LITERATURE REVIEW

Title of article/journal: The Role of Relaxation in Stress Management

Author: Admin
Year: 2007

Stress can be understood to arise from two sources, internal and external. Since the focus of this
article is the role of relaxation in stress management, managing external sources of stress will be
covered in another article. As we turn our attention to internal sources of stress and how to manage
these it is important to note that such issues as self-talk, attitudes and habits are internal sources of
stress in addition to whatever tension the body is holding.
Bodily tension itself, can be seen as a response to stress, either internal or external, and this tension
in the body will be the focus of this article. Using relaxation as part of a stress management
program is important, convenient and effective mainly because the tension response is ubiquitous as
a reaction to stress from any source and one that can be brought under our own personal control.
Indeed, few people realize that it is possible to effectively reduce tension caused by stress no matter
how much stress we find ourselves in or how strong our reaction to stress is. An example I like to
use is that of the Olympic athlete. It is becoming increasingly common for world class athletes to
add relaxation training to their training routines. The reason for this is that the stress response and
bodily tension can significantly interfere with an athlete’s performance during competition. By
learning how to relax and focus their full attention on the task at hand athletes are able to perform
better. We like to point out that if an Olympic athlete can effectively use relaxation during their
athletic performance in front of millions of spectators and with the degree of pressure they face
during competition that we, as ordinary people, can certainly bring relaxation into all aspects of our
life.
Regularly accessing the relaxation response both reduces tension directly and increases the ease of
accessing the relaxation response in the future. By reducing bodily tension regularly stress is
regularly reduced and by acquiring the capability to quickly and easily access the relaxation
response the facility is gained to bring relaxation to bear directly and powerfully for those times
when tension builds up suddenly in response to stress.
In fact, regular practice of relaxation can be seen as a method of stress prevention rather than just
stress management.

Summary

Relaxation as part of a stress management program is important, convenient and effective mainly
because the tension response is ubiquitous as a reaction to stress from any source and one that can
be brought under our own personal control. Regularly accessing the relaxation response both
reduces tension directly and increases the ease of accessing the relaxation response in the future.
Title of article/journal: Teaching Yoga for Stress Management - Stress Relief for Teenagers
Author: Paul Jerard
Year: 2008

Yoga practice has realistic solutions for stressed-out teenagers. Young people need to take time out
for non-competitive and wholesome activities, such as Yoga. When teens have a chance to explore
themselves from within, this is time well spent.
There has never been a time when teenagers were subjected to more stress than right now. Reuters
Health reported, "One third of US teens say they feel stressed-out on a daily basis." This was based
upon a study of over 8,000 teens, and young adults, at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
For adults who lack compassion, for young people trying to cope in our society, consider this: The
leading cause of death in teens and youths, ages 10 to 19 years old, is "teenage suicide." Stress can
place young people at risk. According to the US Department of Justice, "It is estimated that 500,000
teenagers try to kill themselves each year."
The sources of the reasons for teenage stress, on such a massive scale, is subject to theory, but let's
take a look some of the reasons why so many young adults and teenagers are at risk. Family units
are challenged, because many teens live in single parent families.
Parents work so much that "bonding time" is compromised. Peer pressure has always been part of
the back drop in finding one's self as a teenager. Technology also plays a role in pushing teens
further than ever before.
Sure they are privileged to have access to so much information, but they also suffer from
information overload. On top of this, high expectations are placed on teens for social status,
academic performance, athletic performance, performance in the entertainment industry, etc.
So how can Yoga help teens to cope with stress? Regular teen Yoga sessions, or classes, should
contain physical posturing (asanas), Yogic breathing (pranayama), laughing, positive affirmations,
and learning to create an automatic relaxation response on a daily basis.
Teens must learn to reserve regular "Yoga time" for themselves. Working part-time, studying for
SATs, getting a date for a prom, and preparing for college, are part of becoming a young adult, but
there needs to be time to constructively "unplug" from all of it.
Yoga delivers mental clarity to all practitioners. Teens can learn to pursue one short-term goal at a
time. This will make daily life much more manageable. Teens should learn various Yogic relaxation
techniques, such as body scanning, stage-by-stage relaxation, and progressive muscle relaxation.
Physical, mental, spiritual, and emotional health, can be restored by learning to accept oneself, as is.
Teens can condition and prepare themselves to realize that they will not be in control of every
situation life throws at them. Open discussions with their peers, after a Yoga session, in support
groups, teen meetings, after school activities, or a public speaking class, will strengthen teen social
skills and character.

Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Paul_Jerard

Summary

Yoga practice has realistic solutions for stressed-out teenagers. Young people need to take time out
for non-competitive and wholesome activities, such as Yoga. When teens have a chance to explore
themselves from within, this is time well spent.
Title of article/journal: A naturalistic investigation of former Olympic cyclists' cognitive
strategies for coping with exertion pain during performance
Author: Kress, Jeffrey L.; Statler, Traci
Year: 2007

In endurance sports, there is one element that all athletes who wish to excel must confront ... pain.
There are three types of pain: emotional, injury related, and pain as the result of an intense
prolonged energy-expending effort. The physical discomfort associated with injury-free
performance in sport can be a limiting factor during competition. Injury-free pain associated with
endurance sport can be the product of several factors: (a) an elevated heart rate, which has exceeded
a comfortable level, (b) a buildup of lactate, an end product of glycolysis, (c) a depletion of muscle
glycogen from the body's stores, (d) fatigue of the respiratory muscles, and (e) dehydration (Brooks,
Fahey, & White, 1996). Athletes who have developed effective coping strategies for tolerating
higher levels of injury-free pain are expected to perform better than those who have not (Azevedo &
Samulski 2003, Egan, 1987; Masters, 1998, O'Conner, 1992). Bill Koch, silver medalist at the 1976
Olympics in the 30 km cross-country skiing race, felt that 90% of his success could be attributed to
his ability to tolerate injury-free pain (Iso-Ahola & Hatfield, 1986).
The sport of bicycle racing is an endurance event 'in which the athlete must cope with great
amounts of physical discomfort during competition. O'Conner (1992) cites the Tour de France
bicycle race as one of the most grueling tests of human athletic endurance. Typical road races for
Olympic level cyclists range between 50 and 250 kilometers and can take from one (50 kilometers)
to six hours (250 kilometers) to complete. Weather conditions can vary from freezing snow to the
hot, humid conditions experienced at the 1996 Olympic Games in Atlanta, Georgia. Riders must
deal effectively with the uncomfortable effects of dehydration, cold, heat, exhaustion, increased
levels of lactate, and depletion of muscle glycogen stores while at the same time executing
appropriate race strategy if they are to be successful (Ryschon, 1994). Three times Tour de France
winner Greg LeMond had this to say about cycling: " ... the best climbers are those who can stand
the most pain ... in pro cycling everything hurts, but you just ride through it ... " (Avins, 1986, p.44).
How are these athletes able to cope with this type of injury-free pain? Physiological testing of elite
endurance athletes does not completely account for differences in performance (Bosquet 2002,
Boulay, 1995, Coyle et. al., 1988, Coyle et al., 1991 ). Therefore, it has been suggested that
psychological factors play an important role in the achievement of outstanding endurance
performance (O'Conner, 1992). Currently, a void exists in the literature regarding the cognitive
strategies employed by elite level cyclists to enhance performance (Cua, 1995).
Thus far, research regarding methods of pain control and the athlete has been limited. Pain tolerance
research has focused on different types of athletes and non-athletes performing an isometric
quadriceps task or exposure to a cold presser stimulus (Egan, 1987; Oral, 2003, Ryan & Kovacic,
1966; Scott & Gijsbers, 1981, Spink, 1988) and athletes suffering from an injury (Liston et. al.,
2006, Masters & Lambert, 1989). With few exceptions, the empirical data produced on the
psychology of endurance sports have focused on the cognitive strategies used by long distance
runners (Cua, 1995; Pargman, 1993), although reference has been made to long distance swimmers
and cyclists (Morgan & Pollock, 1977). Morgan (1978, 1980), Morgan, O'Conner, Sparling, and
Pate (1987), Morgan and Pollock (1977), Schomer (1986, 1987), and Silva and Appelbaum (1989)
have examined pain tolerance during injury-free marathon running, while others (Morgan et al.,
1983; O'Connor, 1992; Russell & Weeks, 1994; Weinberg, Jackson, & Gould, 1984) have conducted
research based on associative and dissociative styles of attention distraction using other activities.
The only investigation these authors were able to find regarding cognitive strategies used by cyclists
was that of Cua (1995). With the exception of these few studies, increasing pain tolerance of the
injury-free endurance athlete as a way to enhance performance has been virtually nonexistent as a
topic of research.
This investigation was performed on former Olympic cyclists who raced in the "road race,"
"pursuit" or "team time trial" events. It focused specifically on how these athletes managed
perceived exertion pain. Perceived exertion as defined by Noble and Robertson (1996) is "the act of
detecting and interpreting sensations arising from the body during physical exercise" (p.4).
Individuals can distinguish between exertion and non-exercise related pain, therefore, the
investigators operationally defined exertion pain as the intense discomfort felt when performing at
sub-maximal to maximal levels. The investigators clearly indicated that this operational definition
did not refer to injury-based pain. The cognitive strategies used by former Olympic cyclists to
overcome heat, cold, rain, snow, wind, fatigue, and dehydration were further identified. By
identifying these strategies, future researchers and practitioners may be able to identify patterns that
could be useful when developing a cognitive training program for competitive cyclists at various
levels. The purpose of this study was to describe and explain the nature and effects of the cognitive
strategies former Olympic cyclists used to cope with exertion pain during performance.
Method
Design
A naturalistic, grounded theory inquiry was the method of investigation chosen for this study. A
grounded theory is one that is inductively derived from the study of the phenomenon it represents
(Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Therefore, the researchers did not begin with a hypothesis and then test it.
Rather, they began with an area of study, coping with exertion pain in performance, and whatever
was relevant to that phenomenon was allowed to emerge naturally (Strauss & Corbin, 1990).
Furthermore, a phenomenological perspective is concerned with the study of a particular
phenomenon (in this case the experience of non-injury pain in performance), its structures, and the
underlying personal meanings associated with that phenomenon (Patton, 1990). Philosophically
then, a naturalistic, phenomenological investigation would entail a recounting of one's own
experiences through description of their own perception and personal awareness. Therefore,
employing this phenomenological approach to gathering information about elite cyclists'
perceptions of pain from their own personal experiences provided the most accurate basis for
inductively deriving theory about coping with exertion pain in endurance performance.
Participants
In qualitative research, participants are rarely, if ever selected at random. In fact, obtaining a
representative sample from which generalizations can be drawn is not the researcher's intent
(Statler, 2001). Rather, participants are purposefully sampled; that is, they are selected because of
their unique values and insights to the topic. Therefore, the logic behind purposeful sampling lies in
selecting information-rich cases for study in depth (Patton, 1990).
Nine American male participants took part in this investigation. The criterion for inclusion was
being a former member of an Olympic team. Ages of the participants at the time of the interviews
ranged from 27 to 50 years of age with a mean age of 37.8. The combined resumes of the nine
participants included over 90 United States National Championships. Their careers also included a
combined 15 Olympic team berths, eight Pan Am Gold medals, and 15 World Championship teams.
As a condition of anonymity, the participants have been given pseudonyms. What follows is a short
description of each and some of their cycling accomplishments.
Andrew was 46 years old and a successful businessman. At the time of the interview, he was racing
at the masters (30 years and older) level. Some of his accomplishments include placing second and
third in the Junior National Championships, Multi-time Senior National Champion, Multi-time
Masters National Champion, and four times Olympian.
Bill was 36 years old and still racing professionally. He held a world record, had been a National
Champion 13 times, a two time gold medalist in the Pan Am Games, a gold medalist at the
Goodwill Games, a United States National Professional Champion, and two times Olympian who
had won both gold and a silver medal.
Casey was 35 years old and owned a bike shop. He still rode with the local training rides and on
occasion would enter a master's race. His list of accomplishments included eight National
Championships, a Pan Am gold medal, membership on three World Championship teams, and
riding on one Olympic team.
Doug was a 50 year-old businessman who still trained and raced regularly. His passion for the sport
had kept him in it for 36 years and at the time of the interview it appeared he would be in it for
some time to come. He had been a National Champion 21 times, a World Champion four times, and
an Olympian twice.
Frank was 27 years old and still raced professionally. He had won eight National Championships,
been on two World Championship teams, won a gold medal in the Pan Am games, held 9 national
records, and was on one Olympic team. Gus was a 33 year-old computer programmer. He has not
competed for four years and at the time of the interview, rarely had the time to ride as work and the
arrival of his first child tool priority in his life. His accomplishments were being on two Junior
World Teams and one Olympic team.
Howard was 34 years old and recently come out of retirement to race professionally again after
being a full-time coach for three years. His list of accomplishments included winning 11 National
ChampionShips, finishing third in the Junior World …

Summary

This material is published under license from the publisher through the Gale Group, Farmington
Hills, Michigan. All inquiries regarding rights or concerns about this content should be directed to
In endurance sports, most of excel athletes must confront with three types of pains. They are
emotional, injury related and intense prolonged energy-expending effort. Therefore Injury-free pain
can be the product of several factors: (a) an elevated heart rate, which has exceeded a comfortable
level, (b) a buildup of lactate, an end product of glycolysis, (c) a depletion of muscle glycogen from
the body's stores, (d) fatigue of the respiratory muscles, and (e) dehydration. Besides, the athlete
must cope with great amounts of physical discomfort during competition. Distance of competition,
 weather conditions must deal effectively with the uncomfortable effects of dehydration, cold, heat,
exhaustion, increased levels of lactate, and depletion of muscle glycogen stores. Increasing pain
tolerance of the injury-free endurance athlete as a way to enhance performance has been virtually
nonexistent as a topic of research. Individuals can distinguish between exertion and non-exercise
related pain, therefore, the investigators operationally defined exertion pain as the intense
discomfort felt when performing at sub-maximal to maximal levels. The investigators clearly
indicated that this operational definition did not refer to injury-based pain. The cognitive strategies
used by former Olympic cyclists to overcome heat, cold, rain, snow, wind, fatigue, and dehydration
were further identified. By identifying these strategies, future researchers and practitioners may be
able to identify patterns that could be useful when developing a cognitive training program for
competitive cyclists at various levels. The purpose of this study was to describe and explain the
nature and effects of the cognitive strategies former Olympic cyclists used to cope with exertion
pain during performance.
Method
Design
Philosophically then, a naturalistic, phenomenological investigation would entail a recounting of one's
own experiences through description of their own perception and personal awareness. Therefore,
employing this phenomenological approach to gathering information about elite cyclists' perceptions of
pain from their own personal experiences provided the most accurate basis for inductively deriving
theory about coping with exertion pain in endurance performance.
Participants
Participants are selected at random. In fact, obtaining a representative sample from which
generalizations can be drawn, rather participants are purposefully sampled; that is, they are selected
because of their unique values and insights to the topic. Therefore, the logic behind purposeful
sampling lies in selecting information-rich cases for study in depth. Anyway, investigation had been
done to nine American male participants. The criterion for inclusion was being a former member of an
Olympic team. All the nine participants above were the winners in the United State National Champion
Ships, Olympic Team Berth and World Champion Ship Teams Levels.
Title of article/journal: Effects of self-instructions on sport performance
Author: Malouff, John M.; Murphy, Colleen
Year: 2006

A number of studies have examined the value of psychological strategies in enhancing athletic
performance. The studies have produced mixed evidence about the efficacy of popular methods
such as goal-setting and visualizing good performance (Weinberg, 2002; Gould, Damarjian, &
Greenleaf, 2002). Researchers have also studied the value of self-talk, often using the term to refer
to self-instructions, as well as positive self-talk and other types of thoughts (e.g., Rogerson &
Hrycaiko, 2002). Self-instructions, in a narrow sense, involve thinking what to do next or how to do
it correctly. For instance, a baseball pitcher might think "bend" just before throwing a pitch; a tennis
player might think "high toss" just before serving. Researchers often combine various methods with
self-instructions in interventions (e.g., Kendall, Hrycaiko, Martin, & Kendall, 1990; Papaioannou,
Ballon, Theodorakis, & Auwelle, 2004; Rogerson & Hrycaiko, 2002; Theodorakis, Chroni, Laprdis,
Bebetsos, & Douma, 2001), so positive results do not necessarily mean that self-instructions alone
are helpful. For instance, in a study of elite cross country skiers doing sprints, Rushall, Hall, Roux,
Sasseville and Rushall (1988) found that asking the athletes to use self-instructions (mixed with
self-exhortations) such as "feel really long and powerful," "full movement range," and "up-hill
quick and grip" led to better performance than the athletes' usual thoughts.

However, some studies have examined the effects of self-instructions by themselves. In studying
water polo performance tasks performed by novices, Hatzigeorgiadis, Theodorakis, and Zourbanos
(2004) found that self-instructions ("ball-target") had a greater effect than positive self-talk on a
precision task, but positive self-talk had a greater effect than self-instructions on a power task. The
researchers concluded that self-instructions are more valuable for succeeding with a complex skill,
while greater self-motivation is more valuable for succeeding in a straightforward task that requires
mainly strength. Theodorakis, Weinberg, Natsis, Douma, and Kazakis (2000) studied in lab
challenges soccer accuracy (with experienced players), badminton serving (with novices), sit ups,
and knee extension and found that self-instructions were more effective than positive self-talk for
free motor movements but not for strength or endurance tasks. The effective self-instructions for the
two fine motor tasks, soccer passing and badminton serving, were "I see the target."

In golf, putting is a fine motor skill that requires two movements, a backswing and a forward swing.
The findings of Hatzigeorgiadis et al. (2004) and Theodorakis et al. (2000) suggest that self-
instructions involving focusing on a target would tend to improve performance. However, no
studies have examined that possibility. The purpose of the present study was to test whether using
self-instructions alone, with no other enhancement method included, would lead to improved
putting performance. To increase the appeal and possibly the effects of the intervention, the golfers
were given choices as to which self-instructions to use. To increase the likelihood that that results
would generalize to real life competitive golf, the study took place as a putting tournament, with
prizes for winners …

Summary

This material is published under license from the publisher through the Gale Group, Farmington
Hills, Michigan. All inquiries regarding rights or concerns about this content should be directed to
Through studies have examined that the value of psychological in enhancing athletic performance ,
about the efficacy of popular methods such as goal-setting and visualizing good performance.
Researchers have also studied the value of self-talk, often using the term to refer to self-instructions,
as well as positive self-talk and other types of thoughts. Self-instructions, in a narrow sense,
involve thinking what to do next or how to do it correctly. Researchers often combine various
methods with self-instructions in interventions, so positive results do not necessarily mean that self-
instructions alone are helpful. For instance, in a study of elite cross country skiers doing sprints,
found that asking the athletes to use self-instructions (mixed with self-exhortations) such as "feel
really long and powerful," "full movement range," and "up-hill quick and grip" led to better
performance than the athletes' usual thoughts. However, some studies have examined the effects of
self-instructions by themselves. In studying water polo performance tasks performed found that
self-instructions ("ball-target") had a greater effect than positive self-talk on a precision task, but
positive self-talk had a greater effect than self-instructions on a power task. The researchers
concluded that self-instructions are more valuable for succeeding with a complex skill, while
greater self-motivation is more valuable for succeeding in a straightforward task that requires
mainly strength. Investigation in lab concerning challenges soccer accuracy (with experienced
players), badminton serving (with novices), sit ups, and knee extension and found that self-
instructions were more effective than positive self-talk for free motor movements but not for
strength or endurance tasks. In golf, putting is a fine motor skill that requires two movements, a
backswing and a forward swing. Self-instructions involving focusing on a target would tend to
improve performance. The purpose of the present study was to test whether using self-instructions
alone, with no other enhancement method included, would lead to improved putting performance.