (2005) who studied the
influence of the economic crises on teachers behaviour from six schools in
Katsina ala Local Government Area of Benue State and concluded that, due to
salary cuts and delay in salary payment there was increased teacher absenteeism
and less student evaluation. Similarly Apavlars (2006) study set out to find out
why secondary school teachers had a low consciousness and commitment level
to their jobs. Using simple random sampling he gathered the opinion of 120
teachers from six schools in Buruku Local Government Area. The results
showed that teachers have a low level of commitment to their job due to
dissatisfaction with; salary, advancement opportunities, poor library facilities
and principals leadership style. Comparing the various cluster means,
motivational factors seem to constitute the most serious constraint to teachers
effectiveness (although its reliability value was the lowest). However,
inadequacy of identified motivational issues is bound to reduce work incentive,
thus hindering effectiveness. For instance, since teachers view their allowances
as unequal to those of comparable professions, they may feel cheated and their
jobs undermined. This can lead to laxity and a carefree attitude to work.
121
Further more, teachers can hardly be expected to put in extra work if
incentives are not available. The need for extra work is understood by the fact
that the classes are large, the syllabus is long and there is absence of programs
for special students (as indicated by the results of this study). Without adequate
motivation therefore, teachers are driven to be ineffective despite their innate
personal and high professional competencies. Analysis of hypothesis five, table
10, indicated that there was no significant difference between the mean scores
of principals and teachers of government secondary schools in Benue State as to
the extent to which in-adequate motivational factors constitute constraints to
teacher effectiveness. This is to say that even though the cluster mean scores of
principals, 2.40, is greater than that of teachers, 2.34, the difference is not
statistically significant. In other words, both the principals and teachers
indicated no significant difference in opinion
Conclusions from the Findings
The following conclusions have been drawn from the major findings of
the study:
1. Principals and teachers both indicated that organization for curriculum
implementation constituted a constraint to teacher effectiveness in Benue
State. The factors that constituted constraints to a very high extent
included the fact that recommended textbooks are not accompanied by
teachers hand books, the approved syllabus is too vast considering the
academic year, and that recommended work load is too heavy on teachers
122
and students as well as lack of special programs and materials for such
special students as the blind, the dumb, the deaf, the gifted and the slow
learners.
2. Principals and teachers both indicated that instructional supervision does
not constitute a constraint to teacher effectiveness in Benue State. Both
were of the opinion that on a regular basis the principal supervises
instruction and pedagogic advisers (specialist subject supervisors)
supervise instruction, there is usually time for post supervision
conferences and colleagues help supervise each other regularly,
recommending measures to help improve incompetent teachers.
3. For both principals and teachers, most of the required facilities and
equipment such as electricity, water supply, classrooms, furniture,
buildings for staff room, home economics and workshops for introductory
technology were available, in-adequate and functional and thus the school
plant management was noted as constituting a constraint to teacher
effectiveness.
4. School community relations were found to constitute a constraint to
teacher effectiveness in government secondary schools in Benue State to
a high extent as noted in the following: the principals are not democratic,
the PTAs do not have high opinions of school administration, and cordial
relationships between principal, staff and students are absent.

123
5. Principals and teachers both indicated that in-adequate motivation
constitutes a constraint to teacher effecetiveness in government secondary
schools in Benue State. The following constitute the highest constraints:
Salaries and allowances are not comparable to other professions, salaries
and allowances are not paid promptly, staff advancement is not regular,
salary structure is not favourable to staff and teachers are transferred
without due consultations.
6. There was no statistically significant difference between the mean ratings
of principals and teachers as to the extent to which organization for
curriculum implementation constitutes constraint to teacher effectiveness.
Both groups accept this variable as a constraint.
7. The difference in the mean ratings of principals and teachers as regards
instructional supervision was not statistically significant. Both accepted
this variable as not constituting a constraint to teacher effectiveness in
8. With regard to school plant management there was no statistically
significant difference in the mean ratings of principals and teachers. Both
accepted this variable as constituting a constraint.
9. There was no statistically significant difference in the mean ratings of
principals and teachers as to the extent school community relations
constituted a constraint to teacher effectiveness. Both accept the variable
as a constraint.
124
10. As concerns motivational factors, the difference in mean ratings of
principals and teachers is also not significant. Both accepted that in-
adequate motivation constitutes a constraint to teacher effectiveness in
government secondary schools in the state.
Implications of Research Findings
The findings of this study have some important educational implications.
The implication of each finding as it relates to administrative constraints to
teacher effectiveness in government secondary schools in Benue state is hereby
highlighted.
The results show that organization for curriculum implementation is not
satisfactory. The use of textbooks without teachers guides implies that teachers
will arbitrarily select what to teach. Where subjects do not have outlined
programs on syllabus, the teacher will be faced with the textbook as the only
guide and sometimes it will be difficult to run through the book within the
academic year. Where the approved syllabus is too vast considering the
academic year, and recommended workload is too heavy on both teachers and
students with an unacceptable timetable arrangement, the tendency is that
teachers will not cover content requirements for subjects before students are
made to face national/external examinations. This will place students in a
possible position of gross disadvantage.
The lack of special programs and materials for special students will lead
to unequal opportunities for these students to succeed. Individual attention to

125
them will be minimal and they will probably be left on their own to make the
best of classroom instruction. Congested classrooms are certainly problematic to
teachers because more time will be spent on class management problems rather
than on instructional activities. Moreover there will be reduced individual
attention to students, homework and testing. Crammed classrooms also imply
that there will be little space for such instructional activities as group work and
dramatization. To assign teachers subjects including those they are not
specialized in leaves a situation where teachers may be deficient in content and
method and thus impede the teaching -learning process. Where teachers and
students are not provided with appropriate instructional materials the teaching
learning process becomes deficient and may never yield optimum results.
Where teachers lesson plans are not marked, administration may never know
whether the scheme of work is being followed nor content coverage assured.
The implication will be a sure ineffectiveness in the teaching learning process.
Instructional supervision, as indicated by the principals and teachers is
carried out regularly. These findings suggest that principals supervise
instruction on a regular basis and that pedagogic advisers (specialist subject
supervisors) supervise instruction regularly. There is usually time for post
supervision conferences and teachers do comply with post supervision
conferences. Also colleagues help to supervise each other (peer supervision) and
heads of departments help solve instructional problems while providing for
ongoing staff development programs. The implication here is that teachers will
126
be kept aware of their strengths and weaknesses and given room for
improvement. New teachers will be properly inducted and new vital
instructional practices and methods communicated and effected. This will
improve the quality of teaching and move teachers further down the road of
effectiveness.
Results on school plant management indicate the availability but
insufficiency of very many functional facilities such as electricity, water,
classroom facilities, buildings for laboratories, home economics, staff room,
furniture and facilities as well as workshops for introductory technology. The
implication is that teaching will be grossly limited and teachers will be un-able
to promote properly the quest for scientific knowledge. Schools may therefore
begin to turn out half-baked students at secondary level and this will
consequently affect learning outcomes at secondary and consequently tertiary
levels of education. If government is un-able to provide
adequate facilities and properly maintain them, the administrators of schools
must be prepared to turn to the private sector for support, or be innovative
enough within existing guidelines to supplement for their lack.
Findings of the study on school community relations indicate very many
mixed feelings. While the principals see themselves as very democratic, their
teachers feel other wise. Where teachers feel adequately involved in decision
making their impute may be strengthened and their support for school programs
stepped up. The Local Parents, Teachers, Association (PTA) needs to have a
127
high opinion of the school administration. Where this is lacking as indicated in
this study, parental support for school disciplinary programs will be lacking and
this may adversely affect the teaching learning situation in the school. Lack of
parental support indicates that students may not have the necessary books and
other materials. It becomes difficult then for the teacher to follow up the
progress of such students. In addition, students who fail to do home work and
who exhibit poor attitudes towards studies make the teacher unenthusiastic. He
may feel that his presence makes no difference and thus may put in just the
minimum effort required.
Cordial principal, staff and student relations are also capable of boosting
staff and students morale towards learning and must be encouraged. Where the
school engages other schools in co-curricula activities such as sports and
debates etc, friendships with other institutions are strengthened and this also
provides for good testing ground on learning outcomes. It is not always bad to
allow staff some participation in community politics since they are also
members of the community. However this must be undertaken with utmost
caution so as not to affect negatively the image of the school.
Findings of the study also indicate that teachers are not satisfied with
motivational factors. Inequitable allowances as compared to other professionals
may dampen the motivation to work. For instance, teachers in Benue State often
view their job as more tedious than that of a policeman. And if they feel a
policeman with five years of secondary education earns more than a teacher
128
with a university education, dissatisfaction sets in and effectiveness is
jeopardized. Also without any incentives for extra work, no teacher will be
willing to organize make up classes or help students with special needs outside
the normal class periods. Because there are no clearly defined and followed
policies for promotion and appointments, there will be little motivation to work
hard. Competent teachers may feel they can never be rewarded so why be
effective? Teachers who know people in high places may simply relax and
lobby for other appointments, thus making teaching almost a waiting ground.
The identified administrative constraints to teacher effectiveness imply
that administrators of education in Benue State must make conscious efforts to
implement policies that will enhance teacher effectiveness in the state. It must
be observed that education is the biggest industry in the state and due to its
importance in shaping the course of society, must be handled seriously.
Recommendations:
The following recommendations have been made in the light of the
findings, the discussion that followed and the various implications which have
been highlighted.
Teachers should be involved in textbook selection. For each subject,
competencies to be taught should be specified to guide selection of
textbooks. The government should encourage teachers by financing
textbook writing by Benue teachers.

129
Classrooms should be decongested by erecting new buildings in
individual schools or establishing more schools in the localities. The
present class size which officially stands at thirty five to forty students
per class should be enforced.
Educational authorities should provide special materials for handicapped
and gifted children in regular schools. For example, Braille equipment
should be made available and special translators employed to translate
examinations and tests.
In each school, heads of departments should be officially raised to the
status of specialist supervisors. Their teaching load should be reduced and
supervisory skills enhanced through seminars to give them enough time
and competence. Further more, substantial allowances should be allocated
to this position to increase motivation.
Staff development programs should include training in the rudiments of
instructional supervision to endow teachers with the necessary skills to
carryout peer supervision.
Seminars, workshops and conferences should be organized each term at
national, state and local government levels. This will give each teacher
the opportunity to attend at least one staff development program a year.
Every new teacher in the field should be under the supervision of a
trained experienced, and competent colleague for induction purpose. For

130
the first year, the new teacher should be observed at least weekly.
Strengths should be encouraged. Weaknesses identified and solutions
proposed.
The Ministry of Education or individual schools should solicit the help of
foreign countries, international organizations and foundations. Some have
been known to charitably provide funding for books, equipment, or water
and power supply. An adopt-a-school program could be encouraged
where institutions and cooperations are encouraged to realize projects in
their schools of choice.
Schools should organize associations of past students and seek help from
such associations. They should even sensitize present students on the
need to invest back in their schools after graduation.
Seminars should be organized for principals, parents, teachers, host
communities and students on the need for and nature of good school
community relations. This will hopefully reduce un-necessary
interference and promote collaboration.
The school authorities should use the PTAs to constantly sensitize
parents on the need to provide all school needs for students, checking
homework and enforcing discipline.
Principals should look for ways and means of motivating teachers in their
schools. They should not ignore the potential motivating factors of verbal
praise and encouragement, teacher of the year awards, free school parties
131
and an effectives staff union. Some schools run staff savings and loan
schemes and cooperatives. When teachers feel they can easily get help
from the school, they feel committed and motivated.
Teacher allowances should be raised to a level comparable with those of
other professionals such as policemen, nurses, medical doctors and
magistrates.
For advancements to be regular, school principals should be given the
responsibility of evaluating and compiling the names of those due and
forwarding them to the Ministry of Finance for immediate action. This
will reduce the practice of teachers leaving work to follow up these
advancements.
Teachers should be paid for excess workload.
Limitations of the Study
The research was limited to the items used to elicit responses. To this
end, the researchers conception of these variables may not have integrated
other possible views.
One other limitation was in accessing the adequacy of facilities and
equipment; the researcher was faced with the problem of the lack of a standard
official criterion of assessment. Thus, the opinions of principals and teachers
were taken to determine adequacy.
Finally, it is evident that not all the issues that constitute administrative
constraints have been raised here. However, despite these limitations, the study
132
was presumed to have fulfilled its purpose; to identify, highlight and propose
solutions to some administrative constraints to teacher effectiveness in
government secondary schools in Benue state Nigeria.
Suggestions for Further Research:
Based on the findings and limitations of the study, the following
suggestions are made for further research in the area of administrative
constraints to teacher effectiveness in Benue State.
A study of administrative constraints to teacher effectiveness in all
secondary schools in Benue State.
A comparative study of administrative constraints to teacher effectiveness
in government and private secondary schools.
A study of administrative modalities for enhancing teacher effectiveness
in government secondary schools.
A correlation study of administrative constraints and teacher effectiveness
in government secondary schools in Benue State
A study of administrative constraints to teacher effectiveness in tertiary
institutions.
Summary of the Study
Teacher effectiveness has been viewed as one of the most important
determinants of student learning which is often measured by success in tests,
examinations and other day-to-day interactions. There is also the assumption
that educational administrators can enhance teacher effectiveness by providing

133
all the physical, material, and psychological conditions. Apparently, teachers in
Benue State risk being in-effective as evidenced in the laxity and the less-than-
desirable performance of students in the SSCE and NECO examinations. More
over, the multiple strike actions of teachers over the years are indications that
the right working conditions are not in place. Thus the purpose of the study was
to identify the administrative constraints to teacher effectiveness in Benue State
of Nigeria.
The following domains were used: Organization for curriculum
implementation; Instructional supervision; School plant management and
maintenance; School community relations, and Motivational factors. Five
research questions and Five null hypotheses were formulated to guide the study.
The research design used was the survey design and the population
consisted of principals and teachers in government secondary schools in Benue
State. The sample was made up of 33 principals and 655 teachers giving a total
of 688 respondents. The instrument was a 40 item questionnaire. The
instrument, which was developed by the researcher, was face and construct
validated. Cronbach Alpha was used to test the reliability of each of the five
clusters of the instrument with the following results; 0.90, 0.85, 0.89, 0.83, and
0.69. The questionnaire was administered by the researcher with the help of five
trained research assistants. The return rate was 100 percent.
Mean scores and standard deviations were used to answer the research
questions and the Z test used to test the null hypotheses. From the data
134
analysis the following major findings were obtained, Organization for
curriculum implementation constitutes a constraint to teacher effectiveness in
Benue State. Instructional supervision does not constitute a constraint to teacher
effectiveness in Benue State. Management and maintenance of the school plant
constitutes a constraint to teacher effectiveness in government secondary
schools in Benue State especially as it relates to electricity supply, water supply,
classroom facilities, laboratories and work shops. School community relations
constitute a constraint to teacher effectiveness in government secondary schools
in Benue State because principals are not democratic, the PTA, do not have high
opinions of school administrations and cordial relationships between staff and
students are absent In-adequate motivation constitutes a constraint to teacher
effectiveness because salaries and allowances are not paid promptly, staff
advancement is not regular, salary structure is not favourble to staff. There was
no significant difference between the mean ratings of principals and teachers in
all the variables as regards administrative constraints to teacher effectiveness in
secondary schools in Benue State.
From the findings, recommendations include; reviewing classroom
organization and textbook selection and provision of teacher workbooks and
guides, enhancing the regular program for instructional supervision, upgrading
and provision of adequate facilities and equipment, organization of workshops
and training to enhance school community relations, raising teaching
allowances and improving on the general motivation of teachers in all areas.

135
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144
Appendix I
Table 1: Distribution of principals/Teachers in government secondary

schools in Benue State.
S/N Local Govt. Area/ Zone Number of Number of
Schools/ Teachers
Principals
ZONE A
1 KATSINA-ALA 05 090
2 KWANDE 04 048
3 VANDEIKYA 04 044
4 KONSHISHA 03 050
5 LOGO 03 041
6 UKUM 01 046
7 USHONGO 02 052
T = 21 T = 371
ZONE B
8 GBOKO 03 124
9 TARKA 02 037
10 MAKURDI 07 237
11 BURUKU 04 078
12 GUMA 04 044
13 GWER 03 058
14 GWER-WEST 02 036
T = 24 T = 794
145
ZONE C
15 ADO 03 027
16 AGATU 01 014
17 APA 02 027
18 OBI 01 036
19 OGBADIGBO 03 038
20 OHIMINI 01 010
21 OJU 04 043
22 OKPOKWU 02 020
23 OTURKPO 03 090
T = 20 T = 325
OVER ALL TOTAL 66 1,490
Summary:
TOTAL NUMBER OF SCHOOLS/PRINCIPALS = 66

TOTAL NUMBER OF TEACHERS =1,490
SOURCE: Planning, Research and statistics Unit, TSB, Makurdi
March,2009.
146
Appendix II
Table 2: Distribution of Principals and teachers selected.
Zone Principals Teachers Total Number

of
Respondents
A 11 163 174
B 12 349 361
C 10 143 153
TOTAL 33 655 688

147
Appendix III
Table 3: Result of SSCE O Level and NECO O Level examinations in

Government secondary schools in Benue State 2005 2009
YEAR SSCE O LEVEL NECO O LEVEL
2005 56% 64%
2006 51% 54%
2007 60% 49%
2008 54% 52%
2009 52% 51%
Source: State Ministry of Education Dept. of Research, statistics and planning.

148
Appendix IV
List of Government Secondary Schools in Benue State according to their

Education Zones.
ZONE A.
1. Government Secondary School, Anwase

2. Government Secondary School, Koti
3. Government Day Secondary School, Kachi
4. Government Day Secondary School, Jato-Aka
5. Government Secondary School, Korinya
6. Government Secondary School, Gungul
7. Government Secondary School, Tse-Agberagba
8. Government Secondary School, Katsina-Ala
9. Government Comprehensive Secondary School, Amaafu
10. Government Secondary School, Abaji
11. Government Day Secondary School, Katsina-Ala
12. Government Secondary School, Abako
13. Government Secondary School, Anyiin
14. Government Secondary School, Ugba
15. Government Secondary School, Afia
16. Government Secondary School, Lessel
17. Government Secondary School, Ushongo
18. Government Secondary School, Alu
19. Government Secondary School, Ihugh
20. Government Secondary School, Tsar
21. Government Secondary School, Vandeikya
ZONE B
22. Government Secondary School, Buruku
23. Government Secondary School, Garagboghol
24. Government Secondary School, Adi
149
25. Government Comprehensive Secondary School, Ijer

26. Government Secondary School, Gboko
27. Government Secondary School, Ikpa-Mbatiereu
28. Government Secondary School, Buter-Gboko
29. Government Secondary School, Gbajimba
30. Government Secondary School, Agasha
31. Government Comprehensive Secondary School, Udei
32. Government Secondary School, Torkula
33. Government Secondary School, Taraku
34. Government Girls Model School, Aliade
35. Government Secondary School, Ikpayongo
36. Government Secondary School, Aondona
37. Government Comprehensive Secondary School, Naka
38. Government Secondary School, Anune
39. Government College Makurdi
40. Government Secondary School, North bank
41. Government Model College Makurdi
42. Government Secondary School, NAF Base Makurdi
43. Government Day Secondary School, Tatyough
44. Government Girls College, Makurdi
45. Special Science Secondary School, North Bank
46. Command Day Secondary School, Makurdi
47. Government College, Yagba
ZONE C.
48. Government Secondary School, Agila
49. Government Secondary School, Ulayi
50. Government College, Utonkon.
51. Government Secondary School, Obagaji
52. Government Comprehensive Secondary School, Ugbokpo
150
53. Government Secondary School, Ito

54. Government Girls Secondary School, Obarike-Ito
55. Government Comprehensive Secondary School, Otukpa
56. Government Secondary School, Ugbugbu
57. Government Secondary School, Orokam
58. Government Comprehensive Secondary School, Atio
59. Government Secondary School, Okpoga
60. Government Secondary School, Ede-Okpoga
61. Government Secondary School, Oju
62. Government Secondary School, Obusa
63. Government Secondary School, Ikachi
64. Government Secondary School, Odigo
65. Government Model College Otukpo
66. Government Day Secondary School, Otukpo
151
Appendix V
Letter of transmittal
Department of Educational Foundations

University of Nigeria
Nsukka
1st September, 2009.
Dear Sir/Madam,

IN GOVERNMENT SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN BENUE STATE
NIGERIA
I am a post graduate student of the Department of Educational
Foundations of the above University, and I am carrying out a study on the above
stated topic. The purpose of the study it to identify administrative constraints to
Find here with a questionnaire designed for gathering information for the
study. For each section you are provided with different options. Please place X
against the option of your choice with respect to your school or school system. I
wish to assure you that all information provided is strictly confidential and will be
used only for the purpose of this research. No name is required, thus total honesty
is highly desirable without fear of repercussions.
Thanks for your co-operation
Yours faithfully,
Kajo Didacus
152
Appendix VI
DATA GATHERING INSTRUMENT:
DESCRIPTIVE QUESTIONNAIRE
SECTION 1: DEMOGRAPHIC DATA
Please fill the blank spaces and tick X as appropriate in the boxes
provided
Status: Principal Teacher
SECTION II: INFORMATION ON ADMINISTRATIVE
CONSTRAINTS ON TEACHER EFFECTIVENESS
CLUSTER A: ORGANIZATION FOR CURRICULUM
IMPLEMENTATION
Please indicate the extent to which organization for curriculum
implementation constitute constraints to teacher effectiveness.
S/ no Items Very High Low Very

High Extent Extent Low
Extent Extent
1 Recommended textbooks are not
accompanied by teachers hand books.
2 The approved syllabus is too vast
considering the academic year.
3 The recommended workload is too heavy
on both teachers and students.

153
4 The time table is not satisfactory.
5 The class size is more than the
recommended forty students per class.
6 Special programs and materials are not
provided for special students (e.g. blind,
deaf, dumb, gifted, e.t.c.).
7 Teachers are assigned to teach subjects
including those they are not specialized in
8 Appropriate teaching aids are not provided
for use during lessons.
9 Teachers lesson plans are not marked.
10 Scheme of work is not followed by
teachers.
CLUSTER B: INSTRUCTIONAL SUPERVISION
Using the rating scale below, indicate the nature of instructional
supervision in your school.
S/ no Items Very Regular Irregula Very

regular r irregular
11 The principal supervises instruction
12 Pedagogic advisers (specialist
subject supervisors) supervise

154
instruction.
13 There is usually time for post

supervision conferences.
14 Teachers comply to post
supervision conferences.
15 Colleagues help to supervise each
other (peer supervision).
16 Heads of departments help solve
instructional problems.
17 Opportunities for ongoing staff
development programs are
provided.
18 Supervisors often recommend

measures to improve incompetent
teachers.
CLUSTER C: SCHOOL PLANT MANAGEMENT
Please indicate the status of the school plant which may constitute
S/ no Items Available, Available, Available, Non-available

Adequate and Adequate but Inadequate In-Adequate
Functional Non- but and Non-
Functional Functional Functional
19 Electricity
20 Water supply
155
21 Classrooms/facilities
22 Buildings for
laboratories
23 Buildings for home
economics
24 Sports facilities
25 Staffroom furniture and
facilities
26 Workshop for
introductory technology
CLUSTER D: SCHOOL COMMUNITY RELATIONS
Please identify those aspects of school community relations that act as
constraints to teacher effectiveness, indicate the extent to which the following is
true of your school.
S/ ITEMS Very High Low Very

NO High Extent Extent Low
Extent Extent
27 Principal is not democratic (does not
consult teachers, students and parents on
important matters)
28 Parents, Teachers, Association (PTA)does

156
not have a high opinion of school
administration.
29 School does not often engage other
schools in co-curricula activities (e.g. in
sports and debates etc)
30 Cordial, principal, staff, student and
community relations do not exist.
31 The host community is hostile to teachers
32 School management is hostile to teachers

involved in community politics
33 Principal has a poor image in the
community
CLUSTER E: MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS
The purpose of this section is to find out those in-adequate motivational
factors that constitute constraints to teacher effectiveness. Please indicate the
extent to which the following is true of your school or school system.
ITEM ITEMS Very High Low Very

NO High Extent Extent Low
Extent Extent
34 Salaries and allowances are
comparable to other professions

157
35 There is promptness in payment of
salaries and allowances
36 Staff advancement is done regularly
37 Salary structure is favourable to staff
38 Teachers are transferred with due

consultations
39 Staff dismissal policies are clearly

stated.
40 Principal shows appreciation to
teachers work (eg by way of parties
and awards etc)
158
Appendix VII
Suggestions during validation
The experts who validated the instruments made the following
observations
Dr. F. A. Okwor suggested that the purpose of the study, the research questions,
the research hypotheses and consequently the items of the instrument should
reflect the topic. He equally moderated some of items and suggested more items
be added to certain clusters in order to properly address the research questions,
purpose of the study and hypotheses. He equally corrected notable grammatical
and technical errors in the instrument. He also suggested that instead of asking
respondents to simply state whether they were trained professionals or not they
be asked to state their qualifications.
These suggestions were taken into consideration. The purpose, the
research questions and the research hypotheses were revisited to reflect the topic
as suggested. The items were revisited too and more innovative items included
as suggested.
Dr. U. N. Eze suggested that location be added to the biographical data in
section I. He also effected grammatical corrections to the instrument and
moderated some items. He also called for a recast of some items.
The corrections were taken into consideration and the corrections
effected.
159
Prof. A. U. Akubue attempted an addition of the term evaluation to the topic,
but latter adjusted the response patterns to clearly address the topic and the
research questions. He equally moderated some items and suggested more items
to be added to certain clusters in order to properly address the research
questions, purpose of the study and hypotheses.
The suggestions were taken into consideration and relevant corrections effected

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i

ADMINISTRATIVE CONSTRAINTS ON TEACHER EFFECTIVENESS

KAJO, DIDACUS TYOTYEV

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS

ADMINISTRATIVE CONSTRAINTS ON TEACHER

A RESEARCH THESIS PRESENTED TO THE FACULTY OF

IN FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF

KAJO, DIDACUS TYOTYEV

SUPERVISOR: DR. (MRS.) A. OBOEGBULEM

Foundations, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.

KAJO, DIDACUS TYOTYEV a postgraduate student in

the Department of Educational foundations, with registration

number PG/Ph.D/06/42236, has satisfactorily completed the

requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in

Educational Administration and planning.

noble profession of teaching.

CHAPTER ONE: - INTRODUCTION

Background to the study - - - - - - - 1

Statement of the problem - - - -- - - 7

Purpose of the study - - - - -- - - 8

Significance of the study - - - -- - - - 8

Scope of the study - - - - -- - - - 11

CHAPTER TWO: - REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Concept of teacher effectiveness - -- - - - 23

Organization for curriculum implementation - - - 29

Aspects of supervision of instruction - - - - - 36

School plant management - - - - - - 46

School community relations - - - - - - 51

Human relations theory - - - - - - - 67

Theories of job satisfaction - - - - - - 71

Review of empirical studies - - - - - - 78

Summary of literature review - - - - - 85

CHAPTER THREE: - RESEARCH METHODS

Design of the study - - - - - - - 87

Area of the study - - - - - - - - 87

Population of the study - - - - - - - 88

Sample and sampling techniques - - - - - 88

Instrument for data collection - - - - - - 89

Validation of the instrument - - - - - - 90

Reliability of the Instrument - - - - - - 90

Method of data collection - - - - - - 91

Method of data analysis - - - - - - 91

CHAPTER FOUR: - RESULTS

Research Question 5 -- -- - - - - 101

Hypothesis One - - -- - - - - 103

Hypothesis Two - - -- - - - 104

Hypothesis Three - - -- - - - - 105

Hypothesis Four - - - - - - - 106

Hypothesis Five - - -- - - - - 107

Summary of Findings - - -- - - 108

CHAPTER FIVE: - DISCUSSIONS, IMPLICATIONS AND

Implications of Research Findings - - - - 124

Limitations of the Study - - - - - - 131

Suggestions for Further Research - - - - 132

Summary of the Study - - - - - - 132

Table 1: Distribution of Principals /Teachers in government secondary

Table 2: Distribution of Principals and teachers selected -- 146

Table 3: Results of SSCE O level and Neco O level examinations

Table 4: Mean Ratings and standard Deviations of Responses of

Table 5: Mean Ratings and standard Deviations of Responses of

Table 6: Mean Ratings and Standard Deviations of Responses of

Table 7: Mean Ratings and Standard Deviations of Reponses of

Table 8: Mean Ratings and standard Deviations of Responses of

Table 9: Summary of z - test for Hypothesis one. - - 103