Contents

Exercise A - Characteristic Behaviour of a Two Phase Fluid........................................1

OBJECTIVE..............................................................................................................1

METHOD...................................................................................................................1

THEORY....................................................................................................................1

APPARATUS/EQUIPMENT.....................................................................................5

PROCEDURE............................................................................................................6

RESULTS & CALCULATION..................................................................................7

CONCLUSION & DISCUSSION...........................................................................10

REFERENCE...........................................................................................................11
TF9: Saturation Pressure
Exercise A - Characteristic Behaviour of a Two Phase Fluid
OBJECTIVE
To study the behaviour of water during the transition between liquid and vapour
phases.

METHOD
To investigate the behaviour of water at temperatures around the vapour point over a
range of pressures. To study the change in vapour point with increasing pressures and
to watch the fluid behaviour using a sight glass set into a pressure vessel.

THEORY
Boiling Engine

When a body of water is heated at constant volume by means of a hot surface, such as
a heater element, various different stages may be observed in the heating process:

At very low heat flux between the heater and the fluid, no boiling occurs. Heat
transfer between the element and the fluid is by conduction, and fluid motion occurs
through free convection. Phase change occurs only as evaporation at the free surface.

Figure 1a: During this stage, slight swirling of the water surface may be seen.

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At increased heat flux, phase change will occur at the heater surface, with small
bubbles of vapour forming as the layer of fluid surrounding the heater reaches
saturation temperature. These rise out of the hot boundary layer between the heater
and the main volume of the water, until they reach cooler fluid, where they condense.
Final phase change occurs as evaporation at the free surface.

Figure 1b: During this stage, small bubbles may occasionally be seen condensing on
the sight glass.

As heat flux rises, heat is transferred through the fluid mainly by free convection,
until most of the volume reaches saturation temperature or higher. Many bubbles of
vapour form on the heater surface, and rise through the fluid to the surface. The
bubble movement agitates the fluid, producing increased mixing and consequently
better heat transfer from the heater to the fluid. This stage is sometimes termed
nucleate boiling.

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Figure 1c: During this stage, vigorous bubbling may be seen through the sight glass.

As heating within the vessel is at constant volume, the internal pressure of the system
increases during the heating process. As pressure increases, the saturation temperature
of water also increases, and the liquid in the system becomes superheated (It remains
as liquid at a temperature above the boiling point at atmospheric pressure). If the
pressure is now reduced without a corresponding reduction in temperature, for
example by bleeding off steam from the system, then the saturation temperature is
reduced. The superheated liquid vaporises as the vapour point falls, producing violent
frothing.

Figure 1d: During this stage, bubbles aggregate and steam is bled off.

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The pressure volume temperature relationship

The relationship between pressure, specific volume and temperature can be found in
most standard thermodynamics textbooks. This exercise investigates the pressure-
temperature relationship at constant volume. A graph summarising this relationship is
given below:

The exercise will cover temperatures and pressures occurring along the L-V line.

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APPARATUS/EQUIPMENT

Figure 2a: Set-up of Apparatus

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 Figure 2b: Layout of Apparatus

PROCEDURE
1. The calorimeter valve and the drain valve at the base of the boiler were checked
to ensure that both of them were closed.
2. The main power to the console was switched off before filling the boiler.
3. The filling point at the top was opened using the key provided. The equipment
was filled with purified or de-ionised water until the water level was halfway up
the sight-glass at the front of the boiler. The filling point was not sealed until later
instruction.
4. The main power and the console were switched on. Then, the heater was switched
on with the heater power control being turned to maximum.
5. The appearance of the fluid in the boiler was observed through the sight glass as
the temperature increased. The water was allowed to reach its boiling point, which
was indicated by the intense movement at the surface and steam escaping from
the filling point.
6. The heater power was reduced slightly to maintain a steady but not excessive
stream of steam. The resistance reading, Rm1 was waited until it became steady to
ensure all air had been expelled. The pressure inside the vessel was noted, as

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 indicated by the pressure sensor P1, whereas the resistance was indicated by the
platinum resistance thermometer, Rm1. The resistance was converted into
temperature using the tables provided in the lab manual. The filler valve was
closed and the heater was returned to maximum power.
7. The readings for P1 and Rm1 were taken at intervals of approximately 5 minutes.
The approximate temperature and pressure at which significant changes occurred
in the appearance of the fluid were noted.
8. When the maximum working pressure of the system (6 bar) was reached, the
calorimeter valve was fully opened and the heater power was switched off.
Readings for P1 and Rm1 were taken at time interval of 30 seconds until 20
readings were taken in overall. Changes in fluid appearance as the pressure
dropped were noted.
9. The calorimeter isolating valve was left opened after the data bad been taken.
Leaving the valve closed after the pressure reached atmospheric pressure might
result in partial vacuum inside the apparatus as it cooled to ambient temperature.
The apparatus could be permanently damaged if so.

RESULTS & CALCULATION

The results are tabulated under the following headings:

Table 1.1:

Measured Corrected Measured Corrected

Time Output Output Temperature, Pressure, Pressure,
Stage
(min) Resistance, Resistance, T1 (C) Pm1 Pc1
Rm1 () Rc1 () (kN/m2) (kN/m2)
After 5.0 145.0 146.40 121.69 117 118.09
boiling 10.0 150.3 153.24 140.62 272 273.85
15.0 154.9 159.51 155.97 468 472.34
After 0.5 155.9 160.81 158.82 510 518.77
maximum 1.0 155.3 159.94 156.66 486 485.80
pressure
1.5 154.9 159.34 154.69 452 452.83
(6 bar) is
reached 2.0 154.3 158.39 152.73 427 429.26
2.5 153.8 157.71 151.01 398 403.73
3.0 153.2 157.15 148.96 377 379.43
3.5 152.7 156.30 147.25 347 351.23
4.0 152.2 155.63 146.12 332 330.37
4.5 151.8 155.08 144.09 308 314.32

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 5.0 151.3 154.66 142.52 293 290.67
5.5 150.9 153.78 140.62 273 275.20
6.0 150.3 153.28 139.72 258 267.03
6.5 150.0 152.53 137.17 240 242.23
7.0 149.4 152.04 135.52 227 226.08
7.5 149.1 151.42 134.09 211 211.95
8.0 148.6 150.84 132.67 199 196.42
8.5 148.2 150.47 131.25 184 185.71
9.0 147.8 149.82 130.27 174 173.60
9.5 147.4 149.50 128.32 161 162.83
10.0 146.9 148.97 127.24 152 152.06

Table 1.2:

Stage Fluid Appearance

After boiling Many bubbles of vapour were formed and rose through the
fluid to the surface. As temperature increased, vigorous
bubbling was observed throughout the fluid and the bubbles
began to aggregate.
After maximum Violent frothing was observed on the fluid surface and the
pressure (6 bar) is steam was bled off once the calorimeter valve was opened.
reached

Table 1.3:

Corrected
Temperature, Temperature,
Pressure, Pc1
T1 (C) T1 (K)
(kN/m2)
121.69 394.84 118.09
140.62 413.77 273.85
155.97 429.12 472.34
158.82 431.97 518.77
156.66 429.81 485.80
154.69 427.84 452.83
152.73 425.88 429.26
151.01 424.16 403.73
148.96 422.11 379.43
147.25 420.4 351.23
146.12 419.27 330.37

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 144.09 417.24 314.32
142.52 415.67 290.67
140.62 413.77 275.20
139.72 412.87 267.03
137.17 410.32 242.23
135.52 408.67 226.08
134.09 407.24 211.95
132.67 405.82 196.42
131.25 404.4 185.71
130.27 403.42 173.60
128.32 401.47 162.83
127.24 400.39 152.06

Based on Table 1.3, a graph of pressure against temperature is plotted below:

Graph of Pressure against Temperature

600.00

500.00

400.00

300.00
Corrected Pressure, Pc1 (kN/m2)
200.00

100.00

0.00
390395400405410415420425430435

Temperature, T1 (K)

CONCLUSION & DISCUSSION

Behaviour of the fluid when heated and then the pressure reduced

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After the water boiled and it was heated continuously, lots of bubbles of vapour were
formed and rose through the fluid to the surface. Vigorous bubbling caused the fluid
surface to swirl greatly and meanwhile the bubbles began to aggregate throughout the
fluid. These behaviours showed that the water was superheated, which meaned that it
remained as liquid at a temperature above the boiling point at atmospheric pressure
When the pressure was reduced by opening the calorimeter valve to bleed off the
steam, violent frothing was observed on the fluid surface. This was because the
superheated water vapourised as the saturation temperature was reduced and the
vapour point dropped.

Comparison between Experimental and Theoretical P-T Graphs

From the experimental P-T graph, it can be deduced that pressure increases
exponentially with the temperature when the water is in two phases, both liquid and
vapour. The exponential curve is the same as the L-V curve shown in theoretical P-T
graph, which depicts that pressure increases exponentially with temperature in liquid-
vapour phase after triple point.

Possible Experimental Errors:

a) Time Reaction Error when Recording Data Manually

After the water was heated until its boiling point, we were required to take the
readings of temperature and pressure at time interval of 5 minutes until the
maximum pressure of 6 bar was reached. During the heating process, the
temperature and pressure readings varied dramatically with fluctuation, especially
for the corrected resistance, temperature and pressure readings shown by the
software. The readings changed from seconds to seconds. Therefore, we might not
record the actual readings at an interval of 5 minutes as we might react earlier or
later to take the readings on the display screen. The change in the readings was
more drastical after the maximum pressure was reached and calorimeter valve
was opened. The tendency of time reaction error increased as compared to before
as we were required to record the readings at time interval of 30s and the readings
also fluctuated more.
b) Presence of Impurities in the Water

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 The presence of impurities in the water caused the boiling point of the water to
increase slightly, which was not exactly 100C in this experiment. This was
because impurities had decreased the partial pressure of water and thus higher
temperature was needed to make the vapour pressure to meet the external pressure
(A liquid boils when the saturated vapour pressure meets the ambient pressure).
However, the influence of impurities in the water was minimal in this experiment
as the boiling point of the water only rose slightly. This showed that only a little
impurities were present in the water.
c) Heat Loss of the System during Experiment
The second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of an isolated system
always increases over time, which means energy will dissipate or lose during
energy transferring or transformation. Therefore, heat loss of the boiler to the
surroundings cannot be prevented in this experiment. However, the error caused
by heat loss was minimal in this experiment as the boiler was well insulated.

The change in T1 increases in a curved profile, but not linearly with the increase of
heat flow through the disk. The consequences of these changes will be investigated in
Exercise B.

REFERENCE
J.Moran, M. (2011). Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics. United
States of America: Don Fowley.

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