Professional Documents
Culture Documents
www.limenproject.net
Proceedings of the Symposium on
City Ports from the Aegean to the Black Sea.
Medieval - Modern Networks
22 nd -29 th August 2015
E G E YAY I N L A R I
ISBN 978-605-9680-01-1
Certificate No: 14641
Print
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Editors
Flora K a r a g i a n n i - U fuk K o c a b a
In the frame of the project LIMEN: Cultural Ports from Aegean to the Black Sea
www.limenproject.net
The Project is co-financed by the EU Joint Operational Programme Black Sea Basin 2007-2013
The Black Sea Basin Programme is co-financed by the European Union through the European Neighbourhood and
Partnership Instrument for Pre-Accession Asistance.
P R O J EC T P AR TI CIP A NT S
A S S O C I A TE P A R TNER S
Management Consulting
SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE
OF THE SYMPOSIUM
Zeynep Kzltan, Director of Istanbul Archaeo- Alessandra Ricci, Assistant Professor, Depart-
logical Museums (TU) ment of Archaeology and History of Art, Ko Uni-
versity (TU)
Michalis Lychounas, Dr. Archaeologist, Mu-
nicipality of Kavala, Deputy Mayor (GR) Halim Bulutolu, Director of Museum of the
Princes Islands (TU)
Menelaos Chatziapostolidis, Consultant, Mu-
nicipality of Kavala (GR)
Constantin Chera, Dr. Archaeologist, Museum
of History and Archaeology of Constanta (RO)
Glicherie Caraivan, Senior Researcher - Na-
tional Institute for Marine Geology and Geoecol-
ogy, Constanta Branch (RO)
7
CONTENTS
EDITORS NOTE 13
FOREWORDS 15
SALUTATIONS 19
9
THEODOSIAN HARBOUR: A CROSSROAD BETWEEN
BLACK SEA AND THE MEDITERRANEAN 109
Zeynep Kzltan, Ufuk Kocaba
10
CULTURAL TOURISM: POTENTIALS FOR GROWTH 227
Georgia-Anna Kanaki
11
BLACK SEA PORT-CITIES, 1780S-1910S:
OBJECTIVES AND ACT IONS OF AN INTERDISCIPLINARY PROJECT 309
Gelina Harlaftis, Athina Vitopoulou
APPENDIX
12
EDITORS NOTE
13
We want to thank a lot all the participants of the symposium and main-
ly those who delivered their papers on time in order to be included in the
present volume. We hope that the volume with the proceedings will be a
valuable selection of remarkable papers and will contribute to the study of
the medieval cultural heritage preserved in the Aegean and the Black Sea
as well as to its touristic enhancement.
D r . F l o r a K a r a g i a n n i - P r o f . D r . U fuk K o c a b a
Editors
14
FOREWORD
It is with particular pleasure that the Istanbul University and the Eu-
ropean Centre of Byzantine and Post-Byzantine Monuments (EKBMM)
present this volume of the Proceedings of the On-board International sym-
posium: City Ports from the Aegean to the Black Sea. Medieval - Modern Net-
works, which was held August 22nd-29th, 2015. The Symposium, was the
climax of the project LIMEN: Cultural ports from Aegean to Black Sea, un-
dertaken by the European Centre of Byzantine and Post-Byzantine Monu-
ments as leader in collaboration with institutions - universities, museums,
and municipalities - from eight countries: Greece, Turkey, Bulgaria, Roma-
nia, Ukraine, Russia and Georgia.
Co-funded by the European Program: Black Sea Basin Joint Oper-
ational Programme 2007-2013 and by national resources, the project
aimed to push forward the cultural role of the Black Sea city-ports and
shed light to their inter-communication and shared cultural features.
The main objective of the project was to bridge the existing gap in the
development of cultural tourism in the wider Black Sea area. Based on
the results and the experience gained by the implementation of the pre-
vious, now completed, project: OLKAS: From the Aegean to the Black
Sea medieval Ports in the Maritime Routes of the East, which had as
a target the promotion of the medieval city-ports of the Black Sea and
their cultural heritage, the LIMEN project proposes the pilot imple-
mentation of a new cultural Institution, the Cultural Port of the Black
Sea. This proposal aims to give to all participants and stakeholders
the possibility to support this new and innovative cultural Institution,
which will contribute to the establishment of relations of friendship
among the people and offer new opportunities for cooperation in the
broader Black Sea area.
15
Bringing together experts from different countries, the first four Sym-
posium sessions highlighted various issues on the North Aegean and the
Black Sea touching on history, archaeology, art history, trade activities,
product transportation, harbors, maritime routes and networks, preserva-
tion, conservation and presentation of medieval monuments, demonstrat-
ing the shared cultural heritage. The last four sessions were dedicated to
cultural tourism and its diverse benefits and effects on local communities.
The mutual approach of culture and tourism, the development of networks
between destinations, the promotion of friendship and co-operation were
some of the issues discussed. The presentations and the following discus-
sions during the Symposium sessions contributed to our better under-
standing of the cultural heritage and interrelations of the Black Sea city-
ports. The Symposium procedures culminated in the final Round Table
session in which the proposed new institution Cultural port of the Black
Sea and the steps towards its implementation were discussed.
On behalf of the Administrative Board of the European Centre of Byz-
antine and Post Byzantine Monuments, I wish to warmly thank all part-
ners and participants for their effective collaboration during the imple-
mentation of the LIMEN project and for their scholarly contributions
during the final Symposium. Our special thanks are addressed to the di-
rector of the EKBMM, Dr. Anastasia Tourta, and the project co-ordinator
and Head of EBMMMs Office for the Promotion of Scientific Research, Dr.
Flora Karagianni, for their effectiveness, pains and enthusiasm through all
stages of the implementation of the project. The collective efforts of all in-
stitutions and persons involved and the expertise of the two editors, Flora
Karagianni and Ufuk Kocaba led to the in-time completion of the volume
in hand and the successful conclusion of the project.
S o p h i a K a l o p i s s i -V e r t i
Professor Emerita of the University of Athens
Deputy President of the EKBMM Administrative Board
16
FOREWORD
The international City Ports from the Aegean to the Black Sea Me-
dieval-Modern Networks Symposium organized by Istanbul University
and the European Centre of Byzantine and Post-Byzantine Monuments
(EKBMM), both leaders of the LIMEN Project, has brought together about
one hundred participants from nine countries. While sailing on a cultural
voyage for six days from the Aegean Sea to the Black Sea we also held
this international symposium, which has undertaken an important mis-
sion for the preservation of the cultural heritage in our region, develop cul-
tural tourism as well as building new networks for sustainable relations.
Delegates presented papers on the archaeology, history and art history
of ports, maritime routes, preservation of cultural heritage and tourism
routes with a chance to discuss and elaborate. We learned technical and
valuable information on the preservation of the rich, multi-layered and
varied cultural heritage of our region; also we had a chance to watch the
implementation of related interventions.
A point to be kept in mind and emphasised is the fact that cultural tour-
ism can flourish only in a peaceful geography. Therefore, peace is one of
the main prerequisites at venues of tourism in the region and for cultural
tourism to develop. I am hopeful that our efforts will contribute to the re-
inforcement of relations among our countries and to the building of peace
in our region. I sincerely wish that this symposium is just a beginning and
that the Aegean, the Marmara and the Black Seas may build bridges of
friendship, peace and science while gradually removing the barriers be-
tween countries, institutions and peoples.
The symposium has been handled mostly from the budget set aside for
Istanbul University, a partner of the LIMEN Project. I would like to express
17
my sincere thanks to all my colleagues from Greece, Bulgaria, Ukraine,
Georgia and Turkey for their contributions to the Project; above all, to the
Ministry of Regional Development and Public Administration of Romania,
the administrative centre of the program; to the Ministry of EU Affairs, the
Turkish authority for it as well as the Prime Ministrys Undersecretariat of
Treasury Central Finance and Contracts Unit; to Dr. Flora Karagianni and
to the administration of Istanbul University for their great contribution in
the realization of the LIMEN Project; to Asst. Prof. Dr. Il zsait-Kocaba
for leading the project, and to project assistants Taner Gler and Evren
Trkmenolu for their extraordinary efforts, as well as Corvus Travel
Agency.
Further thanks are due to Dr. Flora Karagianni, with whom I have been
working closely for the publication of the symposium proceedings; to Ah-
met Boratav of Ege Yaynlar and Aydn Tibet for the graphic design.
Wishing that our efforts will improve the friendship among these three
seas and formation of new cultural tourism routes.
P r o f . D r . U fuk K o c a b a
stanbul University
Head of Department of Conservations of
Marine Archaeological Objects
18
SALUTATION
19
ics related to the economic development, management of the cultural heri-
tage and environment are very high in the agenda of the Organization of
the Black Sea Economic Cooperation, in which our country participates
very actively.
With great satisfaction for the endless and tireless efforts and the gen-
erous work of those who contributed in that, we welcome the publishing
of the current volume and we hope a fruitful continuation and extension
of similar synergies on the benefit of the protection and promotion of our
common cultural heritage.
We wish for the volume of the proceedings to have a nice trip and we
are certain that it will find the place it deserves both as a collection of re-
markable scientific papers as well as a useful manual for correct applica-
tions and functional ideas for adoption.
20
SALUTATION
This partnership (LIMEN) founded within the frame of the Black Sea
Basin Cross-Border Cooperation in the field of cultural tourism by the rep-
resentatives of Turkey, Greece, Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine and Georgia
aims to create great awareness regarding the cultural heritage of the region
and its protection.
Turkey attaches much importance to hand down cultural heritage to
future and thus, the Ministry of Culture and Tourism has paid extra atten-
tion to protection works in the recent years. Thusly, our Ministry supports
companies and institutions conducting activities in the field of cultural
tourism and undertakes publicity services guiding all sorts of investment,
communication and development potential.
In this context, scientific excavations and researches conducted on land
and under water lead the work for the protection and promotion of cul-
tural heritage in our country, which has hosted many civilizations through
the human history.
With its coastline almost over 8300 km, Anatolia also has a consider-
ably important status in terms of cultural heritage under the water. Today,
the ancient harbours of Limantepe, Assos, Phaselis, Olympos, Simena,
Andriake, Soli Pompeiopolis, and Kelenderis, where scientific excavations
and researches currently have been carried out, constitute an important
component of underwater cultural heritage in addition to the wrecks lying
in our waters.
Underwater excavations and research conducted in Turkey by Turk-
ish and foreign scholars have utmost importance within the underwater
archaeology of Turkey and the wider world.
21
Evidence currently available indicates over one hundred shipwrecks
lying under the water along the Anatolian littoral ranging from the Bronze
Age to the Ottoman period. Additionally, new wrecks have been identified
thanks to advancing technologies, and efforts to build a shipwreck inven-
tory have been continued. As for regions, the Aegean littoral ranks the first
for the number of wrecks.
We feel proud that Istanbul was chosen as the first cultural port for
pilot implementation within the LIMEN Project. Inclusion of other ancient
ports in Turkey in the future organisations will be added pride. With the
permissions issued by our Ministry excavations were conducted and com-
pleted by the Istanbul Archaeological Museums Directorate at Marmaray
station site in Yenikap, and the results are presented here by our experts;
the results clearly indicate that Istanbul was a major port on the Marmara
littoral during the East Roman period. Turkish underwater archaeologists
participate in all the excavations and surveys carried out.
I would like to congratulate all the participating countries and their
delegates for the realization of this project and wish for successful and
fruitful conclusion of this symposium and related project activities. Fur-
thermore, I would like to express my gratitude to the European Centre for
Byzantine and Post-Byzantine Monuments, Kavala Municipality, Istanbul
University, Ko University, Varna Municipality, Constanta Archaeological
Museum, Odessa City Council, and National History Research Institute of
Georgia for their part in the organisation and to the Ministry of EU Affairs,
Central Finance and Contracts Unit, the Black Sea Economic Cooperation
Organization, International Black Sea Club, Black Sea Business Council,
and Black & Azov Seas Ports Association for their supports. Finally, I hope
that this activity paves the way for the development of cultural coopera-
tion as well as friendly relations among the participating countries.
Melik Ayaz
General Directorate of Cultural Heritage and Museums,
Head of Department of Excavations and Surveys (Turkey)
22
SALUTATION
23
the cultural tourism program began with OLKAS project activities. In that
sense, project LIMEN can be seen as a complementary to OLKAS project.
This project contributes to address an important gap in the development
of cultural tourism in the wider Black Sea area. Hence, we, as the National
Authority, consider this project as a flagship and one of the best projects
implemented under the Programme.
Dear participants, I would also like to give brief information about
2014-2020 period of the Programme. The draft Programme Document for
the new period is approved by the participating countries and submitted
for approval to the European Commission by June 2015. It is foreseen that
the Programme document will be approved by the EC in December 2015
and then it is planned to launch the call for proposals in the second half of
2016. For the new period, more result-oriented and simplified process will
be adopted in the Programme. The total budget of the Programme for this
period is approximately 53,9 million Euros (out of 39 million ENPI con-
tribution, 10 million IPA contribution, 4,9 million national co-financing).
On the other hand, in 2014-2020 period, Turkish partners will be able to
act as Lead Beneficiaries, contrary to the previous period, since the IPA
funds and ENI funds have been pooled together. In the new period, the
Programme will constitute a framework to finance the projects that meet
the following priorities: Jointly promote business and entrepreneurship in
the tourism and cultural sectors; increase cross-border trade opportuni-
ties and modernisation in the agricultural and connected sectors; improve
joint environmental monitoring; promote common awareness-raising and
joint actions to reduce river and marine litter. As it is seen, grant projects in
tourism and cultural sectors will be supported in 2014-2020 period. Hence,
we advise you to start preparations if you have a project proposal in tour-
ism and cultural sectors. Within this context, we, as the National Author-
ity, plan to organize info days in Turkey in the months to come.
I conclude my words by underlining once again our appreciation for
this project and our commitment for the continuation of cooperation at the
Black Sea Basin. We also appreciate your activities in the project and wish
to advance your partnership and cooperation with joint projects in the pe-
riod ahead. Wish you success for this symposium meeting.
Thank you for your attention
Serkan Bozkurt
EU Affairs Expert,
Ministry for EU Affairs (Turkey)
24
INTRODUCTION
KEYNOTE SPEECH
SESSIONS
PRESENTATION OF THE PROJECT
T h e ne t w o r k o f t he L i me n p r o je c t c o n s i s t s o f :
Applicant: European Center of Byzantine and Postbyzantine
Monuments (GR)
IPA Financial Beneficiary: Istanbul University (TU)
P art ne rs :
Municipality of Kavala Country (GR)
Museum for National History and Archaeology from Constanta
(RO)
Odessa City Council, Department of Culture and Tourism Country.
Ukraine, Odessa region (UK)
G. Chubinashvili National Research Centre for Georgian Art
History and Heritage Preservation (GE)
Municipality of Varna Country: Bulgaria, Varna region (BU)
Ko University: Turkey (TU)
27
Be si d e s t he m, i n t he p r o je c t p a r t i c i p a t e d
as asso c i a t e p a r t n e r s :
Organization for the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC)
Business Council of the BSEC
International Black Sea Club
International Black Sea and Azov Seas Ports Association
The first actions for the promotion and development of the medieval city-
ports of North Aegean and the Black Sea on the basis of the cultural heritage
started being realized in 2012 within the framework of the project: Olkas.
From Aegean to the Black Sea. Medieval Ports in the Maritime Routes of the
East, whereas since July 2013 the efforts have been enriched and extended
with new activities implemented within the framework of the project: Li-
men. Cultural Ports from Aegean to the Black Sea. Both projects focus on
the idea of the development of the medieval ports of the North Aegean and
the Black Sea through the increase of cultural tourism. Therefore, a network
of partners representing museums, municipalities, universities and cultural
institutions of Greece, Turkey, Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine and Georgia has
been established and its members have been working since 2012 seriously
and systematically for covering the main goals.
Within the OLKAS project, among the actions that have been real-
ized and implemented are the construction of a data base available online
(www.olkas.net) where all the necessary information with the relevant
archaeological and historical information for the ports is included, the
production of a documentary film, the organization of an international
symposium, the publication of a cultural guide, the implementation of
educational activities/theatrical games for students, as well as the organi-
zation of a photographical exhibition, displayed in Thessaloniki, Athens,
Kavala, Volos, Istanbul, Constanta, Odessa, Symferopol and Tbilisi.
The LIMEN project is a continuation and extension of the OLKAS
one. Its general aim is the establishment of new maritime cultural routes on
the basis of the historical-cultural background, which will strengthen the con-
nection of the city-ports of the Black Sea through culture, and will contribute
to the local development through increasing the archaeological tourism.
The main objective of the project is the establishment of the institu-
tion: Cultural port of the Black Sea which will support cultural tourism
developmental efforts around Black Sea region. Having the establishment
28
of this institution as main priority, all the partners undertook the imple-
mentation of several activities in order to promote in the best way their
national cultural heritage to the general public, to professionals as well as
to organizations, both private and public ones, which are involved to the
tourist industry. A series of workshops and training courses have been or-
ganized by all partners, during which fruitful discussions have taken place
between participants, on the idea and the ways that the local communities
can be benefitted by the establishment of the new institution.
Moreover, all partners have worked a lot on the archaeological and
tourist documentation of the city-ports which is available online in the
official website of the project (www.limenproject.net) as well as in the
printed material (cultural guides, leaflets, pamphlets). The documentation
includes extended information on the history and archaeology enriched
by touristic information and maps with proposed itineraries which every
tourist can follow when he/she visits the city-port in order to see monu-
ments preserved. Additionally, in Kavala, Varna, Constanta, Odessa and
Batumi, signs have been constructed on the streets, which highlight the
existence of monuments and provide multilingual information on them.
One of the main activities of the project is the organization of an onboard
international symposium: City Ports from the Aegean to the Black Sea. Me-
dieval - Modern Networks where experts of the cultural and tourist sector
present their studies on topics related to the cultural heritage and touristic
promotion of the city-ports as well as to the networks of communication
with other areas of the medieval East, such as with Aegean and Mediterra-
nean. A special session of the symposium is dedicated to the new institution
Cultural port of the Black Sea, during which a very fruitful discussion has
taken place on the dynamic of the institution, the work that has been made
by the team of scholars and specialists who prepared a study on it, on the
support of the institution by the Organization of the Black Sea Economic
Cooperation as well as on the legal aspects of its realization.
The IPA partners, Istanbul University and Ko University, within the
framework of the project, undertook the responsibility to implement two
big pilot projects. Istanbul University, the IPA leader, among many activi-
ties, has worked on the construction of a replica, in real scale, of one of the
shipwrecks that has been found in the archaeological excavations of the
Theodosius Harbor in Yenikap. The replica will be an vivid example of
how a medieval finding can provide modern tourists with a unique experi-
ence of sailing to Bosporus with a byzantine ship.
29
Additionally, Istanbul University undertook the big responsibility to
organize a cultural cruise and during it, an on board symposium with the
collaboration of the European Centre for Byzantine and Postbyzantine
Monuments. The departure of the cruise was made in Piraeus where an
opening ceremony was organized in the Archaeological Museum of Pi-
raeus, in which modern artists of the School of Fine Arts of the Aristotle
University of Thessaloniki, inspired by the projects Olkas and Limen
displayed 51 works of art in an exhibition dedicated to the sea, under the
title: Ode to the Sea. During the cruise, in every city-port that the cruise
ship arrived (Piraeus, Volos, Chios, Varna, Nesebar, Constanta, Histria,
Istanbul) tours in archaeological sites, monuments, historic places and mu-
seums have been organized by the EKBMM, the Municipality of Varna,
the Museum for National History an Archaeology Constanta, the Istanbul
University and Ko University. The aim of this activity was to function as
a pilot cultural cruise which -under a regular basis- can join city-ports
from Aegean to the Black Sea offering the opportunity to hundreds of
tourists who participate in the cruise to visit archaeological sites, monu-
ments and museums in every port where the cruise stops. If such cultural
cruises will be established, they will function as tools of development for
local communities providing a lot of benefits to the small and medium
enterprises as well.
The IPA partner, Ko University implemented activities in Kkyal
Arkeopark which focus on demonstrating how cultural heritage can be
integrated to the daily life of the area where it is located. Within this frame-
work a lot of cultural activities have been hosted on site, such as concerts,
exhibitions, screening of films, educational games, artisanal markets,
whereas a bike route has been constructed which joins the port with the
archaeological site, as well as pathways which will facilitate the accessibil-
ity of the site.
The project ends, in technical terms, by the end of 2015. A new area
though starts, in which several initiatives are scheduled by the European
Centre for Byzantine and Postbyzantine Monuments as well as by the part-
ners of the Limen projects for the establishment of the new institution
which will promote the cultural character of the city-ports of the Black Sea.
30
PORTUS HARBOUR
in Metaphorical Use 1
Evangelos Chrysos
The greatest thing by far is to be a master of metaphor. It is the one thing that
cannot be learnt from others; and it is also a sign of genius, since a good metaphor
implies an intuitive perception of the similarity of dissimilars.
31
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
32
Portus Harbour in Metaphorcal Use EVANGELOS CHRYSOS
Simplified reconstruction
of Eratosthenes (c. 275 -
194 BC) map of the world,
based on north-south and
east-west lines intersecting
at Rhodes (after, Dilke 1985)
33
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
of oars,/And your mast is wounded life, preserved in the Palatine An- him as a hospitable harbour: O,
by Africus [i.e.African wind]/ and thology: Life is a perilous voyage philosophy, I hastened to your ben-
your sails lament, and without for often we are tempest tossed in efits and for the rest of my life and
girding/scarcely is your hull able to it and are in worse case than ship- decided to escape from storms and
endure/ the mightier ocean?22 wrecked men, and with Fortune at waves and enter into a hospitable
Lifes helm we sail uncertainly as harbour.33 I should add that
On the other hand, Euripides
if on the open sea, some on a fair Sophocles does not seem to trust
summarizes the human experi-
voyage, others the reverse: but all friendship as a reliable support.
ence as follows: Whoever has es-
alike reach one harbour under the Hence his verdict: For the major-
caped a storm at sea is a happy man
earth.27 The same author reach- ity of men, the harbour of friendship
in harbour, whoever overcomes great
es a very pessimistic conclusion: is untrustworthy.34
hardship is likewise another happy
I am beyond of hope and luck,
man.23 Furthermore Sophocles * * *
in Oedipus Rex compares the the fraud can no more cheat me. I
womb of Oedipus mother with have arrived at the harbour.28 In a In Christian thought the im-
an awful harbour: Both of you, shorter, very precise version we age of the harbour in connection
[Oedipus - father and son -] how read: The common harbour for ev- to death attains a new meaning. It
did the same awful harbour manage eryone is Hades.29 Epictetus the becomes the harbour of salvation
to receive you both?24 Similarly, philosopher thought in a similar in the afterlife. Thus for Gregory
Artemidorus Daldianus, second way that death is the harbour.30 of Nazianzus the passing to the
century AD, attaches a personal life beyond death is similar to
On the other hand Philo of
quality to the harbours and calls the entering into a harbour after
Alexandria applies to the har-
them friends and benefactors of a stormy seafaring. In his Funeral
bour the same quality in relation Oration on his Father he wrote:
men.25 to wisdom: For you will find the That transfer and removal thither
In the image of life as a sea- house of wisdom a calm and secure is to us who are tempest-tossed here
faring experience the harbour, haven, which will gladly receive you like a calm haven to men at sea.35
where the journey ends, attains when you are anchored within it.31 In Gregorys Carmen II, 1, 45
religious and symbolical signifi- Similar is his verdict on Virtue: the harbour of death becomes
cance. In the pagan literature it at- And all those who are truly lovers the harbour of Gods kingdom,
tains the image of Hades [the un- of God desire eagerly to escape from which he longs to enter after the
derworld], where the man ends the storm of multiplied affairs and adversities of life: So than you
at the end of his life. Of the death business in which there is always might lead me from hostile and pain-
as a harbour speaks also Seneca: tempestuous weather, and rough ful sufferings to the friendly harbour
For those who sail upon this stormy sea, and confusion, and to anchor in of your kingdom.36
sea, exposed as it is to every gale, the calm and safe untroubled haven
Furthermore a person as pro-
there is no harbour save death.26 of virtue.32
tector is often imagined as the
Even in Late Antiquity, the Lucianus of Samosata in the harbour of the protected. Thus
pagan Palladas (c. 400 AD) second century AD explains John Chrysostom calls the bene-
wrote in his allegory of human how Philosophy was offered to factor Sopatros harbour com-
34
Portus Harbour in Metaphorcal Use EVANGELOS CHRYSOS
mon to the poor.37 In addition, Other writers developed this bring the boat to the hospitable har-
John Chrysostom, remarkably imagery in different sorts of bour of truth.47
in his oration on virginity (!), de- ways. For Isaac of Antioch (fifth
Other synonyms for the har-
scribes marriage as a harbour of century) a monastery is a hav-
bour are the City of the Great
prudence.38 en-limen of sobriety and peaceful-
King, reaching into Gods
ness.41 It is interesting that in realm, the Fatherland, even,
As a matter of fact the image
the Syriac Church nautical im- in Origenes, as the place of res-
of the ship reaching harbour can agery coined the name for the li-
be found in all literatures of East toration
turgical office for Holy Monday , Land of Peace
and West, ancient and modern as in the Passion Week ( or as the , pharus, the
an often appearing metaphor for ). The liturgical office of Lighthouse of Eternity. This is
the successful completion of a that day has the name The ar- interesting because iconographi-
difficult task. This is true also in rival in harbour, for it perceives cally the most common way
oriental literatures, for instance as the entrance to the Holy Week to present the harbour is in the
in the Christian Syriac literature, as the safe harbour.42 form of a lighthouse.48
where we come across quite of-
John Chrysostom praises St. At the southern side of the
ten authors such as Ephrem the
Paul as the hospitable harbour Mediterranean Sea, on the shore
Syrian using the seafaring and
for those in threat: Greetings, o of North Africa, some centuries
harbour metaphors, although
Paul, calm harbour for those who later St. Augustine, bishop of
these persons had probably
are exposed to tempests.43 Fur- Hippo, saw the great middle sea
never seen the sea! Apparently
thermore, John asserts that the as the World where good row-
under the influence of Chris-
life of a woman as a virgin is ers are required. The fact that
tian Greek writers, Ephrem and
freed from any turbulence and sweet water flows into the brine
his fellows in the fourth cen-
likens it to a hospitable harbour gives him in one instance a met-
tury AD adapted to their own
dominated by silence and by aphor for the life of Nature and
use such classical themes as the
calmness of the soul.44 Already of Grace; but his master image
world being the sea and the in- in his oration on the occasion of equates the sea with the life of
tellect the pilot, the ship captain his ordination as presbyter in men, and on this sea the salva-
[ ]. Accord- 386 in Antioch John Chrysostom tion ship of Christ or the Church
ing to Ephrem, life is a voyage compared old age to a hospita- sails: There is danger, it is true, in
where blessed is the person, who ble harbour: When he settles into the sea; but without her there is in-
has directed his ship straight to old age, as into a calm harbour,45 stant perishing. Keep thyself there-
Paradise.39 Here is another ex- while he spoke of youth as a fore in the ship, and pray to God.
ample from Ephrem: Aiming at maddened sea: For youth is like For when all counsels fail, when
the life of the Saints, we should ad- a maddened sea.46 Similar meta- even the rudder is unserviceable,
just our own ship in that direction, phors are employed by Seve- and the very spreading of the sails
so that we can land at the hospitable rianus, bishop of Gabala around is rather dangerous than useful,
harbour and enjoy beyond limits of 400 AD: we, brethren, escaping when all human help and strength
time the inviolate life.40 from the storm of the waves should is gone, there remains only for the
35
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
sailors the earnest cry of entreaty, custom was in constant use for moved to other associations. For
and pouring out of prayer to God. many centuries until modern example, Codex Parisinus Grae-
He then who grants to sailors to times in Greek and in Latin, but cus: The harbour is sweet, but also
reach the haven, shall He so forsake also in Syriac, Arabic and other the end of a book. For both mean rest
His own Church, as not to bring it manuscripts. In a Syriac manu- from the pains.58
on to rest?49 script at St. Catherines Monas-
A colophon in a Georgian
tery on Mount Sinai, dated to
Furthermore in the Greek manuscript among the new
December 543 we find the first
Orthodox Prayer book, in the finds at Sinai (N.2) refers to Si-
appearance of it in a colophon
Supplication canon to the Virgin nai itself as this holy mountain,
- that is a personal final note by
Mary we read the praise: (Vir- the spiritual harbor. 59
the scribe, with which he ex-
gin Mary): you take care of the or-
presses his personal feelings for A colophon in a Russian
phans, support the widows, you are
reaching the end of his endeav- manuscript reads as follows:
sweet bread to those who are hun-
our, the copying of the text: As The merchant rejoices having made
gry, water to those who are thirsty,
the boatman rejoices at the ships a bargain, the helmsman heaving to
joy to those who are sad, you are a
final harbour, thus the scribe too re- in calm water, and the traveler re-
calm harbour for those in peril.50
joices at the last line of the book.54 turning to his native land, so also
Finally in the liturgical ceremo-
The earliest equivalent colophon rejoices the scribe reaching the end
ny for the tonsure of a monk we
in a Latin manuscript, dated in of his books.60
read: who of those who enter this
669, now in the abbey of Luxu-
harbour in need and seeking for help Similar colophons are pre-
eil, reads: Ut nauta gaudet litore
is not saved?51 served also in Arabic manu-
post pontum evectus, ita et scriba
From Georgian Church lit- novissimum versum sulcatum.55 scripts. Adam McCollum cites
erature Adam McCullum cites several, among them the fol-
Among many Greek manu- lowing in Garn: As the sailor
a quotation from the Georgian
scripts with the same or similar [< ] rejoices when his ship
hagiography which refers to a
colophon the oldest is dated in reaches the harbor [< ], so the
martyrs death as following: He
898 AD and reads as follows: scribe rejoices at the last line, that it
departed for the sheltered haven and
As sweet the calm harbour to the
eternal resting place.52 On the oth- remains to him in the book.61
navigators, so the last line for the
er hand, a proverb known in Ar-
scribes.56 In a manuscript dated Hence it is apparent that the
menian about solitaries compares
in 927 we have the following ex- ancient Church developed early
their propensity to desert-dwell-
panded form: As bread is sweet in its literature the metaphori-
ing with a ship seeking port: A
to those who are hungry and to cal rhetoric of the nautical ex-
ship in trouble heads for port, and a
travelers by sea the hospitable har- perience in the Mediterranean
continent soul seeks the desert.53 Sea. Both aspects of seafaring,
bour, so is sweet the last line to the
One of the most interest- scribes.57 In the fifteenth century the delight and the pleasure of
ing metaphors of harbour is as- seafaring was no more as peril- the voyage and the mortal dan-
sociated with the copying and ous as in the past centuries, thus ger of being in the mercy of the
production of manuscripts. The the wording of the colophon had waters provided symbolism ap-
36
Portus Harbour in Metaphorcal Use EVANGELOS CHRYSOS
plicable to the understanding of and gullies; / and from the rocks pleasure. Thus the cruise we be-
the Church, in its ecclesiology of and the waves it preserved me: gan and the conference we have
the harbour as the ultimate ref- / And it became to me a haven of started under the flag of the in-
uge, which served, in accordance Salvation: / and set me on the arms ternational research project on
with its salutary mission and its of immortal life.62 LIMEN will turn the experience
life in the perils of the world of danger and of safety into a
Furthermore the metaphor of
aiming at the harbour of salva- chapter of the history of the past
the boat guided to the harbour
tion, [ - portus and will allow the metaphors of
as the right destination is ap-
salutis], the harbour of eternity, the limen I spoke about to ap-
plied by Eusebius of Caesarea
[ - portus ae- pear in our mind as figurative
in relation to the person of the
ternitatis] and also the harbour of maidens of our long European
emperor Constantine the Great:
paradise, [ - culture.
He himself, as a skillful pilot, sits
portus paradisi]. As perils for the
on high above the steering oars, and
Church, while navigating in the
directs the vessel with unerring
world, were identified with the
course, conducting his people as it
pagan daemons, the heretics and
were with favoring breeze to a se-
the mundane weaknesses due
to fleshly desires and greed of cure and tranquil haven.63
the faithful for things material. Finally, let me add a land-
On the ship of the Church the mark of European wisdom. Ac-
stabilizing factor was the Cross cording to Menander (c. 342/41
in the form of the mast and, of c. 290 BC) for all humans (safe)
course, the governor was Christ harbour is the paideia (education
the Logos, supported by the cler- and culture).64
gy as the serving seamen. Con-
To conclude, the ancient
sequently in liturgical texts the
and medieval experience of the
Cross itself is identified with the
open sea as the domain of perils
safe harbour for those in need:
and risks and of the harbour as
the garden of safety and peace,
.
supported by the correspond-
We also encounter the meta- ing connotations from the Bible
phor of the harbour as the place remained valid until quite re-
of salvation in connection to cently,65 more advanced when
the Truth, here identified with shipping technology allowed
Christ, in the so-called Odes of the building of ships such as our
Solomon where we read: I went Princess Emerald, and any rea-
up to the light of truth as if into a sonable anxiety was removed
chariot / and the Truth took me and from the mind of the passengers
led me: and carried me across pits who are travelling mainly for
37
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
N OTE S 8 Hfen, from Old Norse hfn; related to Dutch haven, Ger-
man Hafen, Oxford Advanced Lerners Dictionary, s.v. haven.
1 It is a profound honor for me to metaphorically hold the key by address-
ing this very extraordinary symposium on board. I owe this honor to the 9 http://www.safehaven.com/
generosity of my friends on the Scientific Board of the project LIMEN. 10 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yivDxlunHec. For further mod-
2 The Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary offers the following cur- ern applications of the metaphor see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
rent uses of the harbour metaphor: The wood is a haven for wildlife / Safe_harbor.
They were living in a safe haven away from the fighting / This house 11 Lesky 1947.
is a haven of peace compared with ours / The hotel is a haven of peace 12 Parker 1992.
and tranquility / We have a duty to offer a safe haven to all refugees.
13 Ahrweiler 1996.
3 My wish to widen the horizon and include examples of metaphors
from the Phoenician and the Punic languages through the support 14 Horden and Purcell 2000. The two authors went further into estab-
of specialists in those languages did not provide any results. Profes- lishing an autarchic discipline under the name Thalassology. Cf.
sor Wolfgang Rllig, Tbingen University, responded collegially to Horden and Purcell 2006, 722-740. See further Abulafia 2005, 6493.
my request and informed me that unsere Kenntnis des Phnizischen All this scholarship is under the flag of the classic by Braudel 1976.
ist leider noch immer sehr unbefriedigend, da es aus vielen Lebensbereichen 15 Phaedo, 109b:
praktisch keine Texte gibt, selbst ber so zentrale Bereiche wie z.B. die . The simile has been wisely used as a title
Schifffahrt und alles, was damit zusammenhngt, so dass wir hufig auf by Horden and Purcell 2000 and Amelia R. Brown in her ongoing
das Hebrische zurckgreifen, das einen viel reicheren Wortschatz hat und project Like frogs around a pond: Maritime Religion and Seafaring
dem Phnizischen sehr nahe stand. Dort gibt es ein Wort /machoz, /das Gods of Ancient Greek Culture.
gern mit Hafen(stadt) bersetzt wird und ein Pendant im Akkadischen 16 However the word is first attested by Isidore of Seville in his Ety-
hat: /machazu /was etwa Markt- und Kultstadt bedeutet. Dafr hat Frau mologies, 13, 16,1: Mare Magnum est quod ab occasu ex Oceano fluit
M.G. Guzzo Amadasi einmal einen Aufsatz geschrieben, in dem sie dieses et in meridiem vergit, deinde ad septentrionem tendit; quod inde
Wort als Hafen auch fr das Phnizische glaubt nachweisen zu knnen. magnum appellatur quia cetera maria in conparatione eius minora
Jedenfalls gibt es im Punischen mchz mit der Bedeutung Marktplatz. Im sunt. Iste est et Mediterraneus, quia per mediam terram usque ad
Hebrischen gibt es darber hinaus noch /miprasz /fr Einschnitt, Bu- orientem perfunditur, Europam et Africam Asiamque disterminans.
cht, Hafen [email 16.09.2015]. Interestingly, in the Oxford English- [Translation by Stephen A. Barney and others, Cambridge 2006, 277:
Phoenician Dictionary we see that the word haven is translated The Mediterranean Sea (De mediterraneo mari) 1. The Great Sea is
with refuge <https://glosbe.com/en/phn/haven>. the one that flows from the Ocean out of the west, turns to the south,
4 The Thesaurus Linguae Graecae provides a numerous collection of and finally stretches to the north. It is called great because the other
quotations for , many of them in metaphorical use. On the seas are smaller in comparison with it. This is also called the Medi-
other hand the topic of metaphorical use has been addressed so far terranean because it flows through the middle of the land (media
from several angles. The following studies have been of particu- terrae) all the way to the East, separating Europe, Africa, and Asia].
lar interest in evaluating the relevant quotations: Kahlmeyer 1934. 17 In accordance to this concept see: Strabo, Geography, 2. 5. 17, who
Bonner 1941, 49-67. Rahner 1954, 239-264. Lorenz 1973, 234-41. noticed that most of all it is the sea that delineates precisely the layout of
Treu 1977, 473-492. Schlimme 1986, 297-305. Brock 1995, 195-202. the land.
I owe to Sebastian Brock the reference to the paper of McCollum
18 Lindenlauf 2004, 416-433.
2015, 67-93. I thank Dr Katharina Brandt of the German Archaeo-
logical Institute in Athens for her help in covering bibliographical 19 Protagoras (338a): ,
needs. McCollum 2015, 72 refers to texts in Akkadian, that exhibit .
the harbour (kru, also port trading station [Sumerian kar]) as 20 Aeschylus, / Suppliant Maidens 470/71:
a desired place of safety and consequently he asserts that even in /
Akkadian texts despite the fact that phrases like on the day when / , / .
Aur lets you arrive safely at the trading station certainly have a
21 The classical reference to the ship of state and the right captain is in
literal meaning, it is not difficult to go from there to a figurative
Platos Republic, VI, 488c.
meaning of the same, in which the harbour becomes an emblem of
rest and security. 22 O Horace, Ode I 14: navis, referent in mare te novi/fluctus. o quid agis?
fortiter occupa/portum. nonne vides, ut/nudum remigio latus/ et malus
5 http://www.wordreference.com/definition/harbour. Hans Eideneier,
celeri saucius Africo/antemnaeque gemant ac sine funibus/vix durare cari-
Hamburg University, refers wisely to the fact that the word
nae/possint imperiosius/ aequor?
etymologically derives from the word (prairie, meadow),
which in the perception of the Greek landscape signifies always an 23 Euripides, Bacchae, 902 sq.
attractive place. Cf. also Babiniotis 2009, s.v. . , : .
6 Synonyms: dock, haven, marina, dockyard, boatyard, mooring, an- 24 Oedipus Rex (1208):
chorage, roads, waterfront; jetty, quay, pier, slipway, wharf, landing .
stage; rare: harbourage, moorage, roadstead, hither: <http://www. 25 Oneirokritikon, 2,23: .
oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english-thesaurus/harbour> 26 Seneca, Consolatio ad Polybium 9, 6 sq.: In hoc tam procelloso et ad
7 Synonyms: refuge, haven, safe haven, shelter, sanctuary, retreat, asy- omnes tempestates exposito mari navigantibus nullus portus nisi mortis
lum, place of safety, place of security, port in a storm, oasis, sanctum. est.
38
Portus Harbour in Metaphorcal Use EVANGELOS CHRYSOS
39
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
RE FE RE N C E S Rahner, H., 1954. Symbole der Kirche, Die Ekklesiologie der Vter. Salzburg
Abeean, M. and S. Yarowtiwnean, S., 1913. Movsisi Xorenacwoy Rcker, A., 1923. Die Ankunft im Hafen des syrisch-jakobitischen
Patmowtiwn Hayoc. Tbilisi Festrituals und verwandte Riten. Jahrbuch fr Liturgiewissenschft
3:78-92
Abulafia, D., 2011. Mediterraneans. In Rethinking the Mediterranean,
edited by W.V.Harris, 6493. Oxford Schlimme, L., 1986. Art. Hafen. Reallexicon fr Antike und Christentum
13: 297-305.
Ahrweiler, H., 1966. Byzance et la mer. Paris
Thomson, R.W., 1978. History of the Armenians, [Harvard Armenian Texts
Aleksidze, Z., Shanidze, M., Khevsuriani, L., and Kavtaria, M., 2005. and Studies 4]. Cambridge, Mass. and London.
Catalogue of Georgian Manuscripts Discovered in 1975 at St.
Catherines Monastery on Mt. Sinai. Athens Treu, K., 1977. Der Schreiber am Ziel. Zu den Versen
und hnlichen. In Studia Codicologica edited by K.
Babiniotis, B., 2009. . Athens Treu. 473-492. Berlin
Bonner, C., 1941. Desired Haven. Harvard Theological Review 34 : 49-67 Vinokur, G.O, 1971. The Russian Language: A Brief History, translated by
M.A. Forsyth, edited by J. Forsyth. Cambridge.
Braudel, F., 1976. The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the
Age of Philip II, 2nd ed. trans. Sin Reynolds, 2 vols. New York. Wachsmuth, C., ed., 1882. Gnomologium Byzantinum. Berlin
Brock, S., 1995. The scribe reaches harbor. Byzantinische Forschungen
21: 195-202 [reprinted as ch. 16 of From Ephrem to Romanos
(Aldershot, 1999)]
Hambye, E., 1974. The Symbol of the coming to the harbour in the
Syriac tradition. Symposium Syriacum 1972: 400-411 [Orientalia
Christiana Analecta]. Rome
Horden, P., and Nicholas Purcell N., 2006. The Mediterranean and the
New Thalassology. Americal Historical Review 110: 722-740
Kahlmeyer, J., 1934. Seesturm und Schiffbruch als Bild im antiken Schrifttum.
Greifswald
Lesky, A., 1947. Thalatta: Der Weg der Griechen zum Meer. Vienna
Lorenz, B., 1973. Zur Seefahrt des Lebens in den Gedichten des Gregor
von Nazianz. Vigiliae Christianae 33: 234-41
McCollum, A., 2015. The rejoicing sailor and the rotting hand:
Two formulas in Syriac and Arabic colophons with related
phenomenain some other languages. In Hugoye: Journal of
Syriac Studies, 18.1: 67-93.
Parker, A.J., 1992. Ancient Shipwrecks of the Mediterranean and the Roman
Provinces [BAR International Series 580]. Oxford: Tempus
Reparatum
Peterson, E., 1950. Das Schiff als Symbol der Kirche in der Eschatologie:
Die Tat des Messias im eschatologischen Meeressturm in der
jdischen und altchristlichen berlieferung, Theologische
Zeitschrift 6: 77-79
40
Presentations of Medieval Ships in
the Art of the Black Sea Region
Elena Kosti
This paper aims to study the 1840, when one of the first ship-
types of medieval ships based building texts by Auguste Jal
on several kinds of art such as was published.2 It is a copy of
frescos and icons from the Black part of a manuscript by Michael
Sea region. The present paper of Rhodes (Michalli da Rudo), as
does not aim to study every sep- it is known today, which among
ABSTRACT arate case but to discuss the mat- others includes texts about ship-
This paper discusses types of ter and present an extra source building accompanied by elabo-
ships depicted in the Byzantine and of information as to medieval rate illustrations.3
post-Byzantine frescoes and icons, shipbuilding.
A lot of information was
which originated from the southern The work of Edmund Dum- gathered from archaeological
and western shores of the Black Sea. mer (1651 1713)1, English ship- investigations of shipwrecks,
From the cases discussed, arise the builder and naval engineer, who which begun at the 60s, near the
first conclusions on the typology of was commissioned by the Royal coast of Asia Minor, in Sere Li-
ships, painters inspiration sources family to travel to the Mediterra- man4 and in Bozburun5, as well
and the role of ships in these specific nean in order to survey the local as the excavation in Yenikap6, at
works of art. As comparative shipbuilding and port facilities, the port of Theodosius, where 37
material, are used old drawings has contributed to the study of byzantine shipwrecks have been
and plans of known types of ships Greek ships. His survey result- found and the results of which
which were in use at the time that ed to a manuscript, in which 24 are expected with eagerness.
the examined paintings are dated, types of ships are described, ac-
Another, more used source
as well as painted works of art from companied by a series of excel-
for studying medieval ship-
the other, inland regions, dated in lent illustrations, which allowed
building is the graffiti of ships
the same period. On the basis of this the identification of complex
which are to be found not only
examination, interesting conclusions types of ships in this paper.
in monuments of the Mediter-
on the realistic or not depiction of Medieval shipbuilding was ranean basin and the Black Sea,
the ships in art come up. studied more consistently after but also outside Europe. Al-
41
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
ready, since 1972, Dr. Otto Mei- rus, are scratched by shipmen or without oars at all. The first boat
nardus, in his article, when try- by their relatives as votive offer- has a distinctive round shape
ing to identify types of ships in ings for safe navigation or pros- and is extremely small; seem-
a large number of graffiti, has perous trading10 and according ingly it cannot fit more than one
stressed the need to group ships to Bryer are linked to the dedi- more passenger. It is a small
in Mediterranean and Black Sea cation of ships in Saints, either fishing boat, which could not
ships, based on different types general or before an important be more than a few meters long.
of navigation.7 trip.11 However, they maintain a The second boat seems similar.
religious character. It is longer and has got no oars.
The shipbuilding of the Black
On the contrary, wall paint- It is undoubtedly powered by
Sea Region is depicted at the
ings and icons are created by art- oars, but they are not depicted.
graffiti of Saint Sofia8, which are
ists, either professional or not, Both boats are depicted with the
more than 100, of Saint Evge-
who usually are very observant characteristics of the round
nios (Yeni Cuma Camii) and of
and can depict what they see re- ships of the 13th century, such as
Panagia Chrysocephalos Church
alistically. However, one should low hulls and high curved bow
(Ortahisar or Fatih Camii) in
always bear in mind the factor of and stern (Fig. 1).
Trabzon but also in Panagia
artistic freedom, which does The next four examples were
Theoskepastos Church in Boz-
not always allows prototypes to found at the church of Saint Ste-
tepe as well as at the Panagia
be depicted faithfully. This pa- fanos or the New Metropolis of
Soumela Monastery at Maka.
per discussed some cases com- Nesebar. We can trace the paint-
At those monuments the graf-
ing exclusively from cities-ports ings of Saint Stefanos in 1599,
fiti are scratched both to the ex-
in the Black Sea, in order to in- based on the dedicatory inscrip-
ternal walls of their arches and
crease the odds that the artists tion. Four ships are depicted in
inside at the painted surfaces.
were native, had immediate con- three scenes of the Christological
Graffiti have been also record-
tact to the sea and the boats, or Cycle. In the first scene two row-
ed at the Church of Saint Sofia
that at least have stayed at some ing ships of the same type but of
in Istanbul, in Kilise Mescidi in
time at the places of origin of the different size are depicted. There
Amasra and in various churches
artworks. are low hull boats with slightly
at the western coast of the Black
Sea, in Bulgaria. The graffiti of The first examples of ships high bow and stern. The thin
depiction that are presented oars that are held by the pas-
the churches of Nesebar have
come from the frescoes of the sengers only in one hand are
been studied extensively by N.
Church of Saint Sofia in Trab- also characteristic. The other two
D. Ovarov.9
zon, excellent specimen of art ships are sailing vessels. The first
The depictions of ships in of the era of Komnenos dating of them, depicted in the scene of
graffiti are amateur efforts to back to the 13th century.12 There the Multiplication of the fishes,
render the shape of the medieval are two depictions of the Chris- is a typical round ship with
and late medieval ships and can- tological Cycles, showing two a rather small mast for its size
not be characterized as works of small rowing boats, one with and a gathered sail. It is a fishing
art as, according to O. Meinda- two pairs of oars and the other boat, which can accommodate no
42
Presentations of Medieval Ships in the Art of the Black Sea Region ELENA KOSTI
more than six people. The bow astasia the Pharmakolytria13, Fig 1. Turkey. Trebizond.
Church of St. Sophia. Wall
and the stern do not seem to dif- placed at the monastery with painting. 13th c.
fer in the stylized representation, the same name at the little is-
making thus the hull to look like land in the gulf of Burgas, has
a nutshell. Obviously, the pro- painted two ships at the scenes
portions of the hull and the sail from her life, depicted on both
do not correspond with reality; sides of the central theme. One
they just serve the needs of the is a larger masted ship and the
scene. The second ship with the other a smaller, painted only
round hull and a lateen is more half and has got three oars. The
realistically depicted (Fig. 2). bigger ship can be identified as
The painter Demetrios (1781 a tartan. Tartan from the sec-
-1800) at the icon of Saint An- ond part of the 17th century was
43
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Fig 2. Bulgaria. Nesebar. used as a fishing boat or rarely The same painter painted
Church of St. Stephanos
(New Metropolis).
as a trading ship or as a small the icon of Saint Nikolaos with
Wall painting. 1599. sized galley with a single mast scenes from his life14, for the
and a triangular sail (lateen), a church of Theotokos in Sozopol.
short long hull, a fantail stern At the lower part of the icon,
and a big rudder. The smaller where the scenes of the life of
boat is depicted half and is a the Saint are depicted, Deme-
small rowing boat with a short trios has painted two ships. The
hull, beak at its bow and three first has a large mast with two
thin oars fasted at the hull, since open square sails and a smaller
there are no passengers. The lateen at the mast of the stern.
rope in which the anchor is pos- Both ends are raised and the
sibly tied can be seen from the ship looks like a half moon. At
bow (Fig. 3). the stern the keel as well as an
44
Presentations of Medieval Ships in the Art of the Black Sea Region ELENA KOSTI
45
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
46
Presentations of Medieval Ships in the Art of the Black Sea Region ELENA KOSTI
47
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Storm. Ships can also be found bia and the mainland of Russia, and Venice26. In those areas as
in scenes of miracles performed there are but the typical ships, well as in the coast of the Black
by Archangels and saints more forms are depicted stylized and Sea, we come across both the sim-
rarely though, such as Saint Gali- sometimes let us believe that the ple types of merchant and fishing
ni, Saint Anastasia, Saint Pan- painter only knew the simplest ships and the more sophisticated
teleimon etc. The comparative vessels. At those areas, two types ones, which follow the progress
study of the icons discussed in of ships prevail. The first is a sim- of shipbuilding (Fig. 14 -15).
this paper with other cases from ple ship, consisting of a wooden
From the cases discussed, it
other regions allows us to con- hull and two or more oars (Fig.
12). The second type is more de- can be concluded that mostly
clude that there are local charac-
veloped and has got a single mast small, slow moving ships that sail
teristics. Especially in areas far
and a lateen (Fig. 13). In both near the shores are more popular.
from sea such as medieval Ser-
cases these are either fishing or Those ships can be grouped in
small trading ships, which could two categories, based on the sails
be explained as the mainland did or their absence. Painters seem to
not had access at sea and there- opt for sailing ships, which are
fore painters could not have seen always depicted without oars.
how ships looked like. On the Depicted ships serve always the
contrary, in coastal areas paint- needs of the scene while only in
ings seems to represent originals one case they are depicted realis-
Fig 13. Serbia. Patriarchate of Pe.
Wall painting. 1674. St. Demetrios and realistically, as it is proven by ex- tically, when they are offerings to
St. Menas, detail. 1844. amples from Athos24, Albania25 Saint Nikolaos, as it is the case in
48
Presentations of Medieval Ships in the Art of the Black Sea Region ELENA KOSTI
the icon of Sozopolis. The paint- ed after the 17th century that are Fig 14. Albania. Moschopolis.
er, Demetrios of Sozopol, was a found in icons painted in coastal Icon of St. Demetrios, detail. 1725
native of the area and we can be areas, efforts had been made to
almost certain that he had knowl- depict them more realistically.
edge of the brigs he painted and Now, their inspiration sources
that he was generally accus- can be traced, which could have
tomed to the types of ships that not been others than real ships
crossed the Black Sea. that the artists saw to sail in the
Finally, another parameter seas of their own area. During
to be considered when we are the 18th century iconography is
talking about representation of enriched with the introduction
ships is the period in which the of more types of ships and we
painting has been created. It is understand that they tried to
obvious, based on the historical depict the ships accessories and
classification of depictions that components. During the 18th and Fig 15. Venice. Church of San Marco.
Byzantine Art did not represent 19th century ships are painted Chapel of St. Isidor. Mosaic. 14th c.
49
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
N OTE S RE FE RE N CE S
1 Dummer 1685, see the description of 24 sorts of vessels. Basch, L. 2009. Reflections on the Graffiti of Haghia Sophia at Trebizond
2 Jal 1840. (Trabzon), Turkey. In Between Continents, Proceedings of the
Twelfth Symposium on Boat and Ship Archaeology, edited by N.
3 Indicatively for the manuscript see: Long 2009
Gnsenin, 165-9. Istanbul
4 Bass 1978, 119-132; Van Doorning 2006, 715 - 23.
Bass, D. and Van Doorning F. H. Jr. 1978. An 11th century Shipwreck
5 Hocker 2009, 3-8; Harpster 2009, 297 - 313
at Sere Limani. Turkey, IJNA 7: 119-132
6 For the excavations at Yenikap see: Kocaba 2014, 26-41; Pulak 2014,
8-25. Bryer, A. 1980. Shipping in the empire of Trebizond, The Mariners
Mirror 52, 1966(= Id., The empire of Trebizond and the Pontos,
7 Meindarus 1970/2, 29-52, pl. 15-18.
Variorum Reprints [London 1980] (CS117) VIII) 3-12.
8 Bryer 1980, 3-12. Pl. 5; Talbot-Rice 1968, 248-51.
Damianidis, K. and Delis, A. 2014. , , ,
9 Ovcharov 1977, 59-61; Ovcharov 2000/1, 9-27.
, , . In .
10 Meindarus 1970/2, 29-52, pl.15. , edited by K. Damianidis, 300-315. Athens.
11 Bryer 1980, 3 -12. Damianidis, K.A. 2009. Byzantine Ship Grafiti in the Kilise Mescidi
12 I would like to thank Dr. Flora Karagianni for the photos from her per- of Amasra. In Between Continents, Proceedings of the Twelth
sonal archive. Symposium on Boat and Ship Archaeology, edited by N.
13 Mutafov 2008, 168, fig.68. Gnsenin, 135-139. Istanbul
25 For representations of ships from Venice see: Tselenti-Papadopoulou Hiera Moni Hagiou Dionysiou. 2003: .
2002, pl. 68-69 etc. Mount Athos.
26 For representations of ships in Albania see: Tourta 2006, 37, 129; Giak- Hocker, F. M. 2009. The Byzantine Shipwreck at Bozburun, Turkey, INA
oumis 2015, fig. 1.2.1. etc. Quarterly 22/4: 3-8.
Kouroudis, Y., ed. 1998. Icons of the Holy Monastery of Pantokrator, Mount
Athos
50
Presentations of Medieval Ships in the Art of the Black Sea Region ELENA KOSTI
evenko N.P. 1983. The life of Saint Nicolas in Byzantine Art. Torino
Tourta, A., ed. 2011. Icons from Thracian Coast of the Black Sea in Bulgaria.
Athens.
51
Observations on the Fortifications
of the Late-Byzantine Cities of the
North Aegean Coast
S t a v r o u l a D a d a ke
53
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Fig 1. The Northern Aegean In total, we can safely locate architectural elements, such as
Coast and the late byzantine
twelve towers, six of which are steps, a balk-walk or bastions,
fortified cities.
related to gates. They are gen- are preserved. At the interior
erally rectangular with few of the west side of the fortifi-
exceptions (Tower 2). Most of cation, traces of pillars can be
them have an interior space discerned. The pillars, via the
(Towers 2, 6, 9, 10, 11, 12 and 13) arcade they supported, prob-
but there are also solid towers ably created a wide area for the
(Towers 3, 5, 7 and 8). No other bulk-walk (Fig. 3).
Fig 2. Chrysoposis.
Plan of the fortification.
54
Observations on the Fortifications of the Late-Byzantine Cities of the North Aegean Coast S. DADAKE
55
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Fig 4. Anaktoropolis.
Aerial View
There are three gates preserved: modern times, was founded on ers, quadrilateral in their major-
the west, which was probably the rocky peninsula of Panaghia, ity, are more densely arranged
the main one, the north which a fact which defined the shape at the inland part of the walls
opened towards the sea, and the of the fortification8. The longest (Fig. 8). Although what we see
south gate. There was perhaps part of the fortification is by today belongs to later building
one more at the east side. the sea with the walls rising on interventions, the remains of the
The main building method, the edge of the peninsula rock, older building phases testify to
which incorporates more an- which is the main reason there the longevity of its ground plan
cient phases, belongs to the pe- are so few towers. The inland (Fig. 9).
riod of Palaeologoi, a dating walls connect the two parts of Polystylon succeeded the
which is in accordance with a the coastal wall at the neck of ancient city of Abdera9. It was
recent reading of an inscription the peninsula (Fig. 7). An inter- limited to a low hill next to the
which places the restoration of nal wall formed the acropolis. ancient port which is consid-
the fortification during the pe- Five out of the seven discovered ered the acropolis of the ancient
riod of Andronikos the Third7 gates are located at the inland town. The circuit follows the
(Fig. 6). part of the walls. They are all outline of the hill forming an
Ancient Neapolis, known as simple openings on the walls, irregular shape (Fig. 10). The
Christoupolis during the Byz- which, at a later date, were north-western side which was
antine period and as Kavala in decorated with arches. The tow- more vulnerable was fortified
56
Observations on the Fortifications of the Late-Byzantine Cities of the North Aegean Coast S. DADAKE
with a forewall. Two transverse The tower which is situated Fig 5. Anaktoropolis. The interior
face of the North Wall. Restored
walls intersected the city along in the middle of the transverse
parapet of the wall-walk.
its entire width. The eastern- wall dividing the acropolis pres-
most of these walls formed the ents us with special interest. Due
byzantine acropolis while the to its size it can be considered to
other one divided the city in two have been used as a donjon. The
parts. The central gate is opened characteristic use of plinths at its
at the north-western side. joints dates the fortification to
the period of Palaeologoi and it
Of the towers which rein-
is possibly associated with the
forced the fortification, we can
restoration work done by Ioan-
still distinguish the ground plan
nis Kantakouzenos, as the liter-
of four of them; while one more
ary sources testify10.
is suggested at the connection
point between the acropolis Peritheorion, as is known
walls and the north part of the from the late byzantine sourc-
fortification. All surviving tow- es, is the early Christian city
ers are quadrilateral with inte- of Anastasioupolis which was
rior spaces. founded by emperor Anasta-
57
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Fig 6. Anaktoropolis.
Vertical Joint between two
masonries. To the left, banded
masonry of Late Roman
period, to the right, typical
palaeologan masonry with
bricks between the joints
58
Observations on the Fortifications of the Late-Byzantine Cities of the North Aegean Coast S. DADAKE
sios, according to the literary blind arches, where the bulk- relatively sparsely. The donjon
sources. The fortification has walk was situated11. of the north-western corner is
the shape of an irregular hexa- very distinguishable (Fig. 14).
Byzantine Maroneia is lim-
gon (Fig. 11). Only few courtins The main phase of the fortifica-
ited to the southernmost coastal
remain, while some of the tow- tion is considered to be dated to
area of the huge expanse occu-
ers are better preserved. The the period of Komnenoi, a date
pied by the ancient city12. The
majority of them are quadri- which is in accordance with the
irregular trapezoid form of the
lateral. There is also a circular excavation data from the city in-
fortification was enforced main-
one. The only confirmed gate terior. The city appears to have
ly by the natural boundaries
opens to the south side, facing been deserted by the beginning
(Fig. 13). A forewall reinforced
the lake. It is a simple opening of the thirteenth century.
the north more vulnerable side.
in the width of the walls with The only preserved gate opens The fortifications we have
an arched lintel, which is exter- at the northwest corner, where discussed above have more or
nally flanked by two quadrilat- the city was accessible by the less much in common with the
eral towers (Fig. 12). Of special land roads. The towers are fortifications of the inland cities.
interest is the elevation of the quadrilateral, except from a cir- They are common constructions
walls with the construction of cular one, and they are arranged without large dimensions, with-
59
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Fig 8. Christopolis. The Land Walls, Tower. Fig 9. Christopolis. Curtain wall with earlier face in the foreground.
out any distinguished features or isolated towers guarding the The city, in turn, was undivided
and without any novelties pres- ports and rendering protection or in some cases divided in two
ent. Remnants of constructions against a possible attack from parts (Anaktoroupolis, Polysty-
which project from the walls are the sea more effective, are ab- lon, Maroneia). Also testified is
considered to be piers whose sent. the use of a donjon, an element
form and function escapes us All cities, with the exception which characterizes the late byz-
due to the fact that they have not of Anaktoroupolis, present the antine fortifications (cases of
been properly excavated yet. We common for the middle and late Chrysopolis, Anaktoroupolis,
note, however, that construc- Byzantine period, division be- Polystylon, Maroneia). The byz-
tions of special defensive use tween city (polis) and acropolis. antine phase of the donjon at the
60
Observations on the Fortifications of the Late-Byzantine Cities of the North Aegean Coast S. DADAKE
61
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
62
Observations on the Fortifications of the Late-Byzantine Cities of the North Aegean Coast S. DADAKE
and they are flanked by quad- istic of the late roman fortifica- and through but instead they
rilateral towers. At Chrysopolis tions, is also attested to almost are limited to the depth of two
and at the interior of the Poly- all late byzantine fortifications rows of bricks. The influence
stylon walls, the gate opened in of the area between Thessalon- of the capital and the co-capital
between two strong projections iki and Constantinople13. The cities seems to have been strong
of the walls, forming thus a main difference lies in the fact and timeless.
more elaborate shape. The deco- that the latter are not through
rative additions are limited to
small arches with brick decora-
tive designs, brick inscriptions,
or decorative use of spolia (Fig.
15). Most commonly these are
observed close to the gates or
towers.
In regards to the building
method, the use of bricks in be-
tween the joints as well as rows
of bricks is dominant (Fig. 16). Fig 15. Anaktoropolis.
North walls. Arch
The so called opus mixtum filled with decorative
technique, although character- patterns.
63
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
N OTE S RE FE RE N CE S
1 For a short introduction of these fortified sites see: Dadake 2013. Asdracha, C. 1976. La rgion des Rhodopes aux XIIIe et XIVe sicles. tude de
2 For the cities of the Late Byzantine period in the region see: Lemerle geographie historique. Athens.
1945, 69-112 113-240; Asdracha 1976, 93-137, 173-179; 6 1991, in- Bobtchev, S.N. 1961. Le parment aras dans les constructions romaines
cludes all the earlier bibliography. Tsoures 2012, 561-87. et byzantines de la premire priode , Bulletin de Institut
3 Dunn 1999, 399413. Archologie 24:153-202
4 soures 1998, 387454. Dadaki, St., S. Doukata, I. Elliadis and M. Lychounas. 2013.
5 Kakoures 1980, 2602. ...
6 Papazoglou 1988. . In: Medieval Ports
in North Aegean and Black Sea. Links to the Maritime Routes of
7 Zekos 2008, 19-29. The East, Proceedings of the International Symposium, edited
8 soures 1998, 387454. by F. Karagianni. (Thessalonike, 4-6 December 2013), 211-22.
9 Zekos 2002. Thessalonike
Kakoures, I. 1980. A. I
. In A :
. (Kavala, 1820 april 1977). 260-2,
Thessalonike
Tsoures, K. 2012.
9 15 . In
, (Chios,
26-28 September 2008), 561-87. Chios.
64
Travel, Drink and Be Merry.
Port and Wine in Byzantine Aegean
and the Black Sea. Past and Realities
Michalis Lychounas
ABSTRACT
This paper explores in a short and wine making in the region,
overview the rich Byzantine wine which themselves are informative
culture in the region of the north of political and socio-economic
Aegean coast and the west coast of developments in the responding
the Black Sea (as that was visited countries. From this presentation,
during the on-board symposium). it becomes clear that the current
It approaches wine as a commodity situation in wine making can
circulating in the ports of this and should contribute to the
region carrying along vast luggage enhancement of the image of the
of agricultural, commercial, region as a cultural destination
political and cultural nature. and hopefully assist the process
Yet, as LIMEN is a project of re-enacting long standing,
of cultural tourism, the paper but recently disturbed networks
also included a presentation, between the ports of the regions,
fragmentary and brief though although giant international cruise
it may be, on the current liner might not be the best medium
developments in viniculture to facilitate that.
65
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
The topic of ports has been commercial activities. What was cussed by late Angeliki Laiou.10
rather attractive in the recent loaded and unloaded in the ves- The technology employed for
times. In particular in our part sels reaching or leaving these the tendering of the plants was
of the world, the Eastern Medi- ports? There are non perishable virtually the same till the intro-
terranean and the Black Sea it artifacts, such as glazed pottery duction of mechanization, al-
has been dealt with in many (an article, by Ms Manolova - though the depiction of tools in
eras as it affects a number of Voykova does exist in the vol- manuscripts raises the question
issues. A very good example is ume6), which are documented in of their authenticity, with the
the volume Cities of the Medi- the well known pattern of style illuminations of the Geoponika
terranean, edited by Biray and material dissemination as a being in the focus.11 Issues con-
Kolluoglu and Meltem Toksz sign of commercial and cultural cerning major wine producers,
dealing with ports in the late ties. There is hardly anything mainly big monasteries have
Ottoman era.1 In the Mediae- on the perishable goods traded also been addressed in papers,
val World the projects of Olkas2 in the ports of Byzantium, with although the impression created
and that of the Vienna Institute the exception of the facilities of by the much later huge installa-
of Byzantine Studies3 reveal the city port of Thessaloniki.7 tions in monasteries, such as the
the interest in that aspect of the Yet, there again, the archeologi- monastery of St. John Prodro-
Byzantine culture. The sensa- cal approach of the architectural mos, the Forerunner near Serres
tional excavation of the Theo- remains prevail. might be misleading.12 Spe-
dosian port during the con- In this paper, I will try to cial attention has been paid to
struction of the mass transport sketch the ports as getaways of the pottery containers (of wine
system of Istanbul has elevated a rather precious commodity of among other things).
the interest of both experts and the time, wine and present an The monastic documents
laymen alike.4 application of its current culture mainly those of Mount Athos are
In our contribution to the as part of the concept of cultural full of references to vineyards,
volume of Olkas we wrote about port or cultural tourism. especially in the area of northern
the fortified ports from Mount The bibliography on vine- Greece. Few cases of industrial
Athos to the Straits.5 The de- yards and wine making in the facilities though from the Byzan-
scription was mainly archaeo- Byzantine era is very rich.8 We tine era are preserved, the most
logical and historical and fo- do have both, literary and non- common one being the wine
cused on the military aspect of literary written sources, while presses. A good example of the
the construction dealing with research in the field of economic Late Roman is to be found in the
them as fortifications and also history proves that the value of vicinity of Philippi in Kefalari.13
on the several phases of them on the land dedicated to vineyards A number of wine presses from
the basis of the masonry chang- was worth three times as much Chalkidiki has been published
es. In browsing the volume, I as the regular agricultural land.9 by I. Papaggelos,14 where the
noticed that despite the richness The socioeconomic aspect of the issue of dating on the basis of
of information there is very little industry, as a rather egalitarian context has been raised. Finally
on the very essence of a port, its activity has already been dis- in the same area, the case of Ma-
66
Port and Wine in Byzantine Aegean and the Black Sea. Past and Realities MICHALIS LYCHOUNAS
roneia is quite interesting. The at encouraging cultural tourism region by business people from
wine presses found on mount in the Aegean and the Black Sea, other business fields, mainly
Ismarion15 and those attached I think that presenting you with the marble industry.22 The area
on the outer facade of the fortifi- a number of manuscript illumi- proved extremely hospitable to
cation are an excellent case of an nations,18 all very well known, both Greek and international
industrial tradition that might or photos and drawings of ves- varieties and unique and prize-
touch the Homeric tradition of sels either amphorae, pythoi or winning wines have come to the
the sweet wine of Polyphemos magarika would seem redun- market. Thrace is a late comer,
till the Byzantine one. The case dant.19 If wine culture is to be in- but very promising region, re-
of Maroneia is of additional in- corporated into cultural tourism viving its Homeric tradition, as
terest, as we have inscriptions on and contribute to the establish- already mentioned.23 The win-
shreds of pottery indicating that ment of some sort of a Cultural eries and their vineyards have
they were containers for another Port institution, here is a first, transformed the landscape in
wine by product, vinegar.16 brief, rudimentary and therefore many cases and more and more
superficial presentation, hope- frequently wine itineraries and
Yet, although we have a
fully to be part of cruises such as open door days are organized.24
small number of names from
written sources concerning the this. As the Municipality of Ka- The Turkish part of Thrace
varieties of grapes grown in the vala is a partner of Limen Proj- is another interesting example
Byzantine times, along with the ect and this cruise will call only of the blooming of wine mak-
their place of origin, and we at western Black Sea ports I will ing in Turkey. The region was
know from sources, such as De focus on wine making develop- known as a wine making centre
ceremoniis for the highly appre- ments in these regions, without for ages.25 In the so-called Gano-
ciated wine of Chios, Thasos, discarding at all the wine pro- chora, in the foothills of the ma-
or the famous malvasia from duction of other partner coun- jor monastic centre of Ieron Oros
Monemvasia17, no palaiobotano- ties, such as Armenia or Geor- (Holy Mountain) wine was pro-
logical work has been conducted gia. Anyway, with the latter we duced to be sold in Istanbul, in
to my knowledge, according to are in an weird competition con- the so-called Krasoskala (wine-
which we will be able to identify cerning the earliest wine making trading dock)26, in Karaky by
that vine varieties, among others example, between the Neolithic members of the same families or
with those we tend to consider settlement of Dikili Tas20 and a the same communities. One of
indigenous. In other words, are cave in Georgia21! them was my great grandfather,
the so-called indigenous Tha- In any case, instead of Byzan- Georgios Nasos from Myriofy-
sian varieties the same that pro- tine wines I will move on to the ton.27
duced wine in the Byzantine pe- current situation. Starting from A new wave of Turkish
riod or not?
the region of Eastern Macedo- wine enthusiasts have revived
As these questions cannot nia and Thrace we have a range the century-old traditions and
be answered and the current of new wineries, which revived produce good quality wine28
project Limen is not another a tradition lost in the Ottoman through a combination of local
archaeological project, but aims period, but introduced to the and international varieties. In
67
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
68
Port and Wine in Byzantine Aegean and the Black Sea. Past and Realities MICHALIS LYCHOUNAS
69
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
RE FE RE N C E S Papaggelos, I. 1998. .
In
Anagnostakis, E. 2006. . In ,
, 246-261. ETVA
, edited by E. Grammatikopoulou.
Athens: EIE. Richards, G. 2003. What is cultural Tourism?. In A. Erfoegd voor Toerisme,
edited by A. van Maaren, Nationaal Contact Monumenten.
Bakirtzis, Ch. 1989. . Athens
Savvopoulou-Katsiki, X. 1998.
Cave A., H. Barnard et al. 2010. Chemical evidence for wine
. In
production around 4000 BCE in the Late Chalcolithic Near
, 340-353, TVA.
Eastern Highlands. Journal of Archaeological Science, doi:10.1016/
j.jas.2010.11.012 Schilbach, E. 1970. Byzantinische Metrologie. Mnchen.
Chatzioannides, A. and Ch. P. Tsamisis. 2013. Soustal, P. 1991. Thrakien (Thrak, Rodop und Haimimontos) [TIB 6]. Wien:
. stereichische Akademie der Wissenschaften.
. In Medieval Ports in
North Aegean and the Black Sea, Links to the Maritime Routes of Tsibidis-Pentazos, E. 1973. .
the East, Proceedings of the International Symposium, edited Praktika tes en Athines Archaeologikes Etaireias
by F. Karagianni, (Thessaloniki, 4-6 December 2013), 187-211. Valamoti S.M., M. Mangafa, Ch. Koukouli-Chrysanthaki and D.
Thessalonike Malamidou. 2007. Grape-pressings from northern Greece: the
Dadaki, S., S. Doukata, I. Eliades, M. Lychounas. 2013. earliest wine in Aegean? Antiquity 81: 54-61
. -- Valamoti S.M., P. Darcque, Ch. Koukouli-Chrysanthaki and D.Malamidou
. In Medieval Ports and Z. Tsirtsoni. 2015. An archaeobotanical investigation of
in North Aegean and the Black Sea, Links to the Maritime Routes of prehistoric grape vine exploitation and wine making in northern
the East, Proceedings of the International Symposium, edited Greece: recent finds from Dikili Tash. In Olive oil and wine
by F. Karagianni, (Thessalonike, 4-6 December 2013), 211-223. production in Eastern Mediterranean during Antiquity, Proceedings
Thessalonike of the International Symposium, edited by A. Diler, K. enol and
Ergenekon, S. 1999. The Guide to Turkish Wines. Istanbul U. Aydinolou, (Izmir, 17-19 November 2011), 125-139, No 189.
Izmir: Ege Universitesi Yayinlari.
ETVA 1998.
, , (Naousa, 17-19 September
1993), Athens: Politistiko Texnologiko Idryma ETVA.
Kourkoutidou-Nikolaidou, E. 1973. .
Archaeologi Ephemeris. Chronika, 36-49
Laiou, A., 1977. Peasant society in the late Byzantine Empire: a social and
demographic study. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
70
The Chrysobullos of 1189 and the
History of German and French
Quarters of Constantinople
Oleg Lugovyi
ABSTRACT
The article is dedicated to the church of S. Eirene at Perama.
the analysis of information from Close connections of the German
emperors chrysobullos issued in merchants` close connections with
1189 and also of other sources Venice conditioned and facilitated
on the history of German and transfer of embolus Alemannorum
French emboli in Constantinople. exactly to the Saint Marcus
Created most likely in the time of republic.
the Second Crusade these quarters Embolus Francigenarum
had different fate and significance. probably established in the
German quarter was a symbol accordance with the French
of alliance between Byzantium king practically served the
and the Holy Roman Empire. trading interests of Occitanian
Its economical role wasnt merchantry that paid duties to
considerable. Aragon, not France. Obviously
Correspondence between the the main role here was played
rulers of these states shows that by Montpellier. Its count even
German warriors in the service succeeded to conclude a dynastic
of the Byzantine Empire were alliance with the Comneni. It
the very object of attention from was the break of this alliance that
both sides, especially their need in could cause the transfer of the
their own church. This could be embolus to Venice.
71
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Frenchmen and Germans but as this benefaction was made not connected with the chrysobul-
are among the least studied for all people of Alemans and Fran- los was about the reasons of
foreigners at Constantinople of cigens, but only to a few outcasts the said emboli liquidation. Com-
the Comnenian time. The big- and mostly unknown with unde- mon thing here was the argu-
gest puzzle here is the problem termined and casual service for Ro- mentation of the chrysobullos it-
of German and French emboli in mania, but from the other side they self: the emboli hadnt been used
Constantinople. The only source have the great income from these in full, they had been visited
telling us about their existence emboli and wharves, so Our Excel- only by a few merchants, people
is the emperors chrysobullos is- lence prefers the service, proposed by infamous, without any benefit
sued in June 1189. the whole nation to the service of a for Empire3. Additionally Kr.N.
few gathered from a dispersion. iggaar4 says that such a state-
Fragment from the
ment can reflect a depopulation
Chrysobullos of 1189: This document was the last
of both emboli after the disor-
in the series of Byzantine satis-
That is why Our Clemency der of 1183 bringing Androni-
factions of Venice demands af-
orders by the word of this Chrys- cus Comnenus to power. David
ter the destruction of Venetian
obullos for Venetians to get eve- Jacoby5 is surprised by the fact
embolus at 1171. Previous orders
rything, that is requested by their that Germany needed any wharf
granted to Venetians their privi-
envoys, and the whole embolos in Constantinople while its mer-
leges and also compensation for
Alemannorum et Francigenarum chants came there by land, not
merchants losses. But Byzan-
and their marine wharves, that are by sea. But it is obvious that ar-
tine had no possibility to close
transferred to them in the presence guments from economical suit-
up the compensation question
of our Serenity clerks Constantine ability are not the only adequate
by its own resources. So em-
Pediadites and the most clear pro- in internationally important ac-
peror Isaac Angelos decided to
tonobilissimus Niceta Balianit by tion.
transfer German and French em-
the practica of Constantine Petrio- boli into Venetian hands. Greek Charles Brand6 according to
ta. This must be confirmed by the text of the chrysobullos havent his concept of Byzantine-West
resolution of pansebastos sebastos survived. But its Latin transla- confrontation gave an idea that
and the retinue of Our Sublimity tion was inserted in the First transfer of the emboli to Venice
archichancellor master John Duka. (12th cent.) and the Second (13th was caused by Isaac hostility
Relevant secretaries have to be ac- cent.) Liber Pactorum, and also towards approaching German
quainted with this Chrysobullos. in the Liber Albus by Andrea troops of Frederick Barbarossa
Whole the annual income of the Dandolo1. and by danger from French cru-
emboli is equal to 50 livres of hy- saders. We have to agree, that
Actuality of this research is
perpyrons (14 kg of 20karat gold this circumstance played sig-
conditioned by actual inexist-
O.L.) calculated for this transfer. nificant role in the Isaac deci-
ence of historiography of the
sion. But surely there were some
Although said emboli with the mari- problem. The chrysobullos of
more aspects.
time wharves by the words of [pre- 1189 was either ignored, either
vious] chrysobulla had been trans- mentioned, but without deep One of them is very close dis-
ferred to Alemans and Francigens, analyze2. The only question, location of both emboli with the
72
History of German and French Quarters of Constantinople OLEG LUGOVYI
Venetian quarter on the Golden among them plans of renewal of approved why Porta Piscaria
Horn coast. We have to thank the temple of sent Eirene on the are the same Gates as Perama
David Jacoby for their ascertain- seashore ( Gates13.
ment7. While studying the Vene- ), built by Mar-
In this case Porta S.Marci
tian quarter limits dynamics, D. cianus. Works were not finished
must correspond to the Bahe
Jacoby find out that new gaining successfully. But the question is
Kapisi (The Garden Gates) next
at 1189 must have been made to appropriate: was or was not the
one in the East. The problem is
the East from Venetian quarter project of saint Eirene of Perama
in the fact, that Porta S.Marci
and to the West from Pisan one. church renewal connected with
were mentioned only once in the
But from the very beginning the promise to grant a church in
chart of 1229. It is known only
of its existence Venetian quar- Constantinople to the German
that they were situated 77 feet
ter at East was bordered with knights? Besides, Bertha von
to the East from Porta Ebraica14.
the Hebraica the region of the Zulcbach, German spouse of
Their name is certainly Latin
compact settlement of Constan- Manuel Comnenus, was rebap-
and it is unclear were the Gates
tinople Jews. Hebraica was liq- tised in eastern orthodox ritual
old one with the new name, or
uidated in the middle of 11th cen- in the name of Eirene. And the
they were opened by Latins af-
tury by removing all the Jews church of Eirene of Perama is
ter the 120415. It was situated ap-
across the Golden Horn to Pera8. the only trustful marker of the
proximately in the basement of
And so German and French em- German quarter location. So, too
modern Galata bridge.
boli were located in the borders much of coincidences.
of former Jew quarter of Con- But Alexander van Millingen
Venetians and other Latin
stantinople. states that Bahe Kapisi are the
dwellers of Hebraica interests
same Gates as Porta Neoriou
A lot of years after the em- overpassed on the wharves of
and one more Gates of Hi-
bolus Alemannorum liquidation that region. Hebraica adjoined
canatissa was situated between
memory about it preserved Constantinople sea walls at least
the Perama Gates and Porta
and the chart of 1207, concern- near to Porta Ebraica and Porta
Neoriou16. Gates of Hicanatissa
ing transfer of a few holdings, S.Marci, situated somewhat
marked Amalfi quarter.
indicated: The property, once more eastward. Porta Ebraica
being of Alemanni lies in front pointed the eastern border of If the original borders of
of the church of Eirene of Pera- Venetian quarter from 1082 till Venetian quarter were close
ma9. This church stood at the 1189. And Porta S.Marci were to Hebraica, so the wharves of
edge of Pisan quarter behind mentioned inside it at 1229 .11 Saint Marcianus and Kuzugala
the sea wall of Constantinople, Naturally they were situated given to Venetians here at 114817
at the seashore of the Golden to the West from Pisan quarter were once also the part of He-
Horn10. The chart of 1207 also borders. Porta Ebraica is mostly braica. So Porta Ebraica was the
underlined foris muri. Niceta identified as Istanbul Gates of only way to enter them from the
Choniat (Manuelis Comneni. the fish bazaar Balik-Pazari Ka- city. It is obvious that both Vene-
VII, 3) listed building projects of pisi (Porta Piscaria)12. Alexander tians and Germans had use this
emperor Manuel and specified van Millingen well-reasonably gates for their needs.
73
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Organization of the embolus capital. Considerable number was conditioned by the alliance
Alemannorum has to be dated among them were Jews and they between the Holy Roman Em-
to the time of the marriage of had quite another place to stay pire and Byzantium. Naturally
Byzantine prince Manuel Com- Pera. And church had to be built the open conflict among them
nenos and Bertha von Sulzbach, not for them as well. in the time of the Third Cru-
sister of German king Conrad sade really could cause the em-
Conrad promised to emperor
wife, in 1146 or to the period of bolus elimination24. But there are
Manuel military help in one of
the Second crusade18. Then king some problems with it. At one
the letters in Gesta Friderici (I,
Conrad three times visited Con- hand the conflict had not yet
25): Concerning five hundreds
stantinople (September 1147, started in June, when elimina-
solders, asked by Your Nobil-
beginning of 1148 and winter tion took place. That time Fred-
ity, We are responding to You,
1148-1149). During the last visit erick had been still in Hungary,
that We will give not only five
Conrad had a negotiations with on July 2 he was arrived at Bran-
hundreds but will send also
Manuel and confirmed Byzan- ichevo, the first Byzantine for-
two or three thousands, if it is
tine claims over Southern Italy19. tification on the crusaders way
necessary22. According to Otto
and everything went according
Organization of embolus had of Freising, when Manuel was
to previous agreements. On the
undoubtedly economical and already crowned, first of all he
other hand in June negotiations
political aspects. Plus in the renovated confederation with
of Isaac Angelos with Salah ad-
case of German church existing Conrad against Sicilian king
Din were held25. The same time,
there20 embolus could be spir- Roger being in war with both
June 20th, after the neutralization
itual centre for German solders Empires (Chronica sive Historia
of Theodore Mankapha plot,
in Byzantine army. Scholars de Duabus Civitatibus, VII, 28).
Isaac put under arrest Freder-
mostly never considered embo-
In few years the Byzantine icks ambassadors ahead with
lus to have some connection to
military detachment of Germanoi Archbishop of Munster. Freder-
militaries21. But German chroni-
appeared in Corfu involved in ick had to inquire about it while
cler Otto of Freising speaks not
actions contra Sicilian garrisons staying at Philippopolis, but we
about merchant for shure. King
(Nicetae Choniatae Historia know nothing about his reaction
Conrad wrote in his first let-
Byzantina. Manuelis Comneni. on the embolus loss. In Janu-
ter to emperor John Comnenus
II,6)23. Altogether these evidenc- ary 1190 emperor Isaac asked
about Militibus quoque imperii
es show us a picture of German for peace and the conflict was
nostri, Alemannis scilicet, qui aput
detachment, sent by Conrad to arranged. Sources keep silence
te sunt. The same people are
the service of Manuel Comne- about renewal of German em-
meant under caballariis nobilita-
nus. They should be the main bolus, as they hadnt notice its
tis and hominibus imperii nostri,
users of newly created embolus loss. May be it wasnt very im-
Teutonicis videlicet, qui Constan-
Alemannorum and possibly a portant for Frederick?
tinopoli morantur (Gesta Fri-
German church there.
derici. I, 25). On the other hand The close economical rela-
sources witness only about a few It is obvious now that exist- tions between southern German
German merchants in Byzantine ing of the embolus Alemannorum merchants and Venice made
74
History of German and French Quarters of Constantinople OLEG LUGOVYI
them actually use the one and ( ). Greek term never tried to recover the prop-
the same infrastructure26. Espe- for it was known for Italian au- erty after 1204, though Germans
cially actual it became after the thors29, but wasnt widespread dwelled their even later31.
peace was concluded at Ven- as fondaco. The term fondaco in a
History of Embolus Francige-
ice at 1177 by Frederick Barba- sense of juridically separated on
narum seems not to be an object
rossa and the Pope Alexander the base of international agree- of investigation at all. First of all
III. Venice was connected with ments trading quarter was the we have to consider the mean-
the transalpine lands by stable most widespread in 12th century ing of its name. Who were Fran-
roads. Bernhardus Teotonicus and was used as for Christian cigeni of medieval Greek texts?
was characterized as one the quarters in the Muslim coun- They could be South Italian Nor-
richest men in Venice by Gerard tries (Alexandria had the Pisan, mans being mostly in the war
Rsch and a very important per- Venetian, Genovese, Barce- with Byzantium, but one can be
son in the German-Venice trade lonese, Florentine and Marseille sure, that trade prospered dur-
history27. At last, 1228 is the year fondacos), as for the locations of ing calm years.
of the first mention of German stranger merchants and goods
emporium at the Venice territory inside the Western European The biggest actor in this trade
Fondaco dei Tedesci (fonticum world (Genovese fondaco in Cas- was the city of Amalfi. Its mer-
comunis Venetiarum, ubi Teutonici tilian city of Almeria from the chants were the first who ob-
hospitantur)28, granted by the Re- 1146)30. So German fondaco in tained the quarter in Constan-
tinople32. It was marked by the
public of S. Marcus to German Venice had the same functions
Gates of Hikanatissa and was
merchants being too numerous. as German embolus in Constan-
bordered to Pisan quarter33. So
tinople and at the same vector of
It is worth noticing that gen- Amalfitan quarter must have
economical relations, but much
erally the structure of Italian been located in the same Hebrai-
closer to Germany.
Fondaco was very similar to the ca region. It did exists in 11th cen-
Byzantine emboli in two possi- So German merchants and tury, but the date of its ending
ble senses of the word (build- other travelers frequently and is unclear. Though some schol-
ing complex, separated from traditionally used Venetian in- ars consider the best time for
other city territory and granted frastructure for their journeys its elimination to be 1147 the
to some political partner for eco- to Constantinople, including the most sever conflict between Byz-
nomical use ; store period of German embolus exist- antine emperor and the Sicilian
premises and the victualling- ence in 1148-1189. Venetian and kingdom, Amalfi suzerain from
house, trading place at the same German emboli were bordered 1073. Was Amalfitan property
time without any juridical sta- on each other. It is possible that given to Germans and French-
tus, embolus as it is). Italian word interpenetration of their infra- men? Or that were amalfitans,
fondaco origins from Greek structures had already begun vassals of Normans of South-
meaning the tav- before 1189. So integration of ern Italy known also as Franks
ern from the Ancient time of any both the emboli was geopolitical- in Byzantium, who gave the
kind. Sometimes its functions ly and economically provided. name of Francigeni to embolus? It
were the same as that of hospice That can explain, why Germans could be. But the case of French
75
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
kingdom and its subjects on the frontation, mutual suspicions, frequent in Montpellier39. Mont-
Mediterranean shore mustnt be but both authors tried to be op- pellier had begun to strengthen
disregarded. timistical in their description. their positions in Levant already
Crusades hadnt receive Byzan- before the time of Crusades. Wil-
If the French king had con-
tine help in expected size, but liam of Malmesbury (De Regum
nection to this embolus, it might
anyway this visit of the autumn Anglorum. IV, 388) said that
have been organized during the
of 1147 is the best and only pos- Ascalon citizens gave up their
same Second Crusade. Odo of
sible moment for French embolus city namely to Raymond of Tou-
Deuil, French historiographer of
to born (if it was really French). louse because Montpellier was
that campaign, mentions meet-
ing of LouisVII with ambas- Granting of the separated at his possession and they knew
sadors of Byzantine emperor quarter to French merchants quite well virtues of Montpel-
in Regensburg in 1146. They also was based in economical lier merchants. Guillaume count
read out the letter concerning conjuncture. After the Maurita- of Montpellier followed Ray-
conditions of French army stay nian pirate base in Frainetum monds army and had a lot to do
in Byzantium. As traditional (not far from Saint-Tropez) de- with it.
emperor Manuel demanded struction in 972, Occitanian mer- Guillaume VIII, count of
from the French king to swear chants received save roads to Montpellier in 1172-1202, made
that he would return to Byzan- the Mediterranean sea38. Main- more then usual to heighten his
tium all former Byzantine cities ly they were merchants from city in the international field.
conquered by Muslims. Also Marseille, Arles, Saint-Gilles He put the trading treaty with
he stressed that Empire itself in Provence and Narbonne in Pisan consuls in 1178, the same
was also making a war against Languedoc. The last city was with the bishop and viscount of
Seljuks34. Odo further speaks connected by the busy road with Agde in 118540. At last Montpel-
that emperors legates made a Toulouse and further by Ga- lier merchants altogether with
lot of such promises to Louis that ronne till Bordeaux. their colleagues from Marseille,
were not kept35. Namely: con- Barcelona and Saint-Gilles re-
But the most common Greek
venient market, comfortable ceived privilege of free trade
counteragents in Occitania were
exchange and other that seems and consulate in Levant at the
merchants from the young city
useful for ours36. K.N.Ciggaar city of Tyre41. The privilege was
of Montpellier. Greek ambas-
underlines that arrangements of given by Conrad of Montfer-
sadors went to Paris in 1160-s
1146 were the first official con- rat for their help in his struggle
through Montpellier, Saint-
tact between Byzantium and against Salakh-ad-Din who cap-
Gilles and Chartres. At the
France on the state level after the tured Jerusalem the same year.
same years rabbi Benjamin from
significant pause37. Some new liberties were granted
Tudela made visit to Montpellier
There are reports of John and characterized it as a com- to hominibus Montis Pessulani
Cinnamos and Odo of Deuil fortable trading point. He quali- also by the chart of the Jerusa-
about visit of the king Louis to fied dwellers of the Greek land lem king Guy of Lusignan given
Constantinople in autumn of and generally Eastern Mediter- to Marseilles under Saint-John
1147. Though there were con- ranean among the merchants dAcre October 25, 119042.
76
History of German and French Quarters of Constantinople OLEG LUGOVYI
The heightening of Montpel- years after Alfonse marriage abbacy not far from Montpellier.
lier in the international trade with Sancha) and was the same Nevertheless her daughter be-
coincided with the reign of Ma- embassy that carried French came the Pedro of Aragon wife.
nuel Comnenus. He died in 1180 princess Agnes back to Constan- Montpellier in K.N. Ciggaar
and in 1189 the embolus Francige- tinople. She was fiance for the opinion had to gain significant
narum was liquidated. Could Manuels son and heir Alex. So benefits from dynastic alliance
there be some diplomatic aspect marriage of Eudokia was impos- of such a level48. Possibility of
unseen from Byzantine docu- sible not because of Alfonse but such alliance itself approved im-
ments. The Libre dels feyts writ- thanks to international context. portance of Montpellier in the
ten by James (Jaime) the king of The count of Provence had two western vector of Constantino-
Aragon (1218-1276), or may be suzerains the Aragon king and ple policy.
somebody of his retinues before the emperor of Holy Rome. At
But not less important is the
his death, is the most competent the time Fredericks positions
preterition of Byzantine authors
source on this question. King in Provence became stronger
concerning this failure of em-
James was the grandson of Byz- and Manuel was his enemy. But
peror diplomacy. Mission was
antine princes43 Eudokia the Montpellier served the port for
aimed on Aragon or Provence,
niece of the emperor Manuel Aragon and was out of the Holy
not on the one of its smallest
and possibly the daughter of Roman Empire borders45.
vassals. The happening took
his brother sebastokrator Isaac44 Guillaume VIII, count of place not long before the death
(James himself considered her to Montpellier, Alfonse vassal and of Manuel plunging Constan-
be Manuels daughter). She was relative46, famous for his wide tinople to a chaos of two revo-
promised to the Aragon king Al- and bold international policy, lutions 1183 and 1185. The
fonse II, but by the time she ar- enforced Byzantine ambassa- universal empire was unable to
rived to Aragon dominions Al- dors to give Eudokia for him. give adequate answer for the
fonse abandoned the marriage, Local historian .Germain even Montpellier insult under these
because he already had affi- supposed count of Montpel- circumstances. So Eudokia was
anced Castilian princess Sancha. lier to dream about Byzantine forgotten. Guillaume broke his
German scientist Winfred crown47. King James underlined marriage with Eudokia in 1187
Hecht turned to Pisan annals, the great support received by two years before the French
composed by a contemporary ju- Guillaume by Montpellier coun- embolus liquidation. So we can
rist Bernardo Marangone (died cil consisting of knights and suppose that the liquidation was
c. 1188), and proved that possi- reach city patricians, who saw undercover and the only possi-
ble fianc of Eudokia was not Al- economical perspective of this ble Isaac Angelus reaction on his
fonse II but his younger brother alliance. cousin divorce and confinement.
Other supposing that the embo-
Raymond Berenger the count of Eudokia gained glory among
lus Francigenarum was first of all
Provence. Annals of Marangone the Provencal troubadours, but
the Montpellier embolus.
helped to ascertain some new her marriage was not happy. She
facts. Byzantine embassy came didnt give a hair to Guillaume But there are still a lot of
to the French South in 1178 (two and finished her days in Agnan questions. The count of Mont-
77
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
78
History of German and French Quarters of Constantinople OLEG LUGOVYI
79
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Jacoby, D. 1996. Les Juifs: protection, divisions, sgrgation. In Tafel, G.L.Fr.and G.M.Thomas, eds. 1856. Urkunden zur lteren Handels
Constantinople 1054-1261, edited by A. Ducellier and M.Balard, und Staatsgeschichte der Republik Venedig mit Besonderer auf Byzanz
171-82. Paris: dition Autrement. und die Levante. I Thiel (814-1205). II Thiel (1205-1255). Wien.
Lilie, R.-J. 1993. Byzantium and the Crusader States, 1096-1204, translated
by J.C. Morris and J.E.Ridings. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
80
Public Open Space in the City-Port of
Tom is (4 th -6 th cent. AD)
Irina Nastasi
1. Introductory remarks
Tomis is the ancient name of in the same place. But, besides
Constanta, the largest port on the main public open space the
the Romanian coast of the Black agora or forum of the city - there
Sea (Fig. 1). In the frame of LI- were other plazas or squares
MEN Project Constana is being strongly connected to the com-
promoted as an important mod- mercial and public life of Tomis,
ern Cultural Port, having deep which became indicators of ur-
ancient roots in the citys his- ban decay in the late Antiquity,
ABSTRACT
tory. Having in mind the main due to slowly being invaded by
This study focuses on the
objectives of this mutual project, private structures. And since
archaeological information achieved
I have chosen this subject while they are part of the street net-
so far on the public open spaces in
also asking myself: What part work they can only be analyzed
Roman and Early Byzantine times.
of the city constitutes the land- in relation with the known an-
3 possible open spaces (plazas) and cient street sections.
mark of Cultural Constana?
the main public area are analysed The first answer that came to
in the larger context of the street my mind was Ovidius Square
network of ancient Tomis. One of (Fig. 2), a large open place were
the main aspects stressed in this many cultural events have been
study is the conservative attitude organized in the last years and
towards the urban planning in where the main culture provider
ancient Tomis the orthogonal in Constana has its premises
layout established in Hellenistic Museum for National History
times was preserved in the and Archaeology. But where
peninsular area until the Early was the central public open Fig 1. Constana (Ancient Tomis) on the Western
Byzantine period. space in antiquity? More or less shore of the Black Sea
81
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
82
P u b l i c O p e n S p a c e i n t h e C i t y - P o r t o f T o m i s ( 4 th- 6 th c e n t . A D ) IRINA NASTASI
83
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
84
P u b l i c O p e n S p a c e i n t h e C i t y - P o r t o f T o m i s ( 4 th- 6 th c e n t . A D ) IRINA NASTASI
of the places where this wall was same fate. Therefore, starting basilica along with its annexes,
registered to have appeared. with this date the orthogonal implanted in the city plan at the
There are only theories com- system in the peninsula is ad- beginning of the Byzantine pe-
prised in other general studies10. joined by a new city part orga- riod, changed the neighboring
The same situation stands for nized on different oriented axis, streets and structures orienta-
the Hellenistic wall, but based which will be preserved in both tion according to the strict Chris-
on some indications Ovidius has phases of the roman-byzantine tian rules. In the extended part
given in his writings researchers fortification. of the city the street network
have agreed that the Hellenistic tends to change its pattern to a
Besides the archaeological
wall has functioned at least un- less organized one, at least in the
proof, which is the most consis- vicinity of the city gates, where
til the 1st cent. AD and the ar-
tent, there is also an epigraphic the main streets trajectories cre-
chaeological findings suggest its
reference to the streets of Tomis. ate the impression of an open-
location on the Northern side of
This middle 3rd century AD in- ing fan (streets g, i and j, Fig. 4).
nowadays Ovidiu Square.
scription mentions the activities The most common orientation
In this new part of the city of a benefactor who decorated of streets axes in this part of the
there are still Early Roman his pretious town (Tomis) with city is N-S and E-V.
streets with the same orientation large streets (ISM II, 102). There-
as the ones in the hippodamic Therefore, Tomis specific fea-
fore, by the middle of the 3rd cen-
layout, and this can be explained tures regarding its street network
tury AD a new intervention in the
by the fact that there was an extra can be synthetized as follows:
street network of Tomis can be
muros inhabited area related to orthogonal systematization
noted. We cannot conclude if the
the Hellenistic wall, which kept plan applied in the Hellenis-
inscription proves the construc-
the same orientation as the intra tic period;
tion of new streets, or only, and
muros network, at least for some preservation of this plan in
most probably, the restoration
time. But, over this limit (Early most of the old part of the
of the already existing ones. The
Roman wall) there are streets town until the end of the ur-
term used to describe the streets
with a different orientation, that ban life of Tomis;
of Tomis in this inscription is
seem to align to a different plan,
, and it is also known the breakage of the Hellenis-
the one of the late part of the city
from another inscription from tic pattern in the area newly
confined by the roman-byzan-
Tomis, but referring to other city included inside the Roman-
tine wall. This change was ap-
- Neapolis in Syria (ISM II, 188). Byzantine fortification, with
plied when the roman-byzantine
fortification was built, late 3rd - As a conclusion it can be structures on N-S and E-V
early 4th cent AD. Part of the road stated that in the peninsula of orientation axes;
that went from Tomis to Histria Tomis the street network has its Late Antique contamina-
was also included in the intra origins in the Hellenistic orthog- tions, represented by streets
muros area and transformed into onal plan, which is continuously or lanes implanted in the
a main urban street. Probably being used even in the Late An- Hellenistic layout on differ-
the road to Callatis shared the tiquity, with few changes a ent axes than the old ones;
85
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
the change in the layout of As in the case of the street net- A) Important and monumen-
the most traditional and con- work the epigraphic informa- tal public or official buildings
servatory part of the city, tion is almost missing. There are were discovered on almost each
brought by the implantation only indirect references to the side of this area:
of a district oriented N-S and existence of an agora in Hellenis-
In the Southern part there was
E-V, despite the traditional tic times (ISM II, 5). Ovid men-
a large commercial complex,
NW-SE and NE-SW struc- tioning the cold winds that were
built at the beginning of the
tures; this might be related so unbearable inside the city as
4th century AD and was func-
with the Christian Basilica well could indicate a large open
tional until the 6th century
whose orientation influenced space where this could have
AD, generically known un-
the layout of the adjacent been felt. Nowadays the windi-
der the name Mosaic floored
structures; est part of the city is the main
edifice11. This complex, built
square in the Old City, Ovid
on three levels, by terracing
4. The main public open Square.
the cliff in front of the an-
space (Fig. 5)
The archaeological proof that cient port, was provided on
As for the public open spac- indirectly suggests the location of the second terrace, in front of
es, meaning the agora or forum, the agora of the city in the Eastern the vaulted storerooms with a
squares and small plazas, the half of nowadays Ovid Square rather generous public space
archaeological information sug- focuses mainly on the following (approx. 1000 square meters).
gest that they existed in Tomis. aspects: It is important to notice that
86
P u b l i c O p e n S p a c e i n t h e C i t y - P o r t o f T o m i s ( 4 th- 6 th c e n t . A D ) IRINA NASTASI
87
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
tubuli. Inside the city no cisterns one side of this area. Therefore tic times the agora was probably
were discovered, but a complex another rule was followed: the situated to the south-east of this
network of galleries where the facilitation of vehicles access in area (meaning much closer to
water was preserved and could the main square of the city13. the center of the Hellenistic city).
be used by the inhabitants. In
The existence of an agora is
the Ovid Square there were at 5. Other plazas
attested in the Hellenistic period (Fig. 5/1,2,3)
least 5 places (wells) were the
by an epigraphic mention, in an
water could have been achieved 5.1 Besides this main square,
inscription from the end of the
form the underground galleries other smaller plazas are known
2nd - beginning of the 1st century
(Fig. 6). to have functioned in Tomis in
BC (ISM II, 5). It is hard to know
C) In the same time, this if the same space was kept in the roman-byzantine times. One
space follows Vitruvius topo- the roman and byzantine times. of these smaller plazas was situ-
graphical indications, accord- The traditionalism regarding the ated on the middle terrace of the
ing to which in a maritime port street network, which remained Mosaic floored building, in front
city the forum should be placed the same in most of the cases, of the vaulted storerooms situat-
close to the harbor area. Also, suggests that the place of the ed there (Fig. 7). Paved with stone
the largest street in ancient To- main square was also kept. Still slabs it was 100 m long, starting
mis, the main street that enters the fact that the Hellenistic forti- from the stairs that came from
the city through the main gate, fication wall was too close to this the upper level, to the street that
coming from Histria, passes on space suggests that in Hellenis- went down the slope towards the
88
P u b l i c O p e n S p a c e i n t h e C i t y - P o r t o f T o m i s ( 4 th- 6 th c e n t . A D ) IRINA NASTASI
harbor. It was probably the place some streets were also blocked next to the apse of the small
where en-gros sells were per- in order to extend the living Christian basilica indicates18.
formed. It was built at the begin- space and new constructions are There are no images or any other
ning of the 4th century AD, along placed in large public areas14. detailed information about this
with the whole complex. It func- At Histria, the interior space of place, nowadays preserved un-
tioned as a public open space un- housing was extended by block- der a residential district. Since
til the last part of the 5th century ing certain streets or lanes. An-
the excavation trenches could
AD when almost half of it (the other example is the oven built
not have been enlarged due to
north-eastern half) was invaded at the intersection of two main
the vicinity of modern struc-
by annexes of the storerooms. streets15. At Argamum the street
tures, one could not know for
Judging by the structural differ- located between the two late Ro-
man edifices was blocked by a sure if this paved place was part
ences between them they were
construction dated in the first of a public open space organized
private structures. The annexes
part of the 7th century16. There- between the two basilicas that
were attached to the frontal wall
fore, opposed to a strict delimi- functioned here or it was part of
of the storage rooms, in at least
tation of public and commercial an annex of this basilica with no
two different phases, and have
slowly invaded the space which areas, the phenomenon of public public access whatsoever.
space invasion tends to trans-
was initially destined for the As a conclusion, we can state
form the urban space into a dis-
square. There was also a public that gradually, the open public
organized structure.
fountain in the SE of this square spaces or parts of the west pon-
which could provide sufficient 5.2 A large Roman-Byzantine tic cities streets, part of the Hel-
drinking water through under- street, along with strong and lenistic urban plan or not, were
ground galleries. The fountain impressive opus mixtum walls
overlapped by private structures
was included inside one of the of what probably was a public
or blocked, without taking into
annexes. Because of modern building17, indicate the presence
account the initial urban plan-
buildings that have disturbed of a public open space or at least
ning rules which were followed
the stratigraphy and the ruins of a public source of drinkable wa-
ter, as the publisher of this ex- earlier. In Scythia this situa-
the Mosaic floored edifice we are
cavation suggested back then. tion was identified at Tomis at
not able to state a definitive opin-
In 2012, two ancient wells were the end of the 5th and in the 6th
ion about the chronology of this
phenomenon. Even in this situa- uncovered not far from the pre- century AD, at Histria19 in the
tion, it is important to mark this vious excavation, indicating that last quarter of the 6th century, at
invasion of public space in Late this could actually be another Argamum20 and Tropaeum21 at
antique Tomis because it proves small square in Tomis, as it was the end if 5th first part of the
a change in perception of public presumed before. 6th century AD, and it represents
space, as well as in the symme- 5.3 In the western part of the an example of alteration of the
try and general aesthetics that city, the newest district of Tomis, urban perception22 in the last
characterise this building. On the seems to also have had a small period of urban existence of the
other hand, in the same period, square, as the stone pavement above mentioned cities.
89
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
N OTE S RE FE RE N CE S
1 Rdulescu and Scorpan 1975, 38. Alexandru, N., R. Constantin, and M. Ionescu 2012. Callatis
2 Rdulescu et alii 1973, 344. stratigrafie, topografie i urbanism. Pontica 45:437-63.
3 Papuc et alii 2001, 108-10. Aricescu, A. 1972. Despre zidul de aprare al Tomisului n vremea lui
4 Papuc et alii 2006. Ovidius. Pontica 5:439-46.
5 Nastasi 2014, 191-92. Aricescu, A. 1977. Armata n Dobrogea roman. Bucureti: Editura
6 Rdulescu 1991. Militar.
7 Karagiorgou 2001, 37-38, 73-4. Barnea, I. 1977. Cetatea Tropaeum Traiani n lumina ultimelor spturi
8 Alexandru et alii 2012, 441. arheologice. Pontica 10:261-71.
9 Bounegru and Lungu 2003-2005, 175. Bucoval, M. 1998. Raport preliminar privind cercetrile arheologice
10 Aricescu 1972, 439-46; 1977, 155-56; Rdulescu 1995-1996; Bucoval cu caracter de salvare din Constana, strada Sulmona, nr. 7,
1998; Buzoianu, Brbulescu 2012, 33, 71-2, n. 468. Pontica 31:171-200.
11 Rdulescu 1970, 55. Bounegru, O. and V. Lungu 2003-2005. Histria. Cercetri recente n
12 Papuc 2005, 63. cartierul Domus. Studii i Cercetri de Istorie Veche i Arheologie
54-56:167-78.
13 Livius 1.48.5-7; 9.30.9, apud KAISER 2011, 29, n.103.
14 Munteanu 2011b, 241, 248. Buzoianu, L. and M. Brbulescu 2012. Tomis. Comentariu istoric i
arheologic. Constana: Ex Ponto.
15 Munteanu 2011a, 33, 38.
16 Topoleanu 1999, 201. Custurea, G. and I. Nastasi 2013. The End of Urban Life on the
Dobroudjan Shore of the Black Sea in the 7th Century AD.
17 The structures uncovered in 1994 during an excavation on no. 7 Sul- In: Medieval Ports in North Aegean and the Black Sea. Links to the
mona Street, Bucoval 1998. Maritime Routes of the East, edited by F. Karagianni, 320-31.
18 Rdulescu 1966, 27. Thessalonike.
19 Munteanu 2011a, 33. Kaiser, A. 2011. Roman Urban Street Networks, Routledge Studies in
20 Topoleanu 1999, 201. Archaeology 2, New York-London: Routledge.
21 Barnea 1977, 267-8. Karagiourgou, O. 2001. Urbanism and Economy in Late Antique Thessaly
22 Custurea and Nastasi 2013, 324. (3rd 7th century A.D.). The Archaeological Evidence. PhD thesis,
Oxford University.
Papuc, Gh. et alii 2009, Constana, jud. Constana. [Tomis]. Punct: Str.
Mihai Viteazu f.n. (sediu OCPI Constana). Cronica Cercetrilor
Arheologice din Romnia 2009. Campania 2008:290 - 92.
90
P u b l i c O p e n S p a c e i n t h e C i t y - P o r t o f T o m i s ( 4 th- 6 th c e n t . A D ) IRINA NASTASI
91
Archaeological Sites in
Environment of Batumi
Nino Inaishvili
ABSTRACT
The given paper deals with the sixth century BC can be observed.
review of principle archaeological Kobuleti-Pichvnari was the most
sites of the South-eastern Black advanced urban colonial settlement
Sea littoral. Archaeological in the Classical and Hellenistic
study carried out at these sites periods. Due to their strategic
revealed that the coast line and locations Gonio-Apsarus gained
the surrounding area have been particular importance in the
populated since the Early Bronze Roman period and city-fortress
Age. All settlements are located of Petra in the Early Byzantine
at the mouth of the rivers; this time. Physical geography of the
played an important role in their South -eastern part of the Black
development since the mouth of Sea littoral did much to make it a
the rivers was used as harbours. part of the Pontic world and thus
Appearance of Greek colonies in part of the Greek, Roman and
these areas from the end of the Byzantine spheres.
93
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Fig 1. Map of the Georgian The article deals with the re- and Hellenistic periods. Due to
south-western Black
view of principle archaeological their strategic locations Gonio-
Sea coast with main
archaeological sites. sites of the South-eastern Black Apsarus gained particular im-
Sea littoral (Fig. 1). Archeologi- portance in the Roman period
cal study of these sites revealed and city-fortress of Petra in the
that the coast line and the sur- Early Byzantine period. Physical
rounding area have been popu- geography of the South-eastern
lated since the Early Bronze Age. part of the Black Sea littoral did
All settlements are located at the much to make it a part of the
mouth of the rivers; this played Pontic world and thus part of
an important role in their de- the Greek, Roman and Byzan-
velopment since the mouth of tine spheres.
the rivers was used as harbours.
Batumi Fortress
Appearance of Greek colonies
in these areas from the end of There are only few references
the sixth century BC can be ob- about ancient Batumi in literary
served. Kobuleti-Pichvnari was sources. We come across with
the most advanced urban colo- the earliest literary evidence
nial settlement in the Classical about Batumi in Aristotles Me-
94
Archaeological Sites in Environment of Batumi NINO INAISHVILI
teorology, where Batumi is men- logical excavations were carried lenistic, Late Roman and Middle
tioned as out in this area. Defensive walls Ages and lost its importance in
that means the so called Deeps. In and cultural layers of Batumi the 18th century when the har-
Greek-Roman sources the Koro- Fortress were preserved in a bour moved south towards nat-
listskali River, which joins the very poor condition because of ural bay of Batumi.2
sea near Batumi is called the the man-made destruction of the
The actual ruins of the for-
Bathys River. Pliny the Elder environment.
points that Colchian tribes lived tress occupy an area of around
near the Bathys River. Hereby Archaeological research re- 20 m x 20 m (Fig. 2). The walls
he also mentions a city of Ma- vealed that the hill which pre- of the fortress were repaired and
tium. According to the point of serves the ruins of the fortress reconstructed numerous times
view of some scholars, Plinys was a site of the oldest settle- in different periods. The oldest
Matium can be related to Aris- ment discovered on the territory construction layer of Batumi For-
totles Bathea. In Tabula Peutin- of Batumi. The site was actively tress dated to the Early Middle
geriana (A Roman Road Map), used in Archaic, Classical, Hel- Ages, however the typical Early
compiled in the fourth century,
Portus Altus, which is the Latin
equivalent of Greek Bathys Li-
men meaning a deep harbor, is
mentioned on the place of Batu-
mi. Batumi did have one of the
deepest and most convenient
harbours among the ancient cit-
ies lying on the East coast of the
Black Sea.1
Due to the limited evidence
of written sources archaeologi-
cal research of Batumi Fortress
was of great importance in terms
of study ancient history of Batu-
mi. Batumi Fortress, nowadays
referred to as Tamars Fortress
after the name of the Georgian
Queen Tamar (1184-1213), is lo-
cated where the River Korolist-
skali (ancient Bathys) flows into
the Black Sea. The fortress was
erected on a high, natural hill on Fig 2. Batumi
the coast. In the 1960s archaeo- Fortress. Plan.
95
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Byzantine mixed structure with ras, Chian amphorae with bulg- Bronze-Early Iron Age from the
the alternation of stone and brick ing neck type, Samian, Thasian, villages Gantiadi and Zemo Jo-
layers can be noticed only in Lesbian, Mendean as well as cho; fully preserved fourth cen-
some places of the fortress. Rect- amphoras with so called tum- tury BC amphora of Herakleia
angular planning of Batumi For- blershaped feet can be noted. Pontike with englyphic stamp
tress is irrelevant to the hill relief, Among the other imported and Late Roman brown-clay
but typical for the Roman and wares East Greek banded ceram- amphora; also a great number
Early Byzantine fortification. The ics and small number of pieces of coins of Antique and Middle
tower at the north-east corner of of Attick black gloss pottery ages.5
the wall-circuit and wide rect- was found. Fragments of local
According to the archaeo-
angular tower-like projections pitchers, brown-clay and Sino-
logical data Batumi settlement
in the south-west and south-east pean amphorae, louteria and
used to be the oldest political,
corners of the fortress also dated tiles dominate in the Late An-
economic and trade centre of the
to the Early Middle Ages. Such tique period layers. Fragments
valley of the river Korolistskali.
projections are typical for the of bricks, tiles, amphorae and
This urban settlement was main-
sixth-ninth centuries Byzantine other pottery belong to the Early
ly focused on the service of the
fortresses. The closest analogues Middle Age. Middle Byzantine
ships going along its coast and
of these projections exist in the glazed ware, Ottoman period
undoubtedly used to stop in the
fortress of Sebastopolis, which faience and glazed pottery, ce-
harbor.6
was built in Justinians time.3 ramic pipes and metal items are
distinguished in the layers of the Gonio -Apsarus
According to the analyses of
Late Middle Ages. Archaeological Site
the written sources and archae-
ological data scholars identify The archaeological survey In accordance with the ancient
Batumi Fortress with Losorium in the surrounding of Batumi written sources (Pliny, Arrian,
fortress constructed by Emperor revealed the remains of other Tabula Peutingeriana) Apsarus
Justinian in Lazica to protect the ancient settlements of the same used to be the most important
limits of the Byzantine Empire to- period in the villages Gantiadi, fortress of Pontic limes, defender
gether with other fortresses built Zemo Jocho and Makhvilauri. of the Roman Empires limits
or reconstructed by him on the From the monuments of the Mid- in the Eastern Black Sea littoral,
south-east coast of the Black Sea.4 dle Ages the remains of the for- on the territory of ancient Col-
tress at the source of the river Ko- chis. It used to exist in different
The ancient cultural layers of
rolistskali which used to control intensity from the first century
the Batumi settlement dated to
the old pass road, must be noted. AD including Ottoman period.
the eight-seventh centuries BC
included a lot of local pottery, For the history of Batumi ac- During Adrians time five co-
metal ware and other items. cidental discoveries in the vicini- horts (approximately 1200-1400
From the imported artifacts of ties of Batumi kept at the Akh- Roman soldiers) were stationed
the Archaic, Classical and Hel- vlediani State Museum are very here. This was a huge part of the
lenistic periods the fragments of important. Among them are: Roman frontier auxiliary forces
Early Chian decorated ampho- hoards of bronze items of Late- located in Eastern Pontos.7
96
Archaeological Sites in Environment of Batumi NINO INAISHVILI
97
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
foundation was related with the the Roman-Early Byzantine pe- including one hoard of Roman
myth of the Argonauts. It was riod constructions such as prin- coins of the 3rd century AD.
believed that Medeas brother cipia, barracks, bathhouses, wa- Among the numerous Roman
Apsyrtus was killed and buried ter cistern, sewerage and water coins drachms and didrachms
there. Apsyrtus tomb used to be supply systems. During the Ot- of Ceasarea of Cappadocia and
the main shrine of the local com- toman period a mosque, a bath- copper coins of Trapezus and
munity.9 house and an inner fortification Sinop of the second-third centu-
in the south-western part of the ries could be mentioned.13 There
The fortress has a huge
wall-circuit were constructed. are no archaeological evidences
slightly elongated rectangular
In some cases these construc- of the second half of the fourth
shape (245 X 195 m) with the
tions were built over the Roman and the fifth centuries which
area of 4.78 ha. The fortress has
and Byzantine buildings. indicates that the fortress was
5-7 meter high impressive walls
faced of large hewn blocks laid The oldest site on the terri- abandoned by that time. In the
in more or less regular courses. tory of Gonio-Apsarus is repre- sixth century AD, i.e. in the pe-
The fortress had 22 rectangular, sented with so called Dune of riod of Justinian the fortress was
square and U-shape towers ar- textile-ware settlement dated actively used. A large number
ranged at some intervals along back to the eight-seventh cen- of amphorae, pottery and glass
the walls and in the corners. tury BC. Few archeological ar- ware fragments, coins belong
There were four gateways, one tifacts of Classical and Hellenis- to this period.14 The materials
on each side, in the central part tic period include accidentally of the Middle Byzantine period
of the respective wall. The main found Colchian amphora, the have not been revealed so far.
arched gateway, flanked from jug and grave goods from some The latest cultural layer here
both sides with two rectangular pit burials excavated outside the is linked to the presence of the
towers is arranged on the west, fortress in 2000. Funeral inven- Ottoman garrison and is repre-
i.e. is facing the sea. tory included pottery jug, silver sented by the numerous epoch
earrings and glass beads.11 relevant materials, out of which
The fortress has experi-
pottery, glazed ware and ceram-
enced several stages of con- Three main cultural layers
ic pipes, Ottoman and European
struction and repair. The first were revealed on the territory
coins must be underlined.
construction stage occurred in of the fortress: Roman (1st-3rd c.
the first-third centuries AD. In AD), Early-Byzantine (6th c. AD) Besides the materials dis-
the sixth century the fortress and Ottoman (16th-19th centu- covered in the archaeological
was restored and some towers ries). Cultural layers of the Ro- contexts, three hoards of the
added or reconstructed. In the man period contain particularly first-third centuries AD found
16th century, when Ottomans rich and diverse materials. Am- by chance in the surroundings
captured the fortress, they re- phorae, red gloss pottery, con- of Gonio are of the great im-
stored the decayed parts of its struction ceramics, glass ware,12 portance. The scholars called
wall circuit and added mer- metal items and jewelry have the hoards after the name of
lons.10 Archaeological excava- been found here as well as nu- the villages they were found in
tions revealed the remains of merous numismatic artifacts Gonio, Makho and Kapandibi
98
Archaeological Sites in Environment of Batumi NINO INAISHVILI
Hoards. They include: jewelry rosette) are connected with the Petra-Tsikhisdziri
(gold plaited chains, bracelets, Colchis artistic-cultural world. Archaeological Site
brooches, buckles and pen- The buckles seem to be of local
At about 18-20 km far to the
dants, gold and amber beads), origin since they can be linked to
north of Batumi along the sea
the items connected with clothes a wide group of artifacts of the
coast in the village of Tsihisdziri
(buttons), gold and silver ves- first-third centuries discovered
one of the most important ar-
sels, ornamented appliqus and in Georgia. Scholars assumed
chaeological sites of the Eastern
plaques, a head of the standard that some artifacts from these
Black Sea Littoral is located. Dif-
and a gold-floral funeral wreath. hoards had been the items from
ferent archaeological sites and
The artifacts of these hoards rich tombs of the local elite in-
artifacts have been discovered
demonstrate different artistic habited in the surroundings of here. Most of the scholars iden-
and stylistic peculiarities. From Apsaros.16 tified remains of the Tsikhisdziri
the collections Dioscuros gold fort with the famous Byzantine
Roman burials, very impor-
figurine is one of the remark- city-fortress of Petra.
tant in terms of studying the
able items, which served a cult
acculturation processes in the Most accounts of Petra city-
or ritual function. Among the
south-eastern Black sea littoral fortress of Lazica and an episco-
gold artifacts Gonio roundel of
were excavated close to Gonio pal see have been preserved in
Sarmatian Animal Style with the
fortress in the villages of Makho Byzantine historical sources of
representation of beasts fighting
(close to the site assumed to be the 6th-9th cc (Novellae Justiniani,
dated to the 1st-2nd centuries AD
the place where the hoard was Procopius Wars and On Build-
is unique. Both artifacts were
found) and Zanakidzeebi. The ings and Notitia Episcopatuum).
imported to Apsaros.15
grave goods included a gold dia- According to the written sources
From the typological and dem with the images of twisted a city was built by the order of
artistic-stylistic view point the snakes and solar symbol, ceram- Emperor Justinian I (527-565) on
decorative rectangular or cres- ics, glass vessels and metal ware, the southern border of Lazica,
cent-shaped gold buckles with silver adornments, fibulae, silver near the sea, on the place of an
chains ending in small discs rings with gems, coins. Accord- insignificant settlement. The Em-
of the Gonio and Kapandibi ing to the coins, the major part peror stated that he permitted
Hoards belong to one group of of which is represented with the city to be named after him
gold jewelry. The buckles are drachms of Caesarea of Cappa- Iustiniana. Petra was the place
decorated with stones, glass docia, the burials dated to the of the main battlefields between
paste inlay, granules and re- third-beginning of the fourth Byzantines and Iranians during
lief figures. Supposedly, they centuries AD. These new sites the war in the sixth century. Ac-
were used as a hair or garment discovered in the environs of cording to Procopius, in 550 the
decoration. Stylistically they the Apsaros Fortress during the Byzantines razed the walls of
are close to the samples of Col- recent years gave particular in- the fortress to the ground so as
chian goldsmithery of the Early dication about the level of pen- not to have any troubles from
antique Age and the symbols of etration of Roman culture into the enemy. In later Byzantine
images on them (a rider, birds, the hinterland.17 sources (sixth-ninth centuries)
99
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Petra is mentioned as the centre A(pollionaris) and are consid- terms of closing the routes along
of bishopric in Lazica under the ered to be initials of two Roman the narrow coastline strip to the
Constantinople Patriarchate.18 legions located in Cappadocia. central regions of Colchis as-
Other scholars find more accept- sumed that Romans had small
In the first decade of the
able interpretation of the stamp fort here before the foundation
20th century during construc-
as VEXILLATIO FASIANA. The of the city of Petra by Byzan-
tion works on the Tsikhisdziri
tines19.
coastline, a lot of interesting stamped brick could be dated
antique artifacts were found ac- to the second-fourth centuries. So called Tsikhisdziri Hoard
cidentally, among them is a Ro- Arrian says nothing of any Ro- comprising of the precious ar-
man stamped brick with letters man military presence here in tifacts (gold jewelry, silver and
132 AD, though discovery of bronze vessels, beads, coins)
VEXFA. There are two inter-
the stamped brick, Roman coins found by chance in the environs
pretations of this stamp. Accord-
of Tsikhisdziri dated to the sec-
ing to one version the letters are found by chance in the environs
ond-third cc AD. The hoard had
interpreted as VEX(illationis le- of Tsikhisdziri and the strategic
been kept in the Hermitage since
gionum XII) F(ulminatae et XV) importance of the site itself in
1907. It has been plausibly inter-
preted as the content of a rich
burial of the third century AD.
If the assumption is correct then
the gem bearing portrait of Lu-
cius Verus could be a diplomatic
gift presented to the local elite
representative.20
In 1962-65 archaeological ex-
cavations conducted on the ter-
ritory of the Tsikhisdziri fortress
revealed that the remains of the
acropolis of Petra were located
on two hills (Fig. 4). Two peri-
ods in wall construction can be
distinguished: the early Byz-
antine and Ottoman periods.
In the north-eastern part of the
citadel a gate of the early Byzan-
tine period has been discovered.
On the wall to the north of the
gate, a Maltese cross made of
Fig 4. Acropolis of Petra.
Layout of the Fortress ceramic tiles has been revealed.
and buildings. The Ottomans covered it with
100
Archaeological Sites in Environment of Batumi NINO INAISHVILI
lime mortar. The citadel and the tury and assume that it was the
tower were connected with dou- Petra cathedral. In their opinion,
ble-wall, probably a proteichisma. this explains its size, by which
The main entrance was made in the church can be distinguished
the wall connected the north- from other contemporary basili-
ern and southern hills and was cas in Western Georgia.22
flanked by two small rectangu-
The citadel was equipped
lar towers. This part of Petra for-
with a bath-house composed of
tress was constructed in the time
five different functional sections
of Justinian.21
arranged in enfilade. The ba-
The Middle Byzantine pe- silica and the bath-house consti-
riod (10th-14th cc) is compara- tute an architectural ensemble.23
tively poorly represented. The After the bath-house was closed
single nave chapel and the re- a wine-cellar functioned there,
mains of the storage revealed presumably in the Middle Byz-
on its northern part belong to antine period. Contemporary to
this period. According to the ar- the basilica and bathhouse are
cheological data the church was cisterns and well. To this period
functioned in the 10th-14th cc. and belong the fragments of differ-
it was erected over the ruins of ent types of amphorae, red-pol-
the sixth century basilica. ished jugs, red-slip pottery, jugs,
pots, bricks and tiles and glass
The basilica of Petra is a size-
ware (vessels, lamps).24
able building. All the scholars
date the basilica to the sixth cen- In 1964 the proto-colonial and
101
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
colonial settlement was excavat- carried out. Fieldworks con- portant role for the city, as Petra
ed on the hill to North-East of Pe- firmed scholars opinion that the was a significant Byzantine hub.
tra acropolis. It contained layers urban settlement of Petra was Byzantine strategos John Tzi-
from the late-bronze, early-iron, situated in the North of the for- bus established control of trade
tress and was stretched along the through a monopoly here26.
Classical, Hellenistic, Late-An-
tique and Early Medieval Ages25. shore for about 1 km distance The fieldwork on the ter-
(Fig. 5). It is assumed that the city ritory of urban settlement re-
In 1983-88 at about 500 m far used to extend to the mouth of vealed two bath-houses dated
to the North of acropolis, in the the river Dekhva that must have to the fourth century AD, a villa
narrow lowland coastline area been used as a harbor. The har- and a church of early-Byzantine
archaeological excavations were bor must have played a very im- period. Among the typical Late
Roman bath-houses (Fig. 6) one
was for public use and the other,
comparatively small, for private
use.27
The villa is the unity of dif-
ferent chambers with various
purposes (Fig. 7). Its dominant
part is an area which is extended
from south to north and gives
the impression of an inner yard.
From the north it is connected
Fig 6. Urban to a bath extending from west
settlement of to east. The inner yard on its
Petra. Plan of the
bathhouse.
southwest and southeast parts
has the outward square tower-
like constructions. A small cha-
pel with an apse on its east end
is built on the inner yard from
east side. The bath-house in the
north part of the building is
consists of six rooms with ac-
cess from one room to another
following the principle: apodi-
terium, frigidarium, tepidarium
and caldarium. It seems that the
Fig 7. Urban
villa had the stone wall circuit.
settlement of
Petra. Layout of 22 different size pithoi put in the
the villa. ground were discovered in the
102
Archaeological Sites in Environment of Batumi NINO INAISHVILI
103
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
104
Archaeological Sites in Environment of Batumi NINO INAISHVILI
long before the arrival of Greeks. clay altar with several compart- tory and culture of the eastern
The earliest level there is dated ments dedicated to a bull cult Black Sea region, particularly
around the middle of the sec- and fertility deity were found. the much discussed nature of
ond millennium BC. The hillock Later this area was used as a Greek colonization of the Black
seems to have been inhabited mass cemetery.35 Sea littoral.37 There is some dis-
continually down to the second agreement among the scholars
Pichvnari became progres-
century BC and beyond. Field- as to whether the evident differ-
sively more important from
work has shown that the princi- ences between the more or less
the Early Classical period, and
pal economic activity was farm- contemporary cemeteries are the
in the Classical and Hellenistic
ing. Apart from arable farming, result of ethnic distinctions38 or
periods it was one of the major
viticulture played an important the result of socio-economic dif-
colonial urban settlements of the
role, as did animal husbandry. ferentiation.39
eastern Black Sea littoral, with
Fishing was a major activity
close trading, economic and cul- According to Prof. D.Braund
thanks to proximity to rivers and
tural relations with other centres opinion Pichvnari burial grounds
the sea.32 The material brought
of the Classical world, though indicate the fundamental chang-
to light at Pichvnari site can help
no direct written evidence has es in burial practice in Colchis
us to reconstruct the various
survived about Pichvnari.36 through the sixth and fifth cen-
trades and crafts practiced in
Three major cemetery areas, turies BC. While the burials at
the eastern part of the Black Sea
directly related to the urban Pichvnari site were largely indi-
in antiquity. The Choloki-Och-
settlement, have been brought to vidual inhumations, many ear-
khamuri basin was, by the pre-
Classical period, a major centre light. Lying to the west, across lier burials excavated in Colchis
if iron and bronze metallurgy the river Choloki, these cemeter- were collective cremation-buri-
for the Pontic region.33 ies together occupy an area of up als. Charons obol had no place
to 20 ha. The North, or Colchian in traditional burial practice in
Eighth-seventh centuries BC Colchis. Burial contents includ-
Cemetery is situated on a natu-
dune settlements appeared along ing lekythoi, aryballoi, and strig-
ral elevation called Napurvala
the shore line to the west of the ils suggest the coexistence of the
by local residents, and has ap-
Pichvnari site. Within these were culture of the gymnasium with
parently local burials of the fifth
found altars built of horn-shaped a local culture. By the end of the
century. About 250m away the
stands arranged in tiers or plat- fifth century, a developed taste
West, or Greek Cemetery con-
forms for offerings, a reflection of for Greek artefacts can be ob-
tains many burials of the fifth-
the spiritual world of Colchis in served. Greek letters penetrated
fourth centuries. To the south
the Early Iron Age. As elsewhere into the hinterland of Colchis.
lies the South, or Hellenistic
these settlements came to an end The case of Pichvnari indicates
Cemetery. Up to date about 1000
in the sixth century BC. 34
pit burials have been discovered that in the sixth century BC pro-
A shrine-altar of the Late in Pichvnari so far. Remains of to-colonial relations hardened
Bronze Early Iron Age was a rich and diverse material cul- into settlements in which Greek
found in this area. Here numer- ture facilitate study of a number and Colchian cultures interacted
ous clay phalli and kernos-like of urgent problems of the his- and amalgamated.40
105
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
N OTE S RE FE RE N CE S
1 Kakhidze and Khakhutaishvili 1989, 5-41; Braund 2012, 219-22. Braund, D. 1994. Georgia in antiquity. Oxford.
2 Kakhidze and Khakhutaishvili 1989, 42-57. Braund, D. 2012. Ancient Batumi, Apsarus and the Kingdom of Iberia:
3 Lekvinadze 1974, 169-86; Mania and Natsvlishvili 2013, 279. Geography and Recent Archaeology. In Batumi. Past and Present.
4 Lekvinadze 1974, 169-86. 2, Proceedings of the International Conference, 219-228. Batumi
5 Kakhidze and Khakhutaishvili 1989, 59-125. Ebralidze, T. 2005. Samkhret-dasavlet saqartvelos zghvispireti gvianelinistursa
6 Braund 2012, 219-22. da romaul khanashi. Batumi.
7 Lekvinadze 1969, 75-93; Plontke-Lning 2003, 7-16. Inaishvili, I. and W. Seibt. 2006. Byzantinishe Siegel Aus Petra in
8 Lekvinadze 1961, 225-42; Braund 1994, 182-6. Westgeorgien, Studies in Sygillography 9: 1-9.
36 Vickers and Kakhidze 2001, 65. Kakhidze, E. and S. Mamuladze S. 2014. Batumi, Ajara, Georgia. Roman
37 See the publications of the results of the archaeological excavations art and Civilization - A Common Language in Antiquity. Catalogue
of Pichvnari burial grounds: Vickers and Kakhidze 2001; Vickers of the itinerant exhibition, edited by M. Iacob, 151- 186.
and Kakhidze 2004; Kakhidze 2007; Kakhidze and Vashakidze 2010; Kakhidze, A. and T. Shalikadze. 2009. Minis natsarmi samxret-dasavlet
Kakhidze and Kakhidze 2014; Vickers and Kakhidze, 2014. saqartvelos zgvispiretidan. Batumi.
38 Kakhidze 2007.
Kakhidze, A. and T. Shalikadze. 2015. Khelvachauris mutsipalitetis sof.
39 Braund 1994, 112-4. makhos 2013 tslis arqeologiuri gatkhrebis angarishi. In Ajara:
40 Braund 1994, 114-8. Past and Modernity, edited by A. Kakhidze, 104-131. Batumi.
106
Archaeological Sites in Environment of Batumi NINO INAISHVILI
107
Theodosian Harbour:
A Crossroad Between Black Sea and
the Mediterranean
Z e y n ep K z l t a n U fuk K o c a b a
ABSTRACT
Rescue excavations been the stage of meeting, clashes,
conducted at Yenikap quarter of and convivencia for the oriental
Istanbul proper by the Istanbul and occidental civilisations,
Archaeological Museums from various cultures, assumed a
2004 to 2013 have brought to variety of names like Nea Roma,
light the Theodosian Harbour, an Constantinopolis, Constantiniyya,
important port on the Marmara Dar al-saadet, Asitane, Deraliyye,
coastline of the city. In addition to Tsarigrad, Istinpolin and Islambol.
thousands of artefacts uncovered The rescue excavations at Yenikap
an assembly of thirty-seven sunken have been the most comprehensive
medieval shipwrecks datable to one in Istanbul in the recent
the fifth-eleventh centuries, which years and have cast light onto the
constitutes the largest assembly Theodosian Harbour and ancient
of medieval ships uncovered at a history of Istanbul proposing new
single site. Istanbul, which has perspectives.
109
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Theodosian Harbour building a mole at this deep The harbour served the Em-
cove at the mouth of the Lykos pire from the fourth to the sev-
Theodosian Harbour, one
(Bayrampaa) Creek. There is a enth century and lost most of its
of the most important ports
variety of ideas and proposals function when Egypt was con-
of the Byzantine Empire, was
founded at a cove penetrat- for the name and establishment quered by the Muslim Arabs in
ing deeply into the land on the of the harbour in the Byzan- 641, thus terminating the ship-
Propontic (Marmara) coastline tine period. The Eleutherian ment of grains. This is evinced
of the city Presence of store- Harbour mentioned to have with the facts that amphorae of
houses like the Horrea Theo- been located at the same place the East Mediterranean, Egypt
dosiana located at the eastern as the Theodosian Harbour and Palestine origin dating
end suggests that this harbour is claimed to be its predeces- to the fourth-seventh centu-
was a large one where grains sor and accepted to have been ries are numerous in quantity
and other merchandise were founded in the reign of Con- whereas finds of the seventh-
brought in by ships from Al- stantine I. Sources from the eighth centuries are few3. How-
exandria and elsewhere1. The sixth-ninth centuries mention ever, the harbour started to fill
harbour was probably estab- the harbour as Kaisarios Har- up in the west with the silt and
lished in the reign of Emperor bour named after the nearby rubble brought in by the Lykos
Theodosius I (AD 379-395) by quarter of the city2 (Fig. 1). Creek but the eastern side re-
Fig 1.
Konstantinopolis
and the Theodosian
Harbour
110
Theodosian Harbour: A Crossroad Between Black Sea and the Mediterranean Z. KIZILTAN, U. KOCABA
111
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Fig 3. Porcelain bowl, at -1 m level were numerous re- 6.30 m below the modern sea
18th-19th c.
mains of processed wood and level. The finds belong to the
rope fragments and thus it was Pottery Neolithic period and
decided to expand the excava- are of utmost importance for
tions. Extended rescue excava- the prehistory of the region7.
tions uncovered a great part of The excavations were contin-
the Theodosian Harbour, which ued until -10 m level where the
was the the largest commercial Miocene strata came to light.
transportation centre of Kon- The cultural deposit of 13 m
stantinopolis from the fourth thickness contained strata of
to the eleventh century. At the Ottoman, Byzantine and Neo-
bottom of the harbour deposit lithic periods; artefacts from the
is a prehistoric cultural layer at Archaic, Classical and Helle-
112
Theodosian Harbour: A Crossroad Between Black Sea and the Mediterranean Z. KIZILTAN, U. KOCABA
Ottoman Period
Excavations in the south of
Zone 1 at Yenikap brought to
light an Ottoman period com-
plex of buildings with multi-
ple rooms, built with irregular
stones partly with mud mortar
and partly with khurasan mor-
tar, and much later with con- Byzantine Period Fig 4. Water-wheel from the
crete, and a cistern probably Ottoman period
113
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
the mole, and part of the harbour were uncovered around it. Both
fortifications. Rectangular holes the masonry technique and the
cut into the large blocks of the coins suggest a date in the fourth
north-south pier should have century for this wall; thus, it
been used for mooring the ships. may belong to the Constantinian
The extant length of the pier is walls of the city9.
25 m and its width is 2.80 m; it
was built on sandy bottom8. The Church Remains
sea bottom descended eastward The church uncovered in
from the pier and about 30 stone the northwest part of Yenikap
anchors were uncovered there. excavation site was built in the
Part of the Theodosian fortifica- twelfth-thirteenth centuries. It
tion walls built with alternating measures 9.50 x 11.45 m; it had
rows of ashlars and bricks was a single apse in the first phase
uncovered on the western border of use but an aisle was built
of the harbour. The walls make a with simple stone masonry to
corner in the southwest and con- the north and south sides mak-
tinue eastward. Right beneath the ing the church into a three-
corner is a wall of 4.40 m width, apsed one (Fig. 6). No flooring
built with ashlars and khurasan was attested in any of the three
mortar, whose 54 m length was aisles. A total of twenty-two
Fig 5. Architectural remains
uncovered at Insula 100 in the
followed; bronze coins from the graves were uncovered inside
west part of the harbour reign of Constantine I (324-337) and outside the church. Two of
114
Theodosian Harbour: A Crossroad Between Black Sea and the Mediterranean Z. KIZILTAN, U. KOCABA
Piers
One of the structures of the khurasan mortar and broken
Theodosian Harbour is the stones inside. The pillars built
piers, which add up to twenty at intervals were connected
in number (Fig. 7). Two of the with arches. Dendrochronologi-
piers were built with stones cal analyses on the timber pieces
whereas the rest are of timber. of this pier and artefacts from
Samples taken from the posts around indicate a date at the
of these north-south piers were end of the eighth or early ninth
analysed dendrochronologically century for its construction. The
and it was seen that the piers northwestern pier is damaged to
started to be built in the early a great extent. Remains uncov-
fifth century. One of the stone ered indicate it was also built
piers is located in the northeast with timber moulds.
Fig 7. Remains of
wooden piers
and the other in the northwest
of the Metro excavation area.
The northeastern pier extends in
the southwest-northeast orienta-
tion and has five pillars placed
at intervals. The southwestern-
most pillar is pentagon in form
while the remaining four are
rectangular. The total length de-
termined for the pillars is 32.50
m. The timber attested in their
foundations should have served
as moulds. The pier rose on top
of the moulds; it was built with
marble and limestone blocks on
the periphery and filled with
115
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Dendrochronological analy- have anything that will make it to-one drawings, examination,
ses were conducted on samples superior to us. Thus, this ban- evaluation and construction
taken from the timber pier in In- ning would also encompass ser- techniques (Fig. 9). The first data
sula 100 and it was seen that it vices in addition to products. obtained indicate details point-
was in use between 527-610 and The Epanagoge in the last quarter ing to transition period construc-
it was repaired in 539 and 591. of the tenth century writes that tion with both shell-first and
those that teach shipbuilding frame-first techniques (Fig. 10).
Shipwrecks art to the barbarians will be pun- Some wrecks of Yenikap dating
The thirty-seven shipwreck ished with death penalty. relatively earlier have planking
uncovered at Yenikap reveal the For the time being, as the joined with pegged or unpegged
rich variety of marine transpor- excavations at Yenikap have mortise and tenon joints. Most of
tation of the Byzantine Empire been just completed, ship ex- the ships feature dowels joining
(Fig. 8). Byzantine authors men- perts of the Istanbul University the planking strakes. The third
tion sea vessels with names like continue their work on 27 of group includes the ships with
naus, ploion, xylon, holkas, kara- the shipwrecks including one- no edge-joinery in the planking.
bion without giving any details.
Small sailing boats like sandalia,
agraria, kondurai were used for
food transportation in coastal
seafaring with nearby regions;
ships called strongyla and pam-
phyloi were used for overseas
commerce whereas the navy
used narrow and slender ships
called dromones, khelandia, pam-
phyloi and ousiaka. Ships uncov-
ered at the Theodosian Harbour,
which presents us with a mo-
ment frozen in time, cast light
onto the development of ship-
building traditions in the Medi-
terranean. The terms neorion and
exartysis indicate dockyards and
shipbuilding sites in the Byz-
antine period. Leo VIs laws in-
clude one that banned teaching
foreigners the art of shipbuild-
ing. This law was based on the
principle of the enemy must not
116
Theodosian Harbour: A Crossroad Between Black Sea and the Mediterranean Z. KIZILTAN, U. KOCABA
117
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Fig 9. Studies on ships called dromons12. Although ses. Surviving pieces include
shipbuilding the study of the galleys is not yet the keel, keelson, a fragment of
complete, preliminary evidence the stem, most of the frame sys-
shows that all four galleys have tem, two stringers, two wales,
dowels joining the plank edges and planking. There are evenly
while planks within a strake are spaced notches for the oarsmens
joined with long S-shaped scarfs. thwarts on the wale. Planking
YK 16, which is thought to be was joined in strakes with S-
a galea-type vessel used in the shaped scarfs, and strakes are
Byzantine navy, was un- edge-joined with widely spaced
covered at a level of dowels with intervals ranging
1.30/1.80 m. Its from 0.7 m to more than 2 m. Sci-
extant length is entific studies and conservation
22.50 m and are in progress13.
width is
Merchantmen
2.40 m (Fig.
11a). It is Typical merchantmen of the
dated to Byzantine Empire were rela-
AD 720 tively small vessels with a pair
890 by of quarter rudders at the stern,
radio- lateen sails, shallow keels, and
Fig 10. Digital drawing of carbon curving stems and sternposts,
YK12 wreck analy- which gave a round look to the
118
Theodosian Harbour: A Crossroad Between Black Sea and the Mediterranean Z. KIZILTAN, U. KOCABA
hull. This was a standard de- when compared with other Fig 11. Galleys, merchantmen, and
coasters identified in the course of
scription for sailing ships across ships from the site15. It was un-
excavations
the Mediterranean until the end covered at a level of 0.69 m,
of the 13th century14. The Yenikap lying in a north-west south-
wrecks provide the archaeologi- east orientation. The wreck con-
tained large amounts of baked-
cal evidence to support it.
clay brick fragments and mortar
YK 3 (Fig. 11b) is considered residue. Its extant length is 9.12
a medium-sized merchantman m and width is 2.28 m. The YK
119
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
3 wreck is dated by radiocarbon is rabbeted to receive the gar- go consisting of bricks, tiles, and
analyses to AD 668987. IAM board, which was fastened using marble needed for construction
experts were able to date stamps iron nails. The bottom planking work in Constantinople.
on some of the bricks recovered was edgefastened with dowels.
YK 12 was excavated togeth-
to the 5th6th centuries AD. The The first wale on the starboard
er with its cargo of amphorae
obvious disparity in these dat- side was fastened to the bottom (Fig. 11c)18, a separate compart-
ing methods will be explored planking with dowels, but there ment at the stern contained per-
with additional radiocarbon is no trace of dowels on the up- sonal belongings, probably of
dates and the use of dendro- per edge of the wale. The floor the captain. The ship was uncov-
chronological dating. Detailed timbers were fastened to the ered at a level of 1.30 m, lying
work on the ships construction keel with iron nails hammered in an eastwest orientation. Its
techniques is currently being from the inside. Floor timbers preserved length is 7 m, while
conducted by Ayegl etiner16. and planking were fastened the bottom is 2.3 m at the wid-
In contrast to most of the wrecks with treenails hammered from est point. It is dated to the 9th
uncovered at Yenikap, YK 3 the inboard and iron nails ham- century based on a coin find,
was found lying on its starboard mered from the exterior of the while the radiocarbon analyses
side, rather than its bottom; as planking, most commonly with on three samples give a date
a result, the starboard side has two nails and one treenail at range of AD 672876. Surviv-
survived from the keel to the each plank-frame junction. The ing parts of the vessel include
first wale, while the port side is wale was fastened to the floor the keel, lower stem and stern-
absent. The keel, 11 starboard timbers and futtocks with iron posts, 17 strakes of planking, 25
planking strakes, 1 wale, 26 nails17. A bulkhead is situated on frames, a mast-step, 43 ceiling
floor timbers and 13 futtocks, frame no. 19, toward the stern, planks, two wales, and part of
and eight strakes of ceiling in where the ceiling ends. This the bulwarks. All of the extant
the hold have survived. The defines a stern compartment planking has dowel edgefasten-
timbers were extremely soft and which may have been used by ers. The first wale to starboard
disintegrating. Damage by Tere- the captain or the crew for stor- was aligned with the bottom
do navalis is especially prevalent age. Similar bulkheads are also planking using dowels. The keel
on the wale, which suggests that seen on YK 21 and YK 29. Mar- has survived in its entirety with
it remained exposed under wa- ble fragments uncovered in situ keyed hook-scarfs used to join it
ter for some time. An important between the floor timbers of YK to the stem and sternpost. Plank-
feature seen on this ship is the 3 cast light on the route of the ing samples were found to be
thick ceiling in the hold. Ceiling vessel. YK 3 may be linked with chestnut (Castanea sativa). Planks
has often been poorly preserved Marmara (Proconnesos) Island, within a strake were joined with
and fragmentary on wrecks of which was an important source S-shaped scarfs. Ceiling planks
this period found in the Medi- for marble. That the vessels were laid overlapping each oth-
terranean, but it is possible to ceiling planks are quite thick, er and fixed to the floor timbers
study it in detail on some of the 2040 mm suggesting that its using iron nails. The mast-step
wrecks from Yenikap. The keel cargo was heavy, such as a car- of ash (Fraxinus sp.) is positioned
120
Fig 12. Yenikap,
Neolithic period burial
121
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
very close to the centre of the that the vessel sank in a sum- floors would have facilitated its
vessel. A lidded, portable cook- mer kaak storm. It is possible sailing in shallow waters, while
ing stove, a cooking pot, tankard to suggest a similar explanation its wider bow would have im-
and jugs, glass goblet fragments, for the sinking of other vessels proved steering against strong
and two amphorae placed in the uncovered in the same sediment waves, as seen in the design of
bottom of the private compart- deposit. According to the results some Black Sea vessels today20.
ment are of great importance for of reconstruction studies con- Digital drawings were complet-
they may indicate the home port ducted by Il zsait-Kocaba, ed and building technology was
and identity of the captain and YK 12 was a coaster about 9.60 studied by Il zsait-Kocaba
his mate. Crimean amphorae m long and 2.60 m wide19. It had for her doctoral dissertation at
of the 9th century constitute the a single mast and contempo- the IU Department of Conser-
cargo and point to a connection rary iconographic evidence sug- vation of Marine Archaeologi-
between YK 12 and the Black gests a lateen sailalthough a cal Objects21. The waterlogged
Sea. Cherries found in a basket, square sail cannot be excluded. timbers of the wreck have been
also in the stern, reveal the sea- It was likely steered with a pair impregnated with a 45% solu-
son when the vessel sank. Cher- of quarter rudders, typical of the tion of PEG 2000; the conserva-
ries ripen in June and July in the period, although no remains or tion process will be completed
Marmara region and this find direct indication of such was re- by freeze-drying in 2015 and the
thus corroborates the suggestion covered. Its hull form with flat vessel will be prepared for exhi-
122
Theodosian Harbour: A Crossroad Between Black Sea and the Mediterranean Z. KIZILTAN, U. KOCABA
123
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
N OTE S RE FE RE N CE S
1. Mller-Wiener 1998: 8. Asal, R., 2007. Commerce in Istanbul and the Port of Theodosius,
2. Magdalino 2013, 14. in: A. Karamani-Pekin and S. Kangal (eds), Istanbul: 8000 Years,
Brought to Daylight. Marmaray, Metro and Sultanahmet Excavations,
3. Asal 2007: 155. 1809. Istanbul.
4. Berger 1994: 263.
Berger, A., 1994. Theodosius Liman. Dnden Bugne stanbul
5. Gyllius, De Topographia Constantinopoleos, IV, VIII Ansiklopedisi, VII, 263.
6. Karamut 2007: 10-17; Kzltan, 2007: 18-21.
etiner, A., 2013. Yenikap 3: A Merchantman Carryng the Past, in:
7. Kzltan 2011: 305-308 Z. Kzltan (ed.), Stories from the Hidden Harbor: The Shipwrecks of
8. Gkay 2007: 171. Yenikap, 5663. Istanbul.
9. Gkay 2007: 172-173. Gkay, M., 2007. Architectural Finds from the Yenikap Excavation,
10. Kocaba and zsait-Kocabas 2013; Kocaba 2015. in: A. Karamani-Pekin and S. Kangal (eds), Istanbul: 8000 Years,
11. zsait-Kocaba and Kocaba 2008, 17682. Brought to Daylight. Marmaray, Metro and Sultanahmet Excavations,
16779. Istanbul.
12. Sakelliades 1997: 4754; Pryor and Jeffreys 2006: 190; Pulak 2007:
12841. Gyllius, P., De Topographia Constantinopoleos (stanbulun Tarihi Eserleri),
13. zsait-Kocaba and Kocaba 2008: 176183. trans. E. zbayolu (trans.), 1997. Istanbul.
14. Pryor 2004: 43. Karamut, ., 2007. Excavations Conducted Under the Auspices of
15. zsait-Kocaba and Kocaba 2008: 15263. Istanbul Archaeological Museums, in: A. Karamani-Pekin
and S. Kangal (eds), Istanbul: 8000 Years, Brought to Daylight.
16. etiner 2013: 5663.
Marmaray, Metro and Sultanahmet Excavations, 1017. Istanbul.
17. Kocaba and zsait-Kocaba 2010.
Kzltan, Z.. 2007, Marmaray Project and the 8000 years of Istanbul
18. zsait-Kocaba and Kocaba 2008: 11224; zsait-Kocaba 2010;
Brought to Daylight, in: A. Karamani-Pekin and S. Kangal
zsait-Kocaba 2011b; zsait-Kocaba 2013: 4755.
(eds), Istanbul: 8000 Years, Brought to Daylight. Marmaray, Metro
19. zsait-Kocaba 2012. and Sultanahmet Excavations, 1821. Istanbul.
20. zsait- Kocaba 2011c: 60.
Kzltan, Z., 2010. Excavations at Yenikap, Sirkeci and skdar
21. zsait-Kocaba 2010; zsait-Kocaba 2011b; zsait-Kocaba 2012. within Marmaray and Metro Projects, in: U. Kocaba (ed.),
22. Kzltan 2010: 1-16. Archaeological Museums, Proceedings of the 1st Symposium on
Marmaray-Metro Salvage Excavations 5th6th May 2008, 116.
Istanbul.
124
Theodosian Harbour: A Crossroad Between Black Sea and the Mediterranean Z. KIZILTAN, U. KOCABA
Pryor, J. H. and Jeffreys, E. M., 2006. The Age of the POMN. Leiden
and Boston.
125
The Commercial Relations Between
Aegean and the Black Sea on the
Basis of the Testimony of the Early
Christian Amphoras
Eugenia Gerousi
127
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
128
The Commercial Relations Between Aegean and the Black Sea EUGENIA GEROUSI
129
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
130
The Commercial Relations Between Aegean and the Black Sea EUGENIA GEROUSI
131
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
132
The Commercial Relations Between Aegean and the Black Sea EUGENIA GEROUSI
In the course of the last years, shore of the Black Sea, at Sinope Fig 5. Sinopian carrot
amphoras from the
there has been significant re- and Herakleia, on the north- Athenian Agora.
search on the subject of amphoras ern coast, at Chersonesos and
produced in workshops located its territory, and rarely on the
along the Black Sea coastline and eastern, Colchian shore. From
found in Greek territory. a chronological point of view,
The detailed study of the they cover a long period of time
pottery discovered at the Villa from Hellenistic to late Roman
of Dionysus of Knossos by John period.14 According to Opait,
Hayes13 and the recent research the so-called Sinopean carrot
undertaken by Andrei Opait in amphora with its subtypes oc-
the Stoa of Attalos in Athens, cur also among the Athenian
demonstrated that Pontic am- finds from the third quarter of
phoras are far more consistently the 4th c onwards and mainly in
present on Mediterranean sites the 5th c (Fig. 5). The excavation
than had previously been as- at Demirci has uncovered one
sumed. These wine amphoras of the workshops that produced
were made on the southern this type, which was well known
133
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
all over the Black Sea area. In ad- Plaka have close parallels in the coarse pottery, without any spe-
dition a number of shipwrecks archaeological assemblages from cial decoration, and their gener-
carrying that type have been the Crimean and southern Rus- al shapes, against other pottery
identified off Sinope. Neverthe- sian settlements and cities dated kinds did not change dramati-
less, perhaps more remarkable is from the third quarter of the 6th cally through time. Their dating
the appearance in the Athenian to the first quarter of the 7th c. In demands to take into account
Agora of the Sinopean imitation addition to the two main groups, the historical and archaeologi-
of LRA 1 dated in the 5th c.; it other smaller groups of ampho- cal information of the sites they
seems to have been distributed ras or isolated samples have were found. The progress on
all over the eastern Medittera- been attributed to different pro- their study has offered much
nean where sinopean wine was duction centers. In any case each to the knowledge over the sea-
widely exported. cargo seem to have contained borne commerce which took
amphoras of multiple origins, a place in the Mediterranean Sea
Shipwrecks are an important
feature that may be common in of the early-byzantine period by
source of information concern-
ing the trafficking of products the late 6th -7th c.15 merchants and navigators who
and the commercial relations, This is also the case of an- acted independently or on be-
despite the fact that underwater other well-known shipwreck, half of the state and the supply
research is both costly and time- that of Yassi Ada dating from of its citizens and army.
consuming. the early 7th c. and excavated
between 1961 and 1964.16 The
One shipwreck discovered
recent archaeometric analysis,
off the cape of Plaka carried two
namely ceramic petrography,
main types of amphoras, LRA
focusing on a limited sample
1 and carrot amphoras, and
drawn from among the LR 1
can be dated between the sec-
amphoras, has shown a fabric
ond quarter of the 6th and the
diversity, with perhaps as many
third quarter of the 7th c. Pre-
as ten fabrics falling into three
liminary results of petrographic
distinct groups. Although these
and chemical analyses show that
fabrics or groups cannot yet be
the two types of amphoras do
linked with certainty to indi-
not correspond to a single pro-
vidual production centers, their
duction. Among the reference
mineralogical differences point
samples from Cypriot and Asia
to a variety of areas that may in-
Minor workshops, Plakas main
clude Cilicia as well as other re-
group of LRA1 shows a fairly
gions, like northwest Syria and
good match with amphoras from
Cyprus.
Rhosos/Arsuz, in south- eastern
Turkey and this site was sug- The archaeological value of
gested as the origin of part of the the amphoras was not always
cargo. The carrot amphorae from given, since they belong to the
134
The Commercial Relations Between Aegean and the Black Sea EUGENIA GEROUSI
N OTE S RE FE RE N CE S
1 Diamanti 2010b; Diamanti 2010a. Barnea, I.1966. L incendie de la cit de Dinogetia au Vie sicle. Dacia
2 Diamanti 2010b, 80-7, 207-8. N.S.10: 237-59.
3 Barnea 1966, 244-5, 254. Biernacki, A.B. and E. Klenina, 2010. Trade Relations between the
4 Radulescu 1973, 193-207. lower Danube region and Mediterranean in the Late Roman
period: the ceramic evidence from Novae (Moesia Secunda), In
5 Tudor 1945-47, 174. S. Menchelli, S. Santoro, M. Pasquinucci and G. Guiducci (eds),
6 Radulescu 1973, 193-207; Scorpan 1976, 178. LRCW3. Late Roman Coarse Wares, Cooking Wares and Amphorae
7 Diamanti 2010a, 88-92, 209. in the Mediterranean, Archaeology and Archaeometry, British
Archaeological Report, International Series, 2185, II, 983 992.
8 Didioumi 2014.
Oxford, Archaeopress.
9 Gerousi 2014.
Diamanti, Ch. 2010a. Local production and import of amphoras at Halasarna
10 Papavassiliou et al. 2014.
of Kos island (5th 6th c.). Athens.
11 Klenina 2010; Biernacki and Klenina 2-10; Klenina 2014.
Diamanti, Ch. 2010b. Local Late Roman / Early Byzantine amphoras from
12 Sazanov 2014.
Halasarna on Kos. In
13 Hayes 1983. (3-7 . ..),
14 Opait 2010. (, 12-16 2006) edited by
D. Papanikola-Bakirtzi and D. Kousoulakou, 143-52. Thessaloniki:
15 Waksman et al. 2014.
Publications of the Archaeological Institute of Macedonian and
16 Leidwanger 2014. Thracian Studies 8.
135
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
136
Commerce et Navigation dans la
Mer Noire dans les Documents
pigraphiques et Iconographiques
Livia Buzoianu
137
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
on apportait Athnes des grains des rgions du on faisait des changes rciproques (rapports aux
Pont et, en change, on transportait vers le Pont conditions conomiques et politiques de la zone).
diverses sortes de vin.
,
.
. , ,
.
,
15 ,
, .
. (Polybe, IV. 38. 4, 5.)
.
B . So urce s p igra p hiq ue s
(Dmosthne, , [466], 31) B .1. La pr se nce d e s ports
138
Commerce et Navigation dans la Mer Noire LIVIA BUZOIANU
139
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Une inscription de Callatis guaient vers la ville dOl- caractre chrtien de la stle
fait allusion la loi qui traitait bia ( et sur lorigine juive du mar-
du partage des risques dans les chand.
affaires de prt maritime (ISM ).
Linscription soutient les in- Nous retenons ici la prsence
III 36): la loi en cause prvoyait,
formations sur le commerce des Alexandrins Tomis, bien
semble-t-il, la limitation de la
entre les villes de lOuest et atteste en temps par la cra-
responsabilit du transporteur
du Nord du Pont Euxin ain- mique, les divinits, les asso-
en cas de force majeure, le risque
si que la qualit de port de ciations ethniques (
tant assum par le crditeur
transit/ou port descale pour ; voir plus loin).
(voir la discussion en entier et
la bibliographie dans ISM III, p. Tyras. Le terme est recon-
304-307). Mme Callatis sont nu aussi dans deux inscriptions
Deux autres inscriptions
connus les tribunaux maritimes fragmentaires de IIe-IIIe s. ap.
sinscrivent dans la srie des
et la catgorie des J.-C. (ISM II 320 et ISM II 403, la
documents qui attestent la pr-
(ISM III 38, 39). Le dernier premire probablement au ca-
sence des Bithyniens dans les
terme dsigne les magistrats ractre funraire, la deuxime
villes du Pont Euxi:
qui introduisaient en justice les un album de noms).
linscription pour Stratokles
causes des affaires maritimes.
de la Prousia sur Hippios:
Il sagit dune magistrature or- B . 3 . 2 . Le s a rm a te u rs
dinaire (annuelle) atteste aus- ( )
[] (ISM II
si dans dautres villes grecques
248; IIe s. ap. J.-C.); La mention spciale du terme
(Athnes, phse, Lampsaque,
Amorgos, Temnos et Clazo- linscription grave sur un apparat sur quelques inscrip-
mnes; voir ISM III l. c.). sarcophage en calcaire fait tions de Tomis et de Callatis:
la mention du sur une stle en marbre de IIe
B. 3. Les ca t go ri e s s. ap. J.-C. on trouve le nom
professio nne l l e s qui a vcu de Thocritos fils du Theo-
dcemment 58 annes (ISM critos, armateur surnomm
B. 3 . 1 . Le s commerant s
II 462; IIe-IIIe s. ap. J.-C.); aussi le roi (
( ) .
). Les images
ISM II 463 (=IGLR 28 ; IVe s.
La catgorie des est qui accompagnent linscrip-
ap. J.-C. fait la mention de
mieux atteste Tomis. En sui- tion reprsentent un homme
until, fils de Seppon mar-
vant lordre de catalogue (ISM debout, dans la partie sup-
chand de vin, originaire
II) on retient: rieure de la stle, et un na-
dAlexandrie (
vire, au-dessous (ISM II 186);
ISM II 5: le bnficiaire du ).
dcret est Nylos de Tyras Selon les symboles gravs sur un autel en calcaire une
qui prenait soin de tous sur la pierre (le rameau de femme au nom grec - Epipha-
les commerants de notre palme et la pentagramme ou nia-, prsente son curriculum
ville [Tomis] qui navi- pentalpha) on a opin sur le vitae: elle est ne dune mre
140
Commerce et Navigation dans la Mer Noire LIVIA BUZOIANU
athnienne et dun pre ori- et du Caesar Marc Aurle. presque coniques (env. 0,40 m
ginaire dHrmione. Elle a Constitue en grande mesure le diamtre et env. 0,475 en pro-
beaucoup voyag par mer par des commerants, dans fondeur). Linscription est trs
parce que son pre et son lassociation des Alexandrins probablement une ddicace du
poux taient armateurs sont inclus aussi des arma- magistrat () charg
( teurs. de mesurer et de vrifier la ca-
pacit des vases (ISM II 388; IIIe
Deux monuments diffrents
; ISM II 375); s. ap. J.-C.).
de Tomis se rfrent au col-
toujours Tomis, une ins- lge des armateurs: une ddi- La deuxime pice cest un
cription fragmentaire de IIe- cace pour Marc Aurle honor paralllpipde en marbre (0,42
IIIe s. ap. J.-C. fait la mention comme Caesar et fils de lem- x 0,22 m) ayant une concavit
dun anonyme pereur Antonin le Pieux est ri- sur la face suprieure. Tous les
(ISM II 291); ge par cts portent linscription de
(ISM II 60). Flavius Serbandus
sur un inscription fragmen-
(spectabilis co-
taire de Callatis de Ier s. av. Le deuxime monument est
mes et dux; ISM II 390, Ve s. ap.
J.-C. on a essay une possible consacr la desse Hestia par
J.C.).
reconstitution des termes un donateur de lassociation des
[ ][] (l. 6) et armateurs (
C . In s c r ipt io n s vot ives
[]; ; ISM II 132; IIe
et ico n o gra p hie
ISM III 39, l. 12-13). s. ap. J.-C.).
Le grand nombre dassocia- Nous avons en vue les divi-
B. 3 . 3 . Le s as s oc i at i on s tions darmateurs attestes et nits marines et du commerce
( ; co lle g i a) les armateurs individuels sont prsentes dans les textes pigra-
explicables pour une ville com- phiques ou dans liconographie
Les inscriptions de Tomis des trois villes pontiques Histria,
merciale comme Tomis.
font lpreuve de lexistence des Tomis et Callatis.
associations ethniques et profes-
B. 4. Auxilia/Instrumenta Parmi les divinits marines
sionnelles:
Posidon () le dieu
linscription votive mise Dans la catgorie des auxilia
traditionnel des Ioniens, occupe
par Karpion fils dAnou- ou instrumenta nous avons inclus
une place importante. Son nom
bios au nom de lassociation les objets destination mtrolo-
est accompagn de diverses pi-
des Alexandrins ( gique: un dimodium ()
clses: (Histria, ISM I
) pour Sarapis et une balance de vrification
143; Tomis, ISM II 151),
().
et les dieux honors dans le (Histria, ISM I 57), /
mme temple (ISM II 153); Le premier cest un bloc en (ISM III 48, 49). La
le monument est bien dat marbre, sous la forme dune table divinit bnficie dassociations
de 160 ap. J.-C., au temps de () qui maintient sur la religieuses - (His-
lempereur Antonin le Pieux face suprieure deux concavits tria, ISM I 57, 60, 61) de prtre
141
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
142
Commerce et Navigation dans la Mer Noire LIVIA BUZOIANU
dans le mme complexe. Les deux personnages prs dune dautres, particulires: des cat-
deux pices constietuent un ar- proue de navire; cest un na- gories spciales de magistrats
gument pour le fonctionnement vire de pche qui indique, ( Tomis et Callatis), la pr-
commercial de ldifice mo- parat-il, loccupation dun minence de Histria lpoque
saque de Tomis. des personnages (ISM III de son autonomie dans des ac-
165; IIe s. av. J.-C.); tions qui engageaient la flotte,
D. Liconographie des
navires sur divers les images des navires sur la prsence des armateurs et des
monuments les parois des glises en associations professionnelles et
craie de Basarabi (XIe s. ap. ethniques ( Tomis). La plupart
Nous avons dj signal la
J.-C.) dnotent linfluence ou des documents pigraphiques
prsence des navires ou des
parties des navires sur quelques mme la prsence dune po- provient de Tomis. Cette situa-
monuments. Elle indique soit pulation dorigine nordique tion correspond au rle de plus
loccupation des individus (dans (vikings?). La possible iden- en plus important que la ville
le cas de Thocritos fils de Tho- tification ethnique a comme acquiert la fin de la priode
critos armateur; ISM II 186), soit lment dappui lexistence hellnistique et surtout pendant
la nature des divinits (dans le de la voie commerciale entre toute lpoque romaine.
groupe statuaire Fortuna et Pon- les Pays Scandinaves et
tos). A cette srie on ajoute: Constantinople.
143
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
PLATE 1
144
Commerce et Navigation dans la Mer Noire LIVIA BUZOIANU
PLATE 2
145
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
PLATE 3
146
Constantinople Receiving Icons;
a New Approach to an Old Issue
N i k o l a o s D . S i o mk o s
147
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
148
Constantinople Receiving Icons; a New Approach to an Old Issue NIKOLAOS D. SIOMKOS
The recently published bilat- solype dating from the begin- the Crucifixion on the icons
eral icon from the Hagia Triada ning of the fourteenth century, back side, the last quarter of
church in Chalki is of particular has been attached to a larger the fourteenth century14. How-
interest to the present discus- painted frame, decorated with ever, we think that the actual
sion. As already suggested, the Christological scenes (Fig. 3), image of the Virgin must be a
central icon of the Virgin Pau- which dates from, similarly to repaint most probably from the
149
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
sixteenth century (Fig. 4), due ciated with the Cretan school.
to stylistic similarities with the The unpublished Apocalypse
sixteenth century icons of Christ icon (Fig. 6) from the church of
Pantocrator and Virgin Hode- Virgin Kafatiani in Galata16 is
getria (Fig. 5) on the iconostasis apparently a copy of the famous
of the same church15. Should Patmian icon of Thomas Bathas,
this be the case and the central dating from 159617, despite the
image of the Virgin Pausolype over-paintings along its sides.
was repainted in Chalki when Moreover, it is quite probable
the despotic icons of the iconos- that under the silver revetment
tasis were also created, then we of another icon from the iconos-
have an indirect indication for tasis of Virgin Eleousa (Fig. 7) in
the presence in Constantinople Pringepos (Bykada)18 an im-
of artists employing the Cretan portant Cretan school work is to
schools manners. be found.
The icons mentioned above The Patriarchate of Constan-
are not the only examples asso- tinople also possesses, quite
150
Constantinople Receiving Icons; a New Approach to an Old Issue NIKOLAOS D. SIOMKOS
151
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
around 1500 and its artist must icon can be placed with some
be linked with two other works certainty in the middle of the
in Cyprus: the Archangel Mi- sixteenth century.
chael icons in the churches of The icon of the Virgin
Panaghia Podithou22 and Saint Hodegetria27 (Fig. 10),
Nikolaos in Paphos23 respec- has, until recently,
tively. The second Cypriot icon been viewed as a
is a quite damaged Vita Icon of Palaiologan work;
Saint John Lampadistis24 (Fig. according to Sotiri-
9), a local Cypriot saint. Only ou it originates
three other Vita Icons of this from Mount
saint have been preserved, all in Athos28. In a
Cyprus; two of them date from previous study,
the thirteenth century25 and the however, we
third one the seventeenth26. In argued that the
stylistic terms, the Patriarchate icon features
Fig 8. Ecumenical
Patriarchate.
Icon of Archangel
Michael Tharenos
Fig 9. Ecumenical
Patriarchate. Vita Icon of
Saint John Lampadistis
152
Constantinople Receiving Icons; a New Approach to an Old Issue NIKOLAOS D. SIOMKOS
153
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
154
Constantinople Receiving Icons; a New Approach to an Old Issue NIKOLAOS D. SIOMKOS
Fig 13. Serbian church. Fig 14. Serbian church. Fig 15. Serbian church.
Destroyed icon of the Virgin Hodegetria Destroyed icon of Christ Pantocrator Destroyed icon of Saint Nikolaos
155
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
156
Constantinople Receiving Icons; a New Approach to an Old Issue NIKOLAOS D. SIOMKOS
157
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
N OTE S 14 Millas 2000, 220-1; Evans 2004, 167-9 no 90 (A.-M. Weyl Carr); Vas-
silaki 2010, 71-3 (A.-M. Weyl Carr).
1 Georgios Sotiriou (1937) was the first to study some of the most im-
portant icons in the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople. Lat- 15 Millas 2000, 216-7. These two icons form a set with the Saint Niko-
er, some of them were re-evaluated in the dispute between Dimitri- laos and Saint George icons (Millas 2000, 219, 222-3), as well as with
os Pallas (1966, 1971, 1975-6) and Manolis Chatzidakis (1969, 1972) two unpublished icons of Saint John and Abrahams Hospitality, all
on the subject of Post-Byzantine painting in Constantinople. Over in Hagia Triada church in Chalki.
the last decades, new material from the Patriarchate was presented
in the studies of Athansios Paliouras (1989) and Maria Kazamia- 16 Millas 2002, 95.
Tsernou (2013), as well as in several publications concerning recent 17 Chatzidakis 1977, 110-2 no 63, pl. 46-7, 118. Only one other work,
restorations in orthodox churches (Hekimoglou 2004; Kazamia- which copies the Bathas icon is known, always in Patmos, dated in
Tsernou 2006, 2009). However, an important number of recently 1626 (Chatzidakis 1977, 165, no 140, pl. 65).
restored icons have been published as mere illustrations with no
commentary, in the albums of Alexandros Kariotoglou (n.d.) and 18 Millas 2000, 329.
Akylas Millas (2000, 2002, 2006).
19 0.64 x 0.48 m.
2 The icon measures 0.55 x 0.63 m. According to Sotiriou (1937, 31-
20 Kariotoglou n.d., no pagination; Millas 2000, 396; Hadjichristodou-
2, pl. 21; see also Paliouras 1989, 108-10, fig. 94; Millas 2000, 218;
lou forthcoming.
Ioannidaki-Dostoglou 1987, 113-5, with previous bibliography; Mil-
las 2006, 1:88-9), the icon comes from the Holy Trinity monastery on 21 The epithet Tharenos appears for the first time on the frescoes of
the island of Chalki. The icon can be classified within a large group Saint Nikolaos in Maritsa, Rhodes in 1434/5 (Mastrochristos 2012,
of Cretan schools works, which share the same subject, as well as- 134-37, fig. 39-40).
certain iconographic characteristics implying a common prototype
(Chatzidakis 1974, 189-90; Ioannidaki-Dostoglou 1987). 22 Michailidou 2000, 294, no 25 (Ch. Hadjichristodoulou, S. Perdikis).
3 0.91 x 0.63 m. Kazamia-Tsernou 2013, 274-5, no 20. 23 Papageorgiou 1996, fig. 103.
4 The composition repeats the widely adopted type of the dragon- 24 1.20 x 0.55 m. Hekimoglou 2004, 28-9; Millas 2006, 1:110. Hadji-
slayer on horseback, which was created in the fifteenth century christodoulou, 2012.
(Vassilaki 2009), and presents important similarities with an icon 25 Both icons come from Saint John Lampadistis monastery in Ka-
in the Institute of Byzantine and Post-Byzantine studies in Venice lopanayotis (Michailidou 2000, 250, no 4, 252 no 5 (Ch. Hadjichristo-
(fifteenth-sixteenth century), although some stylistic features sug- doulou); Mitsani 2010).
gest a later date (Kazamia-Tsernou 2013, 274-5, no 20).
26 This icon from Pelendri is ascribed to the painter Theophylaktos
5 Hekimoglou 2004, 30-1; Millas 2006, 1:86-7.
Palpi (Papaioakeim 2005, 137).
6 Borboudakis 1993, 514 no 159, 518-9 no 164.
27 The icons measures 0.94 x 0.70 m.
7 Moreover, it shares approximately the same dimensions (0.85 x 0.53
28 Sotiriou 1937, 26-7, pl. 12; Paliouras 1989, 99, fig. 83 ; Kariotoglou
m.) with the Archangels icon (0.89 x 0.66 m.), if we take into con-
n.d., no pagination; Millas 2006, 1:90.
sideration that some centimetres are missing from the right side of
Saint Andrews icon. 29 Siomkos 2006 with previous bibliography.
8 Chatzidakis 1977, 60, no 9, pl. 15. For the work and activity of An- 30 These two icons had already been associated with each other by A.
dreas Ritzos see Chatzidakis and Drakopoulou 1997, 324-32. Tourta (2002, 287-8).
9 Tsigaridas (1996-1997, 116), formulates the hypothesis that the Go- 31 Kariotoglou n.d., no pagination; Millas 2000, 352.
nia monastery icons are linked with Theophanes the Cretan work,
and consequently they could either probably be his earlier works 32 The icon measures 1.08 x 0.82 m. Kariotoglou n.d., no pagination
in Crete or that they could equally reveal his apprenticeship in the Millas 2000, 442-3; Hekimoglou 2004, 46-7; Millas 2006, 1:105.
workshop of Andreas Ritzos. 33 Papazotos 1987, 631-2, pl. 123.2, 124.1; Tourta 2001, fig. 5-6, 11, 15.
10 0.91 x 0.57 m. 34 See Tourta 1991 ; Chouliaras 2009, 27-32, 37-8, 285-372, 506;
11 Paliouras 1989, 107, fig. 91. Karampedidi 2009; Skavara 2011.
12 See Chatzidaki 1993, 76-81 no 16; Davidov-Temerinski 2000; Gioles 35 Old photos of the Virgin Hodegetria, Christ Pantocrator and Saint
2004, 277-8; Vocotopoulos 2005, 222-4; Semoglou 2007; Stavropou- Nikolaos icons are given by Millas (2006, 2:206-8).
lou 2009. 36 Sabados 2000-1, with previous bibliography.
13 E.g. the icon of the enthroned Virgin with Christological scenes and 37 1.15 x 0.83 m. Sotiriou 1937, 28, pl. 14-5; Paliouras 1989, 110, fig. 95-6;
saints on the frame in the Benaki Museum, c.a. 1500 (Vassilaki 2010,
Kariotoglou n.d., no pagination; Millas 2006, 1:106-7.
210 no 53 (A. Drandaki), with the previous bibliography) and the
frescoes of Theophanes the Cretan in the katholikon of Stavronikita 38 0.95 x 0.53 m. Sotiriou 1937, 28-9, pl. 16 ; Kariotoglou n.d., 42 ; Millas
monastery, 1545/6 (Chatzidakis 1986, fig. 115, 116, 128, 142). 2006, 1:100-1.
158
Constantinople Receiving Icons; a New Approach to an Old Issue NIKOLAOS D. SIOMKOS
Gioles, N. 2004.
. In ,
, 263-284.Athens.
159
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Hadjitryphonos, E., and S. uri, eds. 2009. Mitsani, A. 2010. A Thirteenth-Century Vita-Icon of Saint John
. Lampadistis in Cyprus. In Griechische ikonen: byzantinische und
. Thessaloniki. nachbyzantinische Zeit. Symposium in Marburg vom 26.29.6.2000,
edited by E. Gerousi and G. Koch, with the assistance of A.
Hekimoglou, E., ed. 2004. Restoring the Icons of Istanbul. Thessaloniki. Fehrmann, 175190. Athens.
160
Constantinople Receiving Icons; a New Approach to an Old Issue NIKOLAOS D. SIOMKOS
Strati, A. 2011. 18 . In
I , edited by E. N. Tsigaridas, 247-326.
Mount Athos.
Tourta, . 1991. O
.
. Athens.
Tourta, A. 2001.
.
. M
, 161-
179. Nicosia.
ourta, . 2002. .
In
. 28-29
1999, edited by E. Drakopoulou, 287-305. Athens.
Tourta, A. 2010. The re-using of old icons in the Byzantine and Post-
Byzantine Period : The case of the icons of Thessaloniki. In
Griechische ikonen : byzantinische und nachbyzantinische Zeit.
Symposium in Marburg vom 26.29.6.2000, edited by E. Gerousi
and G. Koch, with the assistance of A. Fehrmann, 219230.
Athens.
Tsigaridas, E. N. 1996-1997.
. Deltion tes Christianikes
Archaeologikes Etaireias 19: 97-116.
Vocotopoulos, P. L. 2005.
. , Deltion tes
Christianikes Archaeologikes Etaireias 26: 207-226.
161
Some Notes on the Impact of
Constantinople on the Byzantine
Architecture of the Aegean and the
Peloponnese
D eme t r i o s A t h a n a s o u l i s
163
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
164
Impact of Constantinople on the Byzantine Architecture of the Aegean and the Peloponnese D. ATHANASOULIS
lation to construction elements was implemented with build- Fig 2. Lechaion, Leonides Basilica,
aerial view (K. Xenikakis).
was more limited, given that ing materials and construction
in this area, building materials methods, stylistic and struc-
available in each place and lo- tural features indigenous to the
cal building traditions played a Cyclades. The vaults of porous
decisive role. Let us now look at voussoirs alternating in color to
two characteristic examples. ensure the elegance of the inte- Fig 3. Chios, katholikon
of Nea Mone.
In the Aegean, at the em- rior space during the period it
blematic Katapoliani on Paros remained without wall decora-
(Fig. 1A-B)3, a daring archi- tion are remarkable. The large
tectural design consisting of a windows were formed by stone
domed cross-shaped vaulted voussoirs with the characteristic
basilica and recalling the Justini- surrounding brick course on the
anian architecture of the capital4 arches5.
165
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
constantinoPolitan features in the middle Byzantine architecture of naXos
23
166
Impact of Constantinople on the Byzantine Architecture of the Aegean and the Peloponnese D. ATHANASOULIS
eval character. One of its main complex vaulting such as cross- betray the technical insecurity of
evolutionary characteristics was in-square churches, were built craftsmen. However, in the sec-
the development of local mani- with simple means and obvi- ond half of the 10th century par-
festations which have been con- ous design shortcomings and ticularly, churches improved at
ventionally called schools7 or uncertainty about the means of the level of construction, while
sometimes idioms in reference execution, especially of more developing their architectural
to small-scale architectural enti- demanding constructions like vocabulary and decorative rep-
ties. These local expressions pro- domes and vaults10. Generally ertoire. The nature of these indi-
duced important buildings in speaking, Early Byzantine mod- vidual elements is to be sought
the 9th and 10th centuries, given els were reproduced in combina- in the local tradition, primarily
that the recovery of Byzantium tion with elements of the anony- the Roman and Early Byzantine,
increased architectural produc- mous architectural tradition. which provided elements that
tion and simultaneously al- local craftsmen creatively trans-
The picture we have in the Ae-
lowed the erection of ambitious formed.
gean area is comparable: inward-
buildings, resulting in a larger
turning, small buildings, chiefly A similar picture is present-
number of masons workshops
basilicas and single-aisle church- ed in the Cyclades and Aegean
and the development of crafts-
es, with only a very few transi- Islands generally: after the re-
mens technical skills8.
tional cross-in-square churches, capture of Crete in 961, the pro-
Within this framework of which were built with available duction of church architecture
schools, the imperial architec- construction materials and rudi- increased and developed, repro-
ture of Constantinople, whose mentary technical skills11. Con- ducing old models of the local
quality corresponded to the stantinopolitan influences are architecture13.
wealth being amassed in the not documented in the architec-
In Middle Byzantine architec-
capital, held a leading position. ture of the transitional period.
tural production of the periph-
During the transitional centu- The consolidation of Byzan- ery, the presence of the School of
ries in southern Greece and the tine rule in southern Greece and Constantinople was uneven and
Peloponnese in particular, which the Peloponnese after the suc- rather sporadic. The main means
apart from the economic crisis cessful campaigns against the of dispersing its great building
which was afflicting the empire Slavs in 783 and 805, and primar- tradition was through inviting
was also experiencing the settle- ily the recovery experienced by architects and craftsmen from
ment of large Slav populations the empire after 843, under the the capital, who erected build-
in its rural regions, the develop- rule of the Macedonian dynasty, ings with all the design, stylis-
ment of a local idiom called the led to increased building produc- tic, and construction elements of
Pre-Helladic School has been tion. The Pre-Helladic School in Constantinople. These were the
ascertained9. It produced low- the Peloponnese developed and so-called implanted monu-
technology, low-cost buildings. acquired distinctive architectural ments like the church of Virgin
Single-aisle churches and three- characteristics12. These build- Veljusa (1080) in the northern
aisled timber-roofed basilicas, ings had a primarily conserva- part of Macedonia14. In the Ae-
and more rarely buildings with tive character and continued to gean, the only testified case of an
167
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
168
Fig 7. Mystras,
Hodegetria from NE.
the Constantinopolitan articula- vaults of this domed simple tet- Although it was built with impe-
tion of the facades employing rastyle cross-in-square church rial sponsorship, and typologi-
the triumphal arch system23 of are built of porous voussoirs; cally this rare octastyle cross-in-
blind arches is adopted in three it has a large cylindrical dome square church is not connected
churches on islands with closer with eight windows, and lit by with the island tradition, its mod-
relations with the capital: Ha- large dilobe and trilobe win- els are not to be found in the cap-
gios Stephanos in Mantamados, dows whose arches were sur- ital, since it applied all the sty-
Lesbos24, Metamorphosis in Ka- rounded by a projecting band listic and construction elements
lamoti, Chios25 and Panagia in of brick. These characteristic de- of the Aegean idiom. The two
Potami, Samos26. tails appear to confirm the opin- satellite chapels of the church are
ion of K. Aslanidis that its model proved to be later additions29.
In the Cyclades, even in mon-
was the emblematic Early Chris- Here too, as at the famous Mon-
uments where high aspirations
tian Katapoliani on neighboring astery of Episkopi on Sikinos30,
are expressed and which are re-
Paros. Moreover, delving into and the church of Hagios Geor-
moved from the restrictions of
the achievements of the glorious gios Diasorites on Naxos31, the
the local idiom, the models did
Justinianian past were basic con- use of projecting brick course
not come from Constantinople,
stants in Byzantine architecture. surrounding the window arches
which proved to be hopelessly
is a constant characteristic of the
distant as concerned building This basically autochthonous
local building tradition.
traditions. The example of Ha- architectural production is fur-
gios Mamas in Potamia, Naxos ther confirmed in the church of Returning now to the Pelo-
is characteristic (Fig. 5)27. The Episkopi on Santorini (Fig. 6)28. ponnese, we find that the influ-
169
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
170
Impact of Constantinople on the Byzantine Architecture of the Aegean and the Peloponnese D. ATHANASOULIS
171
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
cation of this type of masonry betrays originality in the archi- ladic School of architecture was
in southern Greece, and indeed tectural composition. flourishing in the neighboring
the earliest case of its combining regions of Attica and Boeotia43.
The buildings referred to
with a dentil band surrounding above belonged to the Pelopon- In fact, we believe that Con-
the arches of the windows, thus nesian architectural idiom42, stantinople was present in the
interrupting the continuity of which dominated the region in leadingand contemporane-
the joints of the masonry and the the 10th and 11th centuries, the ousmonuments of these two
window arches, a feature which same era when the famous Hel- local expressions of the Greek
172
Impact of Constantinople on the Byzantine Architecture of the Aegean and the Peloponnese D. ATHANASOULIS
173
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
174
Impact of Constantinople on the Byzantine Architecture of the Aegean and the Peloponnese D. ATHANASOULIS
ponnese and Constantinople in Peloponnesian idiom, which, fi- skills of building workshops, and
a region which had been cut off nally, faded away in favor of the the available construction materi-
with the tribulations of the Slavic Helladic School. als, and yet which proved strong
invasion and whose full integra- and self-sufficient. Indeed, while
In conclusion, despite the cen-
tion under control of the empires the Cycladic and Peloponnesian
tralized character of the Byzan-
center was still a relevant issue. idiom did not transcend their
tine state and the unique architec-
However, in contrast with tural production of the empires provincial character, the Hel-
Hosios Loukas, which marked capital in terms of both quality ladic School produced buildings,
the evolution of the Helladic and quantity, one is surprised such as the katholikon of the Ha-
School, becoming also a proto- at the atavistic attachment of the gia Mone, Areia, Nauplion (Fig.
type of many churches in the Aegean and Greece, the Katotika 15)48, of comparable quality to
Helladic peninsula, the contem- Mere - the Low Parts of the those of Constantinople.
poraneous Episkopi found no Empire- to local building tradi-
imitators and remained a unique tion, which was dictated by con-
hybrid and the most conspicu- crete restrictions such as limited
ous building of this conservative financial resources, the technical
175
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
8 Vocotopoulos 1989. uri 2010, 263-340. 48 Bouras and Boura 2002, 81-5.
176
Impact of Constantinople on the Byzantine Architecture of the Aegean and the Peloponnese D. ATHANASOULIS
Aslanidis, K. 2014. . uri, S. 1978. Articulation of Church Facades During the First Half of
. the Fourteenth Century. In L art byzantin au debut du XIVe sicle,
Ph.D. diss.: University of Patras. Symposium de Graanica 1973. 17-27. Beograd.
Aslanidis, K. 2015. uri, S. 2010. Architecture in the Balkans, From Diocletian to Sleyman
. In the Magnificent. New Haven and London: Yale University Press.
, edited by V. Katsaros and A. Tourta: Franz, A., H. Thompson and J. Travlos. 1969. The Temple of Apollo
107-114. Athens: Kapon editions. Pythios on Sikinos. AJA 73.4: 397-422.
Atlas of the Christian Monuments of the Aegean, from the Early Christian Jewell, H. and F. Hasluck. 1920. The Church of Our Lady of the Hundred
Years to the Fall of Constantinople 2014, edited by N. Gkioles and Gates (Panagia Hekatontapyliani) in Paros. London.
G. Pallis. Athens. General Secretariat of the Aegean and Island
Policy. Kappas, M. 2008.
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Athanasoulis, D. 2006. / . 2 vols. Ph.D. diss.
,. 2 vols. Ph.D. diss.: Thessalonike: Aristotle University of Thessalonike.
Aristotle University of Thessalonike.
Magdalino, P. 1987. Observations on the Nea Ekklesia of Basil I. JB
Athanasoulis, D. 2009. The Castle of Acrocorinth and its Enhancement 37: 51-64.
Project (2006-2009). Ancient Corinth.
Mamaloukos. S. 2010. Treatments of the Facades with Inscribed
Athanasoulis, D. 2013. Corinth. In eaven and Earth. Cities and and Painted Architectural Forms and Decorative Features
Countryside in Byzantine Greece, edited by J. Albani and E. in Mid-Byzantine Architecture. In Architecture of Byzantium
Chalkia, 192-209. Athens. and Kievan Rus from the 9th to the 12th Centuries. Materials of the
Athanasoulis, D. 2014. International Seminar, November 17-21. 2009. Transactions of the
. In State Hermitage Museum LIII, 74-88. St. Petersburg: The State
. 34 Hermitage Publishers.
. 15-16. Athens. Millet, G. 1916. L cole grecque dans l architecture byzantine, Paris.
Athanasoulis, D. 2015. . Mitsani, A. 2006.
. Deltion tes Christianikes Archaeologikes Etaireias 27:
. In . 75-90.
35
. 17-18. Athens. Orlandos, A. 1935. .
Archeion ton Vyzantinon Mnimeion tes Ellados 1: 53-90.
Athanasoulis, D. and M. Kappas 2015.
. In Orlandos, A. 1951. . Archeion ton
, edited by V. Katsaros Vyzantinon Mnimeion tes Ellados 7: 178-214.
and A. Tourta: 79-96. Athens: Kapon editions.
Orlandos, A. 1965.
Babi, G. 1969. Les chapelles annexes des glises byzantines. Fonction - .
liturgique et programmes iconographiques. Paris. 5: 9-52.
Bouras, Ch. 1999. Middle Byzantine Cruciform Churches on the Greek Ousterhout, R. 2005. A Byzantine Settlement in Cappadocia. Dumbarton
Islands. Zograf 27: 7-15. Oaks Studies XLII. Washington D.C.
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Stikas, E. 1970.
. Athens.
Theocharopoulou, E. 2015.
. In
, edited by V.
Katsaros and A. Tourta: 67-78. Athens: Kapon editions.
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. . In
, edited by V.
Katsaros and A. Tourta: 47-56. Athens: Kapon editions.
Tsouris, K. 2001.
. In ,
, , Kos, 2-4
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Semantoni-Bournia: 365-78. Athens.
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. 2 vols. Thessalonike.
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10 . In
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7 10 , .
178
Rhodes-Consta ntinople, 6 th Century
to 1523 AD: A Two-Way Traffic 1
Angeliki Katsioti
ABSTRACT
This paper is a presentation Dodecanese and especially in
of some typical aspects of the Rhodes, are sporadic, fragmentary
relations between Constantinople and sometimes contradictory.
and Rhodes from the Early From the early 14th to the early
Christian period till the Ottoman 16th centuries, the island came
conquest (1522/1523). During the under the rule of the Order of the
Early Christian period, the city of Knights of St. John of Jerusalem.
Rhodes, despite its geographical During these two centuries (1309-
position on the maritime trade 1522) Rhodes regained its former
routes linking north and south, glory, becoming a nodal point of
and even though the province was commerce between East and West,
of strategic importance, appears and vice versa. In spatial terms,
to have entered a period of decline. the city went through a period
In the following Middle Byzantine of gradual transformation that
period, any references in literary focused for its survival on the
sources about the current current port, taking the form it
conditions in the islands of the still retains today.
179
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
The physical configuration, when the political decision was sions and social behaviour. Thus
the fertility of the land, the geo- reached by the three city-states Christian inscriptions in basili-
political and strategic position of Lindos, Kamiros, Ialyssos, to es- cas coexist with pagan themes in
the island of Rhodes2 all these tablish a settlement on the north- private homes: or they generate
are some of the factors that over ern tip of the island, taking the new hybrids. The city of Rhodes
time have influenced her histori- islands name for its own. The (Fig 1), despite its geographical
cal course. The position of the new city was organized along position on the maritime trade
island on the subduction zone the lines of the Hippodamian routes linking the north to the
of the African plate below the urban system, it was girdled south, seems in some sort of de-
Eurasian plate and the conse- with strong fortifications and cline even though the province
quent geological phenomenon of equipped with five safe harbours was of strategic importance.
Rhodes emerging in the middle which play thereafter an impor- The results of excavations have
of the sea is brilliantly caught tant role in the ostentation and shown that in the early Byzan-
by the ancient poet Pindar, who her image. At its peak, in the Hel- tine years neither demographic
praises Olympic champion Di- lenistic period, it became one of nor economic development
agoras of Rhodes: a plot of land the most splendid of Greek cities. are demonstrable. Poverty and
rising from the bottom of the foam- From her renown artistic work- the inferior quality of building
ing sea, a land much-nourishing for shops3 came famous works of art
materials ensured that mainte-
men and kindly to flocks. Its mild such as the legendary Colossus, a
nance in some phases of private
weather and lots of sunshine bronze statue of the god Helios,
houses was very cursory. The
is also referred to in ancient and the marble sculpture of the
possible public buildings, the
myth: the sun-god Helios kissed Nike of Samothrace and that of
interpretation of whose precise
Rhodes, as a result of which Laocoon in the snakes coils.
use is risky, probably demon-
the island was called Bride In this paper, it is clear that strate the regional rather than
of the Sun. On this island so we will have to limit ourselves to central role that Rhodes played
privileged in every way, human enumerate but a few examples, during the early Byzantine pe-
presence and activity is testi- albeit typical ones, of the diverse riod, when it acted as a station
fied first through archaeology in aspects of relations between Con- for the purpose of fleet trans-
the Neolithic Era. Thanks to the stantinople and Rhodes, from the porting the annona, those cereals
hard work of the Archaeological Early Christian period onwards, being crucial to the well-being of
Service, the rescue excavations with selected bibliography. the Empire, on their way from
of the last thirty years at ancient Egypt to Constantinople. There
In the Early Byzantine era,
Ialyssos have brought to light a exists an opinion, often repeated
the transformation taking place
new prehistoric settlement, com- in the scholarly literature4, on
gradually in the empire was
parable to those on Crete and
expressed through the dual the prosperity of town based
Santorini.
influences of Christianity and on its strategic importance as a
The starting point for the Hellenism, and their frequent stopover point for refuelling be-
citys development was the syn- interrelationship. This inter- tween Constantinople and Asia
oecisme in 408/7 BC. That is play affected cultural expres- Minor, but this does not square
180
R h o d e s - C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , 6 th C e n t u r y t o 1 5 2 3 A D : A T w o - W a y T r a f f i c ANGELIKI KATSIOTI
with the rare mention Rhodes completion of the dome of Hagia lapsed, the Emperor Justin again
gets in contemporary written Sophia by Justinian in 532/537. imported bricks from Rhodes
sources, nor with the few surviv- According to the testimony of to repair it. It is interesting that
ing inscriptions5, be they public the kouropalates Georgios Kodi- laboratory investigation shows
or private in character. nos6, the order went out to that the materials employed in
Even so, minor province not Rhodian workshops for bricks the dome of Hagia Sophia have
withstanding, Rhodes seems to large, light, but of high strength the same characteristics as that
have contributed to the provi- and slender. A few years later in from the great basilica of the
sion of building materials for the 562, when part of the dome col- city of Rhodes, which came to
181
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
182
R h o d e s - C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , 6 th C e n t u r y t o 1 5 2 3 A D : A T w o - W a y T r a f f i c ANGELIKI KATSIOTI
tinued ability of the Arabs from sis on those personalities of an- take the dangerous high-roads
their strong foothold in Crete tiquity like the Rhodian schol- of Asia Minor rather than sail
to still swoop down upon the ars, Apollonius and Timachides, along the coast through the is-
islands throughout the 9th cen- apropos such as the history of lands18. Saints like Elias the
tury seems, unsurprisingly, to the Colossus, and less on events Younger of Sicily, who, as if he
have worked against creating of the day in Rhodes, then an had a contemporary Green Card
conditions of stability. This is re- important commercial and ship- for the 9th century, travelled un-
flected in the limited number of ping centre. In the same way hindered too and from in Byzan-
monuments of this period. The the Byzantine historical sources, tine and Arab territories, even he
recapture of Crete by Nikeforos such as the Chronicle of Theo- shunned, as it seems, the Dodec-
Phocas in 961 contributed deci- phanes and the Breviarium of Pa- anese and Rhodes19. It therefore
sively to the consolidation of the triarch Nicephorus, often focus appears that the cessation of the
Byzantine presence around the on a specific event, usually of dispatch of the annona dramati-
Aegean, which entered in the minor importance in the histori- cally affected the intermediate
following centuries a stable and cal development of the era14. In stations much earlier than sus-
prosperous period. this way, the island, with the rest pected: one such was Rhodes,
of the Dodecanese, vanishes where the Arab raids dealt a
During the Middle Byzan-
in these accounts, while in fact decisive blow. The islands were
tine period, when looking into
in the Arab-Byzantine struggle removed, not only in fact but
the state of play in the islands in
for supremacy in the Aegean, also psychologically, in the per-
the Dodecanese and especially
Rhodes was a primary objective ception of the Byzantines, who
Rhodes had, one is immediately
of great strategic importance. mentioned them mainly for their
struck by the scarcity of substan-
glorious past.
tial references in the sources, In the perception of the Byz-
which are sporadic, fragmentary antines all these islands, includ- Let us not forget though that
and sometimes contradictory in ing Rhodes, took on a fuzzy, especially during the 11th and
their substance12. These reports, far-off feeling: communications 12th centuries the existence of
few enough in any earlier era, were difficult15, they were cut aristocratic houses associated
become even rarer in the Middle off from the world, as if in ex- with Rhodes though they were
Byzantine period. It is certainly ile. Also the Byzantines had usually rooted in Constantino-
no coincidence that texts aimed not inherited from their Greek ple, where they exercised their
at the educated classes in the ancestors the drive for overseas offices, which positions were
10th century, such as the Suidae traveling and adventure16. In the honorary. This is confirmed by
Lexicon, or the writings of the lives of Saints of the Middle Byz- the family names preserved in
emperor Constantinos Porphy- antine era, even the most well- inscriptions and on lead seals
rogennetos, De administrando im- travelled ones like Nikon the found in Rhodes such as Ar-
perio13 are couched for the most Metanoeite of the 10th century menopoulos, Vardas, Alopos,
part in myths and history rather avoid the Dodecanese17, while Pigonitis, Varaina, Katakalon,
than in contemporary realities. others, like Hagios Gregorios and also partially reflected in
In this, they place more empha- the Decapolite in 829, prefer to place names on the island. The
183
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
184
R h o d e s - C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , 6 th C e n t u r y t o 1 5 2 3 A D : A T w o - W a y T r a f f i c ANGELIKI KATSIOTI
185
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
186
R h o d e s - C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , 6 th C e n t u r y t o 1 5 2 3 A D : A T w o - W a y T r a f f i c ANGELIKI KATSIOTI
187
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
N OTE S RE FE RE N CE S
1 I wish to warmly thank my colleague Flora Karagianni for her kind Acheimastou, M. 1966. .
invitation to participate to the symposium. , Archaeologikon Deltion
2 For the history of Rhodes, see Papachristodoulou 1994; For the Early 21, , 62-85.
Christian period specifically, see also Kollias 2000, 299308; Kon-
Acheimastou-Potamianou, M. 1985.
stantinopoulos and Kollias 1968, 2605.
, , 85-8.
3 For an account concerning sculpture and workshops see Zimmer Athens.
and Bairami 2008, Bairami 2012, with assembled bibliography.
4 For the belief in a gradually shrinking city and its transformation Acheimastou-Potamianou, M. 2006. .
into a small town, see Kasdagli 2010, 162. This last vision certainly . Athens.
contrasts with the idea of rich private residences, a denselypacked Acheimastou-Potamianou, M. 2009.
and wealthy city and so on, as expressed by Deligiannakis 2008, 210; , Deltion tes Christianikes
Deligiannakis 20072008, 3. Archaeologikes Etaireias 30: 199-214.
5 See the few surviving funerary inscriptions of this period, Mastro-
christos2014, 153-170, with assembled bibliography. Bairami, K. 2012.
(unpublished Ph. Diss. University of Athens).
6 , 1401, ns 1524, 144, ns 12-14): when Justinian
was building the dome of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople (532/37), Bazaiou-Barabas, Th. 1993. :
he ordered the clay bricks from Rhodes, which were famed for
their solidity and lightness, , . In .
. , (/EIE), edited by N. Moschonas, 435-444.
, , Athens.
.
7 Cakmak, Erdik and Moropoulou 1997, 1534, 157. Bitha, I. 2009.
(1394-1395), Deltion tes
8 Deligiannakis 2008, 2201.
Christianikes Archaeologikes Etaireias 30: 159-68.
9 Katsioti (forthcoming).
Cheynet, J. C. 2000. Les reliques du Pape Clment, Transversalits 75:
10 Ricci 2012, 156.
171-80.
11 Mastrochristos 2014, 158-60, no 6.
12 See Koutrakou 2004, 403-20. Cakmak, A. S, M. Erdik, A. Moropoulou, 1997. A joint program
for the protection of the Justinian Hagia Sophia, Proc. 4th
13 Porphyrogennetus, De Administrando, 84, 88.
International Symposium on the Conservation of Monuments in the
14 Theophanes, 385; Nicephori Patriarci, 50-1. Mediterranean Basin (ed. A. Moropoulou, F. Zezza, E. Kollias, I.
15 See: Bazaiou-Barabas 1993, 435-44; Malamut 1988, 536-61. Papachristodoulou), Publ. Technical Chamber of Greece, v. 4,
16 See: Cheynet 2000, 171-3. Rhodes, 153-71.
17 Malamut 1993, 262-3. Deligiannakis, G. 2008. The economy of the Dodecanese in late
18 Malamut 1993, 247-8. antiquity. In Sailing in the Aegean. Readings on the economy
19 Malamut 1993, 256. and trade routes, edited by Ch. Papageorgiadou-Banis and A.
20 Katsioti and Archontopoulos 2000, 375-87. Giannikouri, Meletimata 53: 209-33. Athens.
21 For the artistic activity during the 13th c. in Rhodes, with special Kasdagli, A.-M. 2010.
emphasis on the mural paintings of Taxiarchis Michael in Thari, Ha- , 9,
gios Fanourios and Hagios Georgios Vardas, see: Kefala 2015. See ,
also Acheimastou-Potamianou 2006. , edited by P. Tselekas, v. , 159-74. Athens.
22 Kefala 2015a, 201-24.
Katsioti, A. and Th. Archontopoulos 2000. T
23 Bitha 2009, 159-68. A P 12 .
24 Tsirpanlis 1991, 36-7. In P 2400 . H P
25 Acheimastou-Potamianou 2009, 199-214. T (1523), v. B, 375-
87. Athens.
26 Acheimastou 1966, 62-85.Katsioti, 2010, 139-52.
27 Marasia is the term given to the inhabited centres that developed Katsioti, A. 2004. ,
around the walled city during the Turkish occupation (15221912), Deltion tes Christianikes Archaeologikes Etaireias 25: 63-76.
made up of the Greek communities who were forced to move out
from the Burgo, the largely administrative centre of the Ottomans. Katsioti, A. 2010. The double-sided icon of the Virgin Hodegetria and
Saint Nicholas in Rhodes reconsidered. Its influence on the Art
28 Acheimastou-Potamianou, 1985, 85-8, fig. 88, 89.
of the Dodecanese in the 15th century. In Griechische Ikonen,
29 Katsioti 2004, 63-76. Byzantinische und nachbyzantinischeZeit, Symposium in Marburg
30 Tsirpanlis 1997, 734-5. von 26-29.6.2000, 139-152. Athens.
188
R h o d e s - C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , 6 th C e n t u r y t o 1 5 2 3 A D : A T w o - W a y T r a f f i c ANGELIKI KATSIOTI
Koutrakou, N. 2004. The Distance and the Past: middle-byzantine Theophanes, Chronographia 1-2 (edited by C. de Boor, 1883-1885).
perception of islands in the Dodecanese (7th-11th centuries). In
. , 403-420.
Athens.
Kollias, E. 2000. H P. In P
2400 , H P
T (1523),
, P 24-29 O 1993, v. B, 299-308. Athens.
Mastrochristos, N. 2014.
(4-7 .
..). In , .
, 153-70. Rhodes.
Ricci, A. 2012. Left behind: Small Sized Objects from the Middle
Byzantine Monastic Complex of Satyros (Kckyali, Istanbul),
Byzas 15: 147-61.
sirpanlis, Z. 1991.
(14-16 .). Rhodes.
Tsirpanlis, Z. 1997.
(14-16 ). In
,
, 731-43. Rhodes.
Deligiannakis, G. 2007-2008.
, Vyzantinos Domos 16: 29-33.
189
The Cultural Network of Cyprus -
Constantinople - Euxeinos Pontos
During the Iconoclasm Era
Charalampos G. Chotzakoglou
N i ke K o r f i a t i s i n mem o r i a m
191
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
During the early Christian prus and is being kept till now as archaeological finds demon-
period Cyprus served as one of in the Kykkos Monastery4 on the strate, while the sea-routes of the
the important trade posts in the Troodos mountains, a convent Black Sea territories allowed the
maritime navigation from Con- with liturgical practices related settlement of Georgian monks in
stantinople to Egypt and Syro- to Typika of famous Constanti- Cyprus, who resided in a middle
Palestine and vice versa1. The nopolitan monasteries5. Further byzantine monastery near Pa-
loss of Egypt and the conquest monastic foundations in Cyprus phos (Fig. 1)13, of Cypriot monks
of Syro-Palestine by the Arabs were founded by Constantinop- of the Kykkos-monastery in
led to the stronger dependence olitan officials or were connected Georgia14, Romania15 and Bul-
of Cyprus to the byzantine capi- to Constantinople, as for example garia16 with important depen-
tal, as it became the southern the monasteries of Machairas6, dencies (Metochia). In Bulgarian
island-border between the Byz- the Monastery of St. John Chrys- territory Cypriot ceramics of the
antine Empire and the Arabs2. ostomos in Koutzobentes7, the byzantine period were found in
Recluse of the Holy Neophytos8 excavations17, while the icono-
Constantinople served as
in Tala near Paphos, the Monas- graphical type of the Holy Virgin
the ideal city for the byzantine
tery of St. George Mangkanon9 in Kykkotissa was spread in fres-
periphery, including Cyprus.
Lefkosia, Antiphonetes-monas- coes, engravings and icons up to
The Cypriot capital of Lefkosia
tery in Kalograia10, as well as the the post-byzantine period18. Cy-
was crossed by the Mese Hodos
Kamariotissa-monastery11. priot medieval pottery was also
( ) ending up to the
found in Tauric Cherson (Fig. 2)19.
church of Hagia Sophia3, while The Cypriot products were
a copy of the Hodegetria icon transferred through Constanti- Cyprus and the Black Sea
of St. Luke had been sent to Cy- nople to the Euxeinos Pontos12, and specially Cherson shared
192
The Cultural Network of Cyprus - Constantinople - Euxeinos Pontos CHARALAMPOS G. CHOTZAKOGLOU
also the rumor, that they were power of the dragon (i.e. the byzan-
very often used as places of ex- tine emperor), which did not obey his
ile, as they both were at the bor- empty words These places are the
ders of the Byzantine Empire areas opposite to the Euxeinos Pon-
to Barbarians or Arabs and the tos in the prefecture of Zechia, con-
exiled persons were exposed to sisted by Cherson, (Cimmerian) Bos-
dangers of attacks, raids and bad porus, Nikopsis, the places next to
climate. Well known personali- Gothia-valley, the places around the
ties as Timothy III., Patriarch of sea of South Italy, the places south
Alexandria (5th c.) and the Pope of the Old-Rome, the metropolis of
of Rome Martin I. (653-655 in Calabria, Naples up to the river of
exile)20 church-officials21, Em- Rome, the places south of Lykia and
peror Justinian II. (695)22 and up to Pamphylia and Isauria and the
numerous monks23 were exiled places, which can be reached by ship,
in Cherson, while iconophile as Propontis, the island of Cyprus
monks were exiled by the byz- and the territories opposite to it, up
antine emperor to Cyprus24. to Tripolis, Tyros and Iope26.
In our paper we will focus to Although the medieval histo-
the Iconoclastic period (726-787 rian had more written sources in
and 813-843), since a notorious his disposal, than we do today, Fig 2. Glazed bowl (13th c.) with
military saint, found in Cherson,
hagiological text connects Cy- he had no access to the scientific probably from Cyprus.
prus with Crimea and in general methods, which we use today.
with the Black Sea. It regards How many of the Byzantines
the Life of Steven the Younger had access to historical
(715-765)25. The text describes data or even were able
the persecutions of the byzantine to read historical
emperor against the clergy and texts? On the oth-
the iconophile monks, which led er hand, visit-
St. Steven, according to his biog- ing the Church
rapher, to gather the monks of services in city
his Brotherhood and to propose churches and
them to abandon their monas- monasteries,
tery. Answering the question, the Byzan-
where they should flee, Steven tines were lis-
stated: There are three areas of the tening to the
(byzantine) Empire, which did not Matins every
accepted this filthy (i.e. iconoclas- single day the
tic) heresy. I advise you to flee there, version of the
as there is no other place under the historical facts as
193
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
accepted by the official Church. life of this information lasted up tion28 of the victorious iconophile
These texts, which were inserted to our days, in comparison to the side and the official Church, dat-
in Synaxaria, Menologia, Typika pure historical texts, which were ed around the middle of the 9th
and the Lives of the Saints, were partially copied or preserved in century, contains legendary in-
offered in a simple language and libraries. formation and was characterized
explained in the preaching, so as a notorious unreliable source29.
Returning to the Life of Saint
the Byzantines had not to know But the case does not end here.
Steven the Younger, it seems
This text was used itself as a his-
reading in order to understand that the majority of the Byz-
torical source to other contem-
it28. The number of manuscripts, antine citizens was influenced poraneous and later hagiograph-
which were copied in the mo- by the Vitas of saints that were ical texts, with result to multiply
nastic scriptoria and spread this circulated, as well as by the ser- the references regarding Icono-
information, was huge and the mons and preachings that were clasm. Therefore we read in the
given by the clergy, according to Journeys Description of the monk
which, Southern Italy, Cyprus Epiphanius (middle of the 9th c.)
and the Syro-palestine towns, that the territories of the Black
as well as the Euxeinos Pontos, Sea resisted to Iconoclasm and
were places that never experi- rejected it. Although we know
enced Iconoclasm. today, based on the philological
research, that the monk Epipha-
The contemporary philologi-
nius most possibly never visited
cal research has in the last years
Fig. 3. Geometric patterns Euxeinos Pontos and he received
proven that the Life of St. Steven
in St. Barbara-church, all his information from ancient
Korobia, Cyprus. the Younger is a later compila-
Greek geographical sources and
hagiological texts, such as the
Life of St. Steven the Younger, his
text was widely accepted, it was
distributed and was preserved
in several manuscripts30. His text
became itself a source for future
byzantine writers, as Niketas
Paphlagon31 and Symeon Meta-
phrastes32.
A similar text, which contains
information on Euxeinos Pontos
during the iconoclastic period is
the Life of St. Joseph the Hym-
nographer, written by the Deacon
John33. John was based, among
194
The Cultural Network of Cyprus - Constantinople - Euxeinos Pontos CHARALAMPOS G. CHOTZAKOGLOU
195
church in Jaleti (8th-9th c.)49 and in along with their Archbishop in
Benisi (9th c.), which the modern order to settle down in the aban-
research50 tends to re-date and doned suburbs of Constanti-
classify them to the period of nople and revive them55, as well
Iconoclasm. as the accusations of the Arabs,
The image of a loyal byz- that Cypriots during that period
antine territory to the emperor were spying in favor of Con-
offers also Cyprus in the his- stantinople, a fact which caused
torical sources. According to repeated Arab raids as punish-
testimonies of Cypriot bishops, ment, demonstrate the loyalty
as recorded in the Acts of the of Cypriots to the byzantine em-
VII Ecumenical Council (787), peror56. The fact that iconophile
iconoclastic activity appeared in monks were exiled to Cyprus as
Cyprus51. The whole island was well as the testimony of St. John
under the byzantine control, of Damascus, that the previous
while the Peace Treaty between situation in the iconophile Cy-
Fig. 5. Aniconic
Byzantines and Arabs foresaw prus was overthrown, underline
representation in
St. Athanasia-church, the sharing of the Cypriot taxes the adoption of the Constantino-
Rizokarpason, Cyprus. and not the political sharing of politan iconoclastic policy57.
the island, as some researchers Furthermore the artistic evi-
willful interpret the Treaty52. dence confirms the iconoclastic
Byzantine sources and lead presence on the island of Cy-
seals confirm the transfer of byz- prus. If Cyprus had rejected
antine officers and commanders iconoclasm, we should expect to
in a Byzantine Thema, reflect-
to Cyprus, who had to represent find preserved painted churches
ing its direct control of the byz-
the official, imperial policy of and icons of that period, as we
antine capital and the imperial
Iconoclasm53. When Christians find in the Sinai monastery58,
army45. In Cherson no byzantine
fled from Syro-Palestine at the which escaped Iconoclasm. On
painted church before the 11th
beginning of the 9th c. because the contrary, not a single church
century46 survived, which could
of the Arabs, the byzantine em- with frescoes or icon, lead seal or
give us an insight on the icono-
peror Michael I. (813) allowed object of minor art in Cyprus can
clast monumental art, except
them to settle down in Cyprus be ascribed to that period; fur-
cases of hermitages with the sin-
providing them with financial thermore four partially painted
gle representation of the cross47.
assistance, a fact which proves churches and a dome adorned
It seems that the situation was the undisturbed exercise of byz- with wall mosaics have been
similar also in Georgia, where antine power in Cyprus54. In the identified and dated during the
painted churches with aniconic same way the imperial order iconoclasm period. The church-
decoration have been preserved, of transporting a considerable es of St. Barbara in Korobia (Fig.
as Sion in Erco (8th c.)48, the number of Cypriots to Cyzicus 3)59, the church in Agyia near
196
The Cultural Network of Cyprus - Constantinople - Euxeinos Pontos CHARALAMPOS G. CHOTZAKOGLOU
Billoures in Aigialousa (Fig. 4)60 the later compiled Church-texts texts and monuments dictates
and St. Athanasia in Rizokarpa- and believed that Cyprus and that the official iconoclastic
son (Fig. 5)61, all three situated the Black Sea resisted Icono- policy was exercised upon them
today in the Turkish-occupied clasm, the modern research of without any recorded resistance.
part of northern Cyprus, as well
as the church of St. Paraskeue in
Geroskepou (Fig. 6)62 near Pa-
phos reveal painted decoration
with aniconic motives. Further-
more the basilica of the Apostle
Barnabas, the founder of the Cy-
priot Church in Engkome near
Salamis preserves two central
Fig. 6. Aniconic patterns
domes, which were renovated
in the eastern dome of
probably during the 9th century St. Paraskeue-church,
and were decorated with reused Geroskepou, Cyprus.
mosaics with aniconic orna-
ments (Fig. 7a-b)63.
Cyprus and the towns of
the Euxeinos Pontos as parts of
the byzantine periphery were
strongly connected through
Constantinople in their com-
mercial relations, artistic influ-
ences and consequently in dog- Fig 7a. Geometric mosaic
matic issues. Remaining loyal to pattern in the western dome
of Apostle Barnabas-church,
Constantinople, the byzantine Egkome, Cyprus.
capital, which was the mental
and physical bridge connect-
ing distant byzantine centers,
was meaning to take part in
the world distribution of their
products, exchange of ideas and
art and secure wealth and pro-
tection from foreign invaders,
which Church itself along with
Fig 7b. Geometric mosaic
the Iconophiles could not guar-
pattern in the eastern dome
antee. Although the Byzantines of Apostle Barnabas-church,
themselves were influenced by Egkome, Cyprus.
197
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
198
The Cultural Network of Cyprus - Constantinople - Euxeinos Pontos CHARALAMPOS G. CHOTZAKOGLOU
Auzpy, M.F. 2000. Gothie et Crime de 750 830 dans les sources
ecclsiastiques et monastiques grecques, Materialy po archeologii,
istorii i etnografii Tavrii 7:324-31
Auzpy, M.F., ed. 1997. La vie dtienne le Jeune par tienne le Diacre.
Aldershot, Hampshire
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Benediktos, (Archim. Paulos) Egglezakes. 1996. Fatouros, G., ed. 1992. Theodori Studitae Epistulae (CFHB 31). Berolini -
(330-1191 ..). Novi Eboraci
In (4-20s .),
71-104. Athens Foulias, . 2010.
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Browning, R. 2005. (- .). Byzantina 30: 203-29
, , edited by Th. Papadopoullos, III:
235-91. Lefkosia. Gagoshidze I., D. Mindorashvili and G. Gagoshidze. 2014. Gialia,
Georgian Monastery on Cyprus. Tbilisi.
Brubaker, L. and J. Haldon. 2011. Byzantium in the Iconoclast era: ca. 680-
850: a history. Cambridge Gagoshidze I., Mindorashvili D. and G. Gagoshidze G. 2015. Georgian
Monastery of Gialia on Cyprus Archaeological finds. Tbilisi.
Charanis, P. 1961. The Transfer of Population as a Policy in the
Byzantine Empire Comparative Studies in Society and History 3.2: Gioran, G. 1973.
140-54 Byzantinisch-
Neugriechische Jahrbcher: 48-56.
Chotzakoglou, Ch. 2005. . In
, edited by Th. Papadopoullos, (serie: I Head, C. 1972. Justinian II of Byzantium. Madison Wisconsin
), vol. II: 465-787. Lefkosia
Hristova, .. 2000. Nikola Ivanov Obrazopisov 1829-1915. Samokov
Chotzakoglou, Ch. 2006. Christian Mosaics and Mural Paintings in
the Occupied Areas of Cyprus: Preliminary Report on their Mango, C. 1973. A Note on the Panagia Kamariotissa and some
Condition. In Sweet Land, Lectures on the History and Culture imperial Foundations of the Tenth and Eleventh Centuries at
of Cyprus, edited by J. Chrysostomides and Ch. Dendrinos, 101- Constantinople, DOP 27:127-32
64. Surrey
Mango, C., ed. 1990. Nicephoros, Patriarch of Constantinople. Short History,
Chotzakoglou, Ch. 2009. The Holy Virgin of Kykkos. Exploring the Washington
transfigurations of the Icon and its symbolic meaning through
the centuries. In La Madonna delle Vittorie a Piazza Armerina, Manolova- Voykova, M. 2014. Byzantine Glazed Pottery from the
edited by M. K. Guida, 43-50. Napoli. Collection of the Archeological Museum in Balchik (Bulgaria).
In Glazed Wares in the Black Sea and Mediterranean as a Source for the
Chotzakoglou, Ch. 2010. Studies of Byzantine Civilization. Proceedings of the Symposium
. In , held in Chersonesos (in print)
, edited by K. Papageorgiou, 1-40.
Lemesos Manolova-Voykova, M. 2013. Import of Middle Byzantine pottery to
the Western Black sea coast: the case of two cities Odessos
Chotzakoglou, Ch. 2011. Review: L. Brubaker, J. Haldon, Byzantium in and Anhialo. In Medieval Ports in North Aegean and the Black
the Iconoclast era: ca. 680-850: a history, Cambridge 2011. Cypriot Sea. Links to the Maritime Routes of the East, Proceedings of the
Studies 75: 537-48 International Symposium, edited by F. Karagianni, 353-66.
Chotzakoglou, Ch. 2014. Cyprus in the Sea-Routes of the Thessalonike
Mediterranean. In Olkas II. Sailing from and to Byzantium, edited Mourelatos, D. 2014. The formation and evolution of monumental
Ch. Chotzakoglou and Fl. Karagianni, 167-183. Athens painting in Georgia (6th-12th c.). The Role of Byzantine Art. In
Chotzakoglou, Ch. entry: . Vol. III. Medieval Painting in Georgia, edited by M. Panayotidi-Kesisoglou
, 46-47 and S. Kalopissi-Verti), 107-21. Athens
Chrysos, E. 2003. . n , Neil, B. 2006. Seventh Century Popes and Martyrs. The Political Hagiography
, Acts of of Anastasius Bibliothecarius. Turnhout
the Proceedings (Lefkosia, April 19-21 2001), coordinated by Io.
Panayotidi-Kesisoglou, M. 2014. Medieval Georgian and Byzantine
Theocharides), 141-50. Lefkosia
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Constantinides, C. 2002. edited by M. Panayotidi-Kesisoglou and S. Kalopissi-Verti, 93-
. Lefkosia 105. Athens
Constantinides, C. 2005. . In Papacostas, T. 2007. The History and Architecture of the Monastery of
, , edited by Th. Papadopoullos, 413- St. John Chrysostomos at Koutzovendis, Cyprus, DOP 61: 25-
63. Lefkosia 156
Couroupou, M. and P. Ghin. 2001. Nouveau documents chypriotes Papacostas, T. 2012. Byzantine Nicosia 650-1191. In Historic Nicosia,
RB 59: 147-64 edited by D. Michaelides, 79-109. Lefkosia
Djobadze, W.Z. 1984. Observations on the Georgian Monastery of Yalia Peeters, P. 1911. S. Romain le Neomartyr ( 1 Mai 780) d aprs un
(Galia) in Cyprus Oriens Christianus 68: 196-209 document Georgien AnnBoll 30: 419
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Prokopiou, H. 2006.
,
324-1191. In ,
, edited by A. Maragkou and T. Kolotas, 113-
128. Lemesos
201
Preservation of Yenikap Shipwrecks
N a mk K l
ABSTRACT
Thirty-seven medieval process, EXOCIDE 1012 was
shipwrecks, dating from the used against biological activity.
5th and to the 11th centuries, In order to determine the chemical
were uncovered by the salvage and physical deterioration of the
excavations under the supervision wood and wood species, samples
of the Istanbul Archaeology were taken and analyzed. The
Museums Directorate. The impregnation solution type
conservation work on 31 of these was determined according to
shipwrecks has been implemented data from these analyses. PEG
by the Istanbul Universitys (polyethylene glycol), freeze-drying
Department of Conservation of and, Kauramin (melamine
Marine Archaeological Objects . formaldehyde) are applied to
Following the removal of the the preservation of Yenikap
shipwrecks from excavation site, shipwrecks.
they were transported to stainless
steel tanks with capacities of 40 Keywords: Yenikap ship-
tons of water for the desalination wrecks, waterlogged wood,
process. During the desalination preservation, conservation
203
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Introduction nation followed by freeze dry- water in the timbers (Umax) was
ing (lyophilisation). Kauramin between 280900%. Based on
Thirty-seven shipwrecks, are
was used in different concentra- this, classification of the woods
dated between 5th-11th centuries,
tions for conserving some tim- from Yenikap Shipwrecks was
were uncovered by the Istan-
bers of Yenikap Shipwrecks af- considered as Class I-II and con-
bul Archaeological Museums
ter the desalination process had servation procedure was carried
during the rescue excavation at
been completed4. Kauramin is out based on this parameter.
Yenikap that started in 2004. The
a form of melamine formalde- Fourier Transform Infrared Spec-
Istanbul Archaeological Muse-
hyde-based resin5. troscopy (FTIR) is used todeter-
ums turned to Istanbul Univer-
sitys Department of Conserva- minethe chemical deterioration of
Identification of Yenikap Shipwreks7. According
tion of Marine Archaeological
degradation to this analysis, chemical struc-
Objects to deal with thirty one
of the shipwrecks1. Preservation Waterlogged wood is often tures of cellulose, hemicellulose
methods for waterlogged wood classed according to the amount and lignin altered.
of Yenikap Shipwrecks are poly- of water is contains: Class I: over
400 percent water, Class II: 185- Desalination
ethylene glycol (PEG), freeze-
drying and Kauramin. These 400 percent water and Class III: The salt inside the wood
are also the general preservation less than 185 percent6. Wood crystallizes after evaporation.
methods2. PEG, is a synthetic containing more than 200% wa- Crystallization of the salt may
material that has the generalized ter is considered to be degraded. causes cracks and exfoliation8.
formula HO(CH2CH2O)nH,, is Wood samples, not exceeding Following the removal of the
used in molecular weights be- 1 1.5 g, were taken from the shipwrecks from excavation site,
tween 400 and 4000 g/mol (n = Yenikap Shipwrecks in order to they were transported to stain-
9 to 91).3 For conserving some determine the amount of water less steel tanks with capacities of
timbers of Yenikap Shipwrecks, in the woods (Fig. 1). According 40 tons of water for the desalina-
PEG 2000 was used for impreg- to these analyses, the amount of tion process. In order to desali-
nate the timbers once they were
placed in the storage tanks, the
water in the tanks is circulated
and renewed with fresh water.
Salt content of the woods has
been reduced from 990 ppm to
40 ppm in Yenikap Shipwrecks
Project (Fig. 2). Desalination pro-
cess of Yenikap shipwrecks has
been completed in stainless steel
tank (Fig. 3). During the desalina-
Fig 1. Water tion process, EXOCIDE 1012 was
content analysis. used against biological activity.
204
Preservation of Yenikap Shipwrecks NAMIK KILI
Fig 4. Cleaning
Fig 2. Salt ratios of a desalination pool. the iron products.
205
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
PEG concentration is very the solution. The concentration sion of the water in the wood
significant for preventing os- of PEG 2000 was increased by in- cells due to freeze is avoided
motic collapse of waterlogged crements of 5% PEG (Fig. 5). The by pre-impregnation with PEG
wood. In the beginning of the increment procedure was com- before lyophilisation (freeze-
PEG treatment, PEG concentra- pleted when the PEG concentra- drying process). By the use of
tion has to be chosen not very tion of the solution reach 45%. freeze-drying, water is removed
high in order to avoid collapse The impregnation procedure without incurring either the force
due to a large difference in os- was completed after analyses of its surface tension on delicate
motic pressure is set up between have confirmed that PEG was structures or the drag of consoli-
the water inside the wood and entirely absorbed by the wood. dant from the core to the surface
the PEG solution outside12. For of the wood13. Also known as
this reason, PEG 2000 impregna- Following the PEG impreg- sublimation, freeze-drier primar-
tion process began initially with nation procedure, the process of ily reaches to the freezing point
a 5% concentration in Yenikap dehydration was performed by of PEG solution, and then elimi-
shipwrecks project. During this a freeze-drier used for the first nates the solidified water in the
process, a chemical material time in Turkey by the Istanbul timber through vaporization.
called EXOCIDE 1012 was add- University scientists at the Ship
Kauramin
ed at a ratio of 1/1000 to elimi- Conservation and Reconstruc-
impregnation
nate any bacterial formation in tion Laboratory (Fig. 6). Expan-
Boxes used for treatment
were covered with polyethylene
film and Kauramin solutions
were prepared in 25% concentra-
tion. An amount of 10% w/w tri-
ethylene glycol was added to the
Kauramin to try to obtain a more
flexible structure for the wood.
Triethanolamine, in the amount
Fig 5. Concentration
of 0.5 % w/w, was added to the
increased with
circulation pump. solution as an alkaline buffer to
prolong the life of the Kaura-
min solution14. Formaldehyde
present in the Kauramin solu-
tion is very hazardous for hu-
man health. In order to decrease
the effects of free formaldehyde,
Fig 6. Placing the urea at a ratio of 5% w/w is add-
wood fragments
ed to Kauramin solutions. Urea
from the Yenikap
Shipwrecks into the also increases the ability of the
freeze-drier. solution to be absorbed into the
206
Preservation of Yenikap Shipwrecks NAMIK KILI
Conclusion
Dried samples were examined
with visual analyses. As a result
of these analyses, no shrink- Fig 8. After
age or cracking on high deterio- Kauramin method.
(4288x2848)
rated wood was observed. The
Kauramin method provided di-
mensional stability for Yenikap
Shipwrecks. The method also Fig 9. Before pre-
impregnation with
provided dimensional stability polyethylene glycol and
for timbers from Yenikap Ship- vacuum freeze drying method
wrecks. Loss of integrity was de-
tected on low deteriorated, which
is a hard, oak wood. Furthermore, Fig 10. After pre-
the color of the all wood samples impregnation with
polyethylene glycol and
had faded (Fig. 7, 8). vacuum freeze drying method
Surface-tension, shrinkage,
cracks, and dimensional defor-
mity were not observed follow-
Acknowledgement tion and Restoration and stanbul
ing the pre-impregnation with
I would like to thank Prof. Dr. University Scientific Research
PEG and vacuum freeze drying
method. The timbers seemed Ufuk Kocaba, Yenikap Ship- Projects Unit (Project numbers
very natural even after the pro- wreck Project Team, Istanbul Uni- 13986, 2294, 3907, 7381 and 12765)
cedure (Fig. 9, 10). versity Department of Conserva- for their help and support.
207
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
N OTE S RE FE RE N CE S
1 Kocaba 2015, 5. Cronyn, J. M. 1990. The Elements of Archaeological Conservation, London.
2 Kocaba 2015, 5. Giachi, G., C. Capretti, N. Macchioni, B. Pizzo, I.D. Donato 2010. A
3 Giacchi, Cabretti, Macchioni, Pizzo, Donato 2011. Methodological Approach in the Evaluation of the Efficacy of
4 Mortensen 2009, 7. Treatments for the Dimensional Stabilisation of Waterlogged
Archaeological Wood. Journal of Cultural Heritage 11 (1): 91-101.
5 Kl 2011, 86.
6 Hoffmann, Witkpper 1999, 163. Giorgi, R., D. Chelazzi, P. Baglioni 2005. Nanoparticles of Calcium
Hydroxide for Wood Conservation The Deacidification of the
7 Smith 2003, 22. Vasa Warship, Langmuir 21: 10743-10748.
8 zden, Kl, zsait-Kocaba, Kl 2012, 58.
Hoffmann, P., M. Wittkpper 1999. The Kauramin Method for Stabilizing
9 Smith 2003, 23. Waterlogged Wood. Proceedings of the 7th ICOM-CC Working
10 Giorgi, Chelazzi, Baglioni 2005: 10743-10748. Group on Wet Organic Archaeological Materials Conference, edited
11 Watson 2004, 171. by C. Bonnot-Dicconne, X. Hiron and P. Hoffmann: 163-166.
12 Smith 2003, 23. Kl, N. 2011. Kauramin Tests For Yenikap 12 Shipwreck Hull.
13 Mortensen 2009, 7. Shipwrecks Chemistry and Preservation of Waterlogged Wooden
Shipwrecks, Ed. Ek, M., Royal Institute of Technology, 186.
14 Cronyn 1990, 259.
15 Hoffmann, Witkpper 1999, 164. Kl, N. and A.G. Kl 2013 Kauramin Tests for Yenikap
Shipwrecks, Proceedings of the 12th ICOM-CC Group on Wet
16 Wittkpper 1998.
Organic Archaeological Materials, 48. Istanbul.
17 Kl 2013, 48.
Kocabas, U. 2015. The Yenikap Byzantine-Era Shipwrecks, Istanbul,
Turkey: a preliminary report and inventory of the 27 wrecks
studied by Istanbul University, IJNA, 44.1: 538.
208
From Underwater to Museum:
Presenting Underwater Cultural
Heritage
A. G k e K l
ABSTRACT
Underwater cultural heritage study and enjoyment . Missions
encompasses all cultural heritage of museums which display
that lie or have lain underwater underwater cultural heritage
and underwater cultural heritage are same. They must attract and
includes shipwrecks and their educate the visitors, and make
remains. For underwater cultural a significant contribution to
heritage, UNESCO recommends protection of underwater cultural
in situ preservation as the first heritage. Displaying challenges
option. On the other hand, allow of the shipwreck is combining
museum exhibition under suitable optimum passive conservation
conditions . There are museums in conditions with effective displaying
various countries around the world techniques due to being organic
where wrecks and their remains artifacts and their size.
discovered underwater or from the
hinterland are exhibited. Keywords: Underwater cul-
According to ICOM, the aims tural heritage, shipwrecks,
of the museum are education, exhibition.
209
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Introduction tutions must not preclude reas- to the public, which acquires,
sembly to allow further research. conserves, researches, commu-
ICOMOS (International Coun-
Underwater cultural heritage is nicates and exhibits the tangible
cil on Monuments and Sites) ap-
not to be traded as items of com- and intangible heritage of hu-
proved the regulation on the
mercial value the importance manity and its environment for
Protection and Management of
of exhibiting these monuments the purposes of education, study
Underwater Cultural Heritage at
in the correct way was empha- and enjoyment3.
the General Assembly that was
sized1. For underwater cultural
held in Sofia in 1996. By saying One of the essential functions
heritage, UNESCO recommends
The project archive, which in- of a museum is the appropriate
in situ preservation as the first
cludes underwater cultural heri- displaying of objects: a key fac-
option. On the other hand, it al-
tage removed during investiga- tor in its description as a muse-
lows museum exhibition under
tion and a copy of all supporting um4. In modern museums, both
suitable conditions2. There are
documentation, must be deposit- technological means and tradi-
museums in various countries
ed in an institution that can pro- tional methods are utilized, in
around the world where artifacts
vide for public access and per- order to ensure the best display
discovered underwater or from
manent curation of the archive. of collections.
the hinterland are exhibited.
Arrangements for deposition
of the archive should be agreed ICOM (International Coun- In situ Preservation
before investigation commences, cil of Museums) described the
For underwater cultural heri-
and should be set out in the proj- term museum in the regulation
tage, UNESCO recommends
ect design. The archive should accepted in Vienna in 2007. Ac-
in situpreservation that means
be prepared in accordance with cording to the regulation, muse-
the preservation of underwater
current professional standards. ums were defined as A museum
cultural heritage in its original
The scientific integrity of the is a non-profit, permanent in-
location, as the first option. Al-
project archive must be assured; stitution in the service of soci-
deposition in a number of insti- though this recommendation,
ety and its development, open
it does not mean a rejection of
land-based museums5 (Fig. 1).
Finally, displaying underwa-
ter cultural heritage in museums
is a necessity in case remains are
threatened by any factors.
Exhibition in Museum
Displaying artifacts in show-
Fig 1. Protection cage cases made of glass or plexiglass.
for the phoenician
It is the most common method
shipwreck from the 7th
century BC Mazarrn II, used in museums. Underwater
Spain (Unesco.org). cultural museums generally use
210
From Underwater to Museum: Presenting Underwater Cultural Heritage A. GKE KILI
211
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Conclusion
Museums have a crucial role
on inform public about cultural
heritage. Museums should con-
serve the artifact while display
Fig 5. Models of
Viking Ships, Viking them and also tell the story of
Ship Museum, the object to the visitors. Proper
Denmark (G. Kilic).
light, heat, light and humidity
values must be provided for the
If an old building is to be re- objects in museums. Museum
be designed, the first question
stored and used as a museum, architecture becomes significant
that must be asked, is what can
attention should be paid to the for shipwreck museum due to
the architecture add to the mu-
preservation of the authentic- being organic artifacts and their
seum?9.
ity of design, materials, work- size. Museums must attract the
Museum architecture is de- visitors. Also, they should make
manship and the location of
fined as the art of designing and a significant contribution to the
the building. Proper light, heat,
building a place which incorpo- knowledge ofunderwater cul-
light and humidity values must
rates specific museum functions tural heritage.
be provided for the objects and
such as displaying, preserving,
security measures should be Acknowledgement
studying, administering and
taken. It is possible to add new
greeting the visitors10. In addi- I would like to thank Prof.
structures to old buildings in
tion, all museum projects should Dr. Ufuk Kocaba for his help
cases where the old buildings
be welcoming in their design the and support.
are not physically adequate. In
disabled persons, thus museums
this case, the passages between
serving to all visitors can be de-
buildings are provided through
signed11.
curtain walls12.
212
From Underwater to Museum: Presenting Underwater Cultural Heritage A. GKE KILI
N OTE S RE FE RE N CE S
1 UNESCO 2001. Craddock A., B. 1994. Construction Materials for Storage and Exhibition,
2 ICOM 2007. Care of Collection, Ed. S. Knell, Routledge, 129-134.
3 ICOMOS 1996 Desvalles A., Mairesse F. 2010. Key Concepts of Museology, Ed. A.
4 UNESCO 2001. Desvalles, F. Mairesse.
5 ICOM 2007. Erbay F. 2009. Mze Ynetimini Kurumsallatrma abas, Ed. N. Bulduk,
6 Hein 2004. Institution of Architecture Foundation
9 Erbay 2009, 469. Germen M., Kulaksz C., etin O., C. 2010. Saysal Fotoraf Bask
10 Erbay 2011, 94-102. Teknikleri, Ed, H. Erylmaz, Anadolu University, Eskiehir.
11 Tzortzi 2007, 72. Hein G., E. 2004. John Dewey and Museum Education, Curator: The
12 Desvalles, Mairesse 2010, 23. Museum Journal, 47 (4), 413-427.
13 Rodgers 2005. ICOM. 2007. Museum Definition, 21st General Assembly, Austria.
14 Padfield, Larsen 2004, 131-133. ICOMOS. 1996. Charter on the Protection and Management of Underwater
15 Craddock 1994, 129-134. Cultural Heritage, 11th ICOMOS General Assembly, Bulgaria.
213
Sustainable Cultural Routes in
Istanbul: The Kkyali Arkeopark
and Its Vicinities 1
Alessandra Ricci, Bar Altan
ABSTRACT
The Kkyal ArkeoPark is an a cistern, as well as traces of
urban archaeology project located settlement spanning the first half of
on the Asian side of Istanbuls the fourteenth century.
Greater Municipality. Although The Kkyal ArkeoPark is a
the ArkeoPark covers a relatively project focusing on archaeological
medium-sized area corresponding inquiry as well as on public
to some 4,500/5,000 sq. m, it engagement. Within the scope of
represents the largest surviving its public engagement activities, a
archaeological area on the Asian specific element will be presented
side of Istanbul. Investigations here: work carried out within
at the site and research currently the EU LIMEN project aimed at
support identification of the devising more sustainable visitor
remains with the Middle Byzantine activities for the site. A suburban
period monastic complex built by cultural route linking the site
patriarch Ignatios between 867 and with the nearby archipelago of
877 CE. Ongoing excavations are the Princes Islands and the
bringing to light the second half establishment of a bike route
of the ninth-century ecclesiastical represent the focus of this
building that has survived above contribution.
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CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
The Kkyal ArkeoPark: displayed few urban features. tion, was designed and built
its surroundings and In antiquity, however, the an- during the second half of the
archaeology cient remains were much closer ninth century at the will of a
While work currently carried to the sea of Marmara, within prominent figure of the Middle
out at the Kkyal ArkeoPark close visual range of the Princes Byzantine period: the patriarch
covers a broad variety of activi- Islands, and were part of the ex- Ignatios, son of the deposed
tiesranging from excavation, tended physical landscape form- emperor Michael the First Rang-
study and conservation of the ing Byzantine Constantinoples abes (r. 811813 CE), who after
finds to cultural programs and hinterland. Today Kkyal is his fathers dethronement was
educational activities aimed at a tranquil yet densely populated evirated and exiled to the Princ-
fostering public archaeology neighborhood, part of Istanbuls es Islands, where he became a
this presentation will focus greater metropolitan area, and monk. From the Princes Islands
on a particular theme. Specifi- treasuring the largest surviving Ignatios ascended to the patri-
cally, we wish to present work archaeological space in the citys archal seat twice, and the ha-
carried out thus far within the Asian side. In antiquity the re- giographical text composed by
framework of the EU LIMEN mains forming the complex at David Niketas Paphlago implies
project and aimed at determin- Kkyal extended well beyond that he built the monastery dur-
ing whether the creation of a the current boundaries of the ing his second tenure as patri-
cultural route including the ArkeoPark and likely engaged arch 3. Ignatios likely spent time
Kkyal Arkeo-Park would with a surrounding network of at the monastery and, according
be beneficial to the enhance- suburban residences, agricul- to the same hagiographical text,
ment of visitation to the site in tural estates, roads, cemeteries, was also buried there in a small
the short and long term. small harbors and more. These chapel added to the southeast of
suburban qualities continued the monastic church in 867 CE4.
The Kkyal ArkeoPark
well into the Ottoman and Early We know that the church was
covers a medium-sized (ca.
Republican periods, until a few dedicated to St. Michael and that
4,500/5,000 sq. m) archaeologi-
decades ago, when this area be- the monastery took the name of
cal and natural space tucked in
came an integral part of Istan- Satyros, or Anatellon (or, The Ris-
between modern buildings in
buls urban landscape 2. ing One).
the nar neighborhood, dis-
trict of Kkyal, Municipality Archaeological investiga- In the late Byzantine period,
of Maltepe, on the Asian side of tions and research are provid- the complex maintained some
Istanbuls Greater Municipal- ing new data for the identifica- forms of life, which came to a
ity (Fig. 1). Several of the local tion of the site. The complex at rather sudden end around the
inhabitants recall a time, just Kkyal is currently identified middle of the fourteenth century
several decades ago, when the as a large-sized and monumen- when Ottoman troops took over
neighborhood was less devel- tal suburban monastery built in this region. However, no traces
oped and the physical landscape the Middle Byzantine period. of violent conflict have thus far
surrounding the archaeologi- The monastery, a place of isola- been detected in the area. Fur-
cal area appeared greener and tion, solitude and contempla- thermore, archaeological inves-
216
The Kkyali Arkeopark and Its Vicinities ALESSANDRA RICCI, BARI ALTAN
217
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
218
The Kkyali Arkeopark and Its Vicinities ALESSANDRA RICCI, BARI ALTAN
219
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
A Sustainable Urban
ArkeoPark
The Kkyal ArkeoPark is
a project focusing on archaeo-
logical inquiry as well as on
public engagement. This means
that the results of archaeological
research are shared with the lo-
cal community and other inter-
ested parties. Excavations take
place on a yearly basis for a peri-
od of about two or three months
and are followed by study, con-
servation and publication of the
finds. An interdisciplinary team
of specialists, students and vol-
unteers works on these delicate
activities.
Fig 7. One of the artisanal markets carried out
within the EU LIMEN project inside the While archaeological work
Byzantine period cistern (KYAP 2014) at Kkyal progresses, the
220
The Kkyali Arkeopark and Its Vicinities ALESSANDRA RICCI, BARI ALTAN
ArkeoPark Project also em- is hardly noticeable today. Yet a ally confined to specific areas in
phasizes public engagement11. view from the top of the minaret the Historic Peninsula and in the
Through educational activities, of nar Camii reveals the prox- Beyolu region. Data recently
a childrens club and a wide imity of the islands forming the published by the Ministry of
range of on site cultural events- archipelago of the Princes Is- Culture and Tourism might help
ranging from free guided tours of lands: Proti (modern Knalada) visualize the areas of tourism
the site to open-air concerts and and Halki (modern Heybeliada) concentration. The Sultanah-
movie screenings the ArkeoPark at close visual range, with the met area appears to concentrate
shares its archaeological discov- larger masses of Prinkipos (mod- the highest numbers of visitors
eries while also fostering learn- ern Bykada) to the south. It is the Topkap Palace Museum
ing and stewardship (Fig. 6). The on these islands that Ignatios as with 3,400,000 visitors and the
Kkyal ArkeoPark Project en- well as his father, the deposed Hagia Sophia Museum with
capsulates a small yet important emperor Michael the First Rang- 3,275,000 visitors while the
piece of Istanbuls heritage, in abes, and his family were scat- Beyolu region and the Princes
which the green space, its ecology tered in different monasteries Islands fall behind with much
and the archaeological remains and on different islands. Hence, smaller numbers. The average
balance nature and history. Our there appears to be a historical length of stay in Istanbul for the
Project aims at better understand- link between the islands and the year 2014 was 4.13 days for do-
ing, preserving and representing site at Kkyal. mestic tourists and 1.88 days for
this balance in a long-lasting way foreign tourists12 (Turkish Minis-
At present, the Princes Is-
while making the space available try of Culture and Tourism).
lands represent together with
to the local community and out-
the Bosphorus one of the two The location of the Kkyal
side visitors (Fig. 7).
main tourist attractions outside ArkeoPark provides us with
Sustainable Cultural the historic peninsula. The is- a variety of options to create
Ro utes lands offer an oasis of silence cultural routes for Istanbul. It
and nature as all motorized ve- is possible to draw the atten-
Presently, the site of Kkyal
hicles are banned along with tion of local and foreign visitors
is located at a distance of circa
the construction of tall build- who look for alternative cultural
700 m. from the modern sea-
ings. Horse-drawn carriages destinations to the Asian side
shore, but it was at least 250
and bicycles represent the main of Istanbul and to develop the
m. further inland as recently
mode of transportation, while Kkyal ArkeoPark as a focal
as the 1960s. As some photo-
wooden Victorian-style cottages point for a variety of cultural
graphs and descriptions of the
and summer residences line the routes13.
period indicate, the site at that
islands streets.
point had sandy beaches dotted Within the framework of the
by rocks and ancient remains. Although there appears to LIMEN Project at the Kkyal
However, the current built envi- be a rising demand for cultural ArkeoPark, we organized two
ronment precludes observation tourism in the city of Istanbul, it meetings (October 10, 2014,
of the complex in its broader set- is important to stress that mass and February 28, 2014) on sus-
ting, and the presence of the sea and cultural tourism are gener- tainable cultural routes for the
221
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
ArkeoPark and its vicinities14 How important are numbers Walls and upper areas of the
(Cultural Route Meetings). This when considering sustain- Golden Horn).
was with the purpose of coordi- ability in cultural tourism?
2) Vicinities of Istanbul:
nating with the Cultural Routes Can a single monument such Asian Side and Islands (includ-
Societya legal body based in as the complex at Kkyal ing the archaeological site at
Antalya linked to the Society of draw visitors attention and Kkyal, the bike road link-
European Cultural Routes and become part of a cultural ing the site to the seashore and
working predominantly on ru- route? the Princes Islands. Possible fu-
ral cultural routesin order to ture additions may include the
develop a vision for urban and During the first meeting held
archaeological areas at Dragos,
near-urban cultural routes in Is- at the Kkyal ArkeoPark on
Samandra and Aydos [Fig. 8]).
October 10, 2014, we focused on
tanbul 15 (Cultural Routes Soci-
the potential for creating urban 3) Vicinities of Istanbul:
ety). Four main questions were
and rural cultural routes. In the European Side (focusing on the
addressed during the meetings:
second meeting, held on Febru- Anastasian Long Walls and the
Can we encourage visitors ary 28, 2015, in collaboration aqueducts in the vicinities of
to seek alternative cultural with the Princes Islands City atalca).
routes in the city of Istanbul? Council, we collectively defined
Alternative Sustainable
Are there significant num- three cultural routes for Istanbul
Cultural Routes for
bers of visitors in Istanbul and its vicinities.
Istanbul Focusing on the
who are seeking alternative 1) Istanbul Urban Route (a Kkyal ArkeoPark
cultural routes? zigzag along Istanbuls Land
The newly built public trans-
port infrastructure, including
the Marmaray (a rail transporta-
tion project under theBospho-
rus straitalong theSea of Mar-
maragoing fromHalkalon the
European side toGebzeon the
Asian side) and the Kadky
Kartal metro line, makes the
Kkyal ArkeoPark much eas-
ier to reach by public transpor-
tation. We strongly believe that
within a megapolis the size of
Istanbul, public transportation
Fig 8 Plan of the can be one of the main means of
proposed Vicinities
movement for tourists as well as
of Istanbul: Asian Side
and Islands cultural residents. Public transportation
route (KYAP 2015) helps visitors save time, allows
222
The Kkyali Arkeopark and Its Vicinities ALESSANDRA RICCI, BARI ALTAN
a more direct and hands-on ex- ly form of transportation. In the Fig 9. Plan of the approved
bike route (KYAP 2015)
perience with the city and is a city of Istanbul, urban bike lanes
more environmentally sustain- have greatly increased over the
able form of movement than au- past years. Within the frame-
tomobiles or buses. The Vicini- work of the LIMEN Project, a
ties of Istanbul: Asian Side and bike lane will be implemented in
Islands route adds public sea order to re-establish the associa-
Fig 10. Meeting at the
transport as another appealing tion of the Kkyal ArkeoPark
Kkyal ArkeoPark for public
means of transport for visitors with the nearby shore of the Sea presentation and discussion of
and tourists16. of Marmara. This bike lane will the bike route (KYAP 2015)
223
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
originate from the existing bike Plan (SMP) since October 2014 sites will be enhanced by the us-
lane on the Marmara shore, con- within the framework of an age of environmentally friendly
necting Kadky to Kartal, and ISTKA (Istanbul Development forms of movement such as
will represent an important Agency) grant, A Sustainable urban bike lanes and public
component of the sustainable Urban Archaeology Experience: transportation inclusive of sea
cultural tourism route for the The Kkyal ArkeoPark. Prof. transportation. We also feel
Asian side of Istanbul. Nuran Zeren Glersoy and her that public archaeology activi-
team worked in collaboration ties carried out at the Kkyal
In order to assess the feasi-
and dialogue with the Kkyal ArkeoPark together with the
bility of such a bike route, we
ArkeoPark team. The boundar- newly completed Visitors and
launched a bike night event
ies of the SMP were approved Community Center represent an
at the Kkyal ArkeoPark.
by the Turkish Ministry of Cul- added value for visitors. More-
On the warm summer evening
ture and Tourism in February over, the local community at
of August 12, 2015, we hosted a
2015. Subsequently, the director Kkyal will continue to play
gathering for the neighborhood
of the Istanbul Archaeological an important role in steward-
and cyclists on the Byzantine pe-
Museums, Zeynep S. Kzltan, ship of the site. The success of
riod platform at the archaeologi-
was officially appointed as the the cultural route will also be
cal site (Fig. 9). At the meeting
Site Manager by the Ministry of enhanced by stewardship under
we presented, discussed and re-
Culture and Tourism in August the auspices of the local authori-
ceived constructive feedback on
2015. The preliminary draft of ties and the local Maltepe mu-
the bike lane project. At the same
the SMP was handed to the Min- nicipality.
time a group of volunteers pro-
istry in September 201518.
vided the audience with training
and advice on how to use urban One of the main components
bike lanes in the city of Istanbul. of the SMP is the creation and
The meeting proved successful implementation of sustainable
and, with the support of the lo- cultural routes that will include
cal Maltepe municipality, the the Kkyal ArkeoPark.
bike lane project was finalized
(Fig. 10). At the time of writing Conclusions
this contribution, the new bike Our research and prelimi-
lane was in the process of re- nary implementation indicates
ceiving final approval from the that the Kkyal ArkeoPark
Istanbul Greater Municipality17. has potential to become a core
point for a sustainable cultural
Site Management Plan
route, one that should include
and Cultural Routes
the Princes Islands in order to
A group of experts from dif- add meaningful historical value
ferent fields have been working to the visitor experience. At the
on drafting a Site Management same time, the ecology of the
224
The Kkyali Arkeopark and Its Vicinities ALESSANDRA RICCI, BARI ALTAN
N OTE S RE FE RE N CE S
1 Activities at the Kkyal ArkeoPark are carried out through per- Council of Europe, 2015. Cultural routes management: from theory to
mission granted by the General Directorate for Antiquities and practice. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing.
Monuments of the Turkish Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Ms.
Zeynep S. Kzltan, Director of the Istanbul Archaeological Muse- Cultural Route Meetings. 9 presentations at the first meeting and 8
ums, is in charge of operations, with Dr. Alessandra Ricci serving presentations at the meeting were made by experts on culture,
as the scientific coordinator. The authors wish to thank the Gen- cultural tourism.
eral Directorate for permission to carry out work at the site; Ms. Culture Routes Society. The Society was established in July 2012 in
Kzltan and her staff, including Ms. Asuman Denker among others; order to protect Turkeys existing culture routes, to promote the
Prof. Dr. Iradi Aksun at the VPDR Office at Ko University, for his establishment of new routes, and to set best-practice standards
unconditional support of the EU LIMEN project; and Ms. Meltem for their development. (http://cultureroutesinturkey.com)
Ianlar for her indefatigable contribution to our work. Last but not
least, sincere thanks go to the entire team of the Kkyal Arke- Glersoy N. Z., 2015. Kkyal ArkeoPark Alan Ynetim Plan (Taslak)/
oPark project. Kkyal ArkeoPark Site Management Plan (Draft), with A.
Ricci, H. Akarca, O. Kargl, submitted to the Turkish Ministry of
2 Ricci 2015
Culture and Tourism and to the Turkish General Directorate of
3 Vita Ignatii, 2013, col. 496D.7-497A.4 , 11. 25-30, pp. 14-15. Cultural Heritage and Museums, Istanbul, 1- 149
4 Vita Ignatii, 2013, col. 365A.1-12; 76.20-27, pp. 108-109.
McKercher, B. and Du Cross, H. 2002. Cultural Tourism: The Partnership
5 Ricci 2012, 147-156 between Tourism and Cultural Heritage Management. New
6 Ricci 2015, 181 York: The Haworth Press.
7 Ricci 1998 Platform for Commuting with Bike. The only existing web and mobile
8 Ricci, Bilgin, Polat, Metin, Eki 2015, 1 application on bike routes in Istanbul was created by Platform
9 Ricci 2012, Ricci 2015 for Commuting with Bike. (http://bisikletliulasim.com/harita.
html)
10 Vita Ignatii, 2013, col. 365A.1-12; 76.20-27,pp.108-109.
11 Ricci, Yilmaz, In Press Ricci A., 1998. The road from Baghdad to Constantinople and the case
of the Bryas Palace Istanbul, Byzantium in the Ninth Century:
12 Turkish Ministry of Culture and Tourism Dead or Alive?, L. Brubaker ed., Aldershot, 131- 149
13 McKercher, Du Cross
Ricci A., 2012. Left behind: small sized objects from the Middle Byzantine
14 Cultural Route Meetings Monastic Complex of Satyros (Kkyal, Istanbul), Byzantine
15 Cultural Routes Society Small Finds in Archaeological Contexts, B. Bhlendorf-Aslan, A.
16 Council of Europe Ricci eds., BYZAS, 15, 147-162
17 Platform for Commuting with Bike Ricci A. 2015. Contesti funerari bizantini e loro archeologia a Kkyal
18 Glersoy 2015, 127 (Istanbul: considerazionipreliminari/Kkyalda Bizans mezar
kontekstleri ve arkeolojisi: ilk deerlendirmeler, Journal of
Archaeology and Art/ Arkeoloji ve Sanat, 148, 177-190
Ricci A., Bilgin I., Polat B., Metin A.B., Eki E., 2015. Gemiten Gelecee
Miras. Kkyal ArkeoPark. Kltrel Miras Eitim Kitap (8-
12 ya)/ Heritage from Past to Future. The Kkyal ArkeoPark.
A Cultural Heritage Educational Booklet (8-12 years), Istanbul
Vita Ignatii 2013, Nicetas David, The Life of Patriarch Ignatius. Text
and Translation by A. Smithies, with Notes by J. M. Duffy,
Washington, D.C.
225
Cultural Tourism:
Potentials for Growth
Georgia-Anna Kanaki
ABSTRACT
This essay deals with the on the facilitation of access to
impacts of cultural tourism monuments and sites, both
on society and examines its concerning their connectability
potentials for growth. First of to the public transport network
all, the vital role of cultural and their accessibility by disabled
tourism in destination branding persons. The important issue of
is described, as it contributes to authenticity versus staged events is
the creation of national identities raised, as the current trend within
and develops attraction icons for tourism is to provide the visitor
national governments. Moreover, with authentic experiences. Lastly,
the economic impact of cultural the role of new technologies such
tourism is analysed, especially in as virtual reality or QR codes,
the case of developing countries outdoor activities, museum nights,
or countries with a weakened themed walks and temporary
economy. Emphasis is given on exhibitions is described. The last
environmental issues that must part of the essay briefly outlines
be taken into consideration for the EU policies within the field of
the preservation of historical cultural tourism and emphasizes
sites and monuments, as well as on the role of city-ports and
for the maximization of cultural the importance of international
tourisms economic impact. collaboration for the promotion of
Furthermore, the essay emphasizes tourism in general.
227
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
228
Cultural Tourism: Potentials for Growth GEORGIA-ANNA KANAKI
Destination branding provides employment for the on the natural or urban environ-
local population but is also a ment, issues such as the use of
Cultural tourism is the most
source of income for the country renewable energy sources (solar
important factor for destina-
in general. energy, wind power etc), waste
tion branding. For example, the
management and traffic must be
Coliseum in Rome or the Par- Apart from the indirect posi-
taken into serious consideration.
thenon in Athens, the Big Ben in tive impact of cultural tourism
As many countries possessing a
London and the Eiffel tower in on a tourist destination, there
rich cultural heritage are blessed
Paris are monuments of cultural are other significant factors,
with sunny weather conditions,
heritage that are intrinsically which contribute to the increase
the use of solar energy is a vital
linked to the image of the cities of tourism receipts. For example,
step towards the environmental-
where they are located, creating the pricing of the entrance fees
friendly management of cultural
attraction icons for national to museums and archaeological
sites. Moreover, recycling the
governments. Strengthening the and historical sites are closely
increased amount of waste due
image of the hosting cities and linked to the specific income of
the attraction. For the pricing to augmented tourism flows is
countries leads to an increase
of the entrance fees to places of also vital for the sustainability of
of tourist flows to characteristic
cultural interest, the principle of places of cultural interest as well
monuments, museums etc, thus
the polluter pays must be tak- as for the city in general where
contributing to an increase of
en into consideration, as many the monuments or museums are
tourism revenues.
historical sites and monuments located.
Economic impact are endangered by the increas- Increased tourism flows in
In the field of economy, cul- ing flow of tourists. By this way, major cities also lead to traffic
tural tourism provides oppor- entrance fees should reflect not congestion. Thus it is essential
tunities for all countries, espe- only the economic cost of the to divert traffic from the most
cially for developing countries provision but also social costs, as visited sites and build or ad-
or countries with a weakened well as preservation, restoration just the already existing urban
economy. In developed areas, and maintenance costs of the at- mass transportation system to
heritage and cultural attractions tractions, so as to contribute to the major monuments/muse-
include -apart from archaeo- the self-financing of the cultural ums. Inevitably this will also
logical and historical sites- art institutions and the increase of increase the city residents life
museums, plays, orchestral and their revenues. quality and decrease the pollu-
other musical performances. In tion caused by the traffic in gen-
Environmental impact
less developed areas, heritage eral. A good example of traffic
and cultural attractions may in- As mentioned above, the management is the unification
clude traditional religious prac- management of places of cultur- of the archaeological sites in
tices, handicrafts and cultural al interest is strongly linked to Athens city centre and the ban-
performance4. Both categories environmental issues. In order ning of car traffic within the
of countries can benefit from to promote cultural tourism and area. The archaeological sites
cultural tourism that not only outweigh its negative impacts are accessible by the metro sys-
229
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
tem and tourists enjoy a stroll in other people and other cultures. to or are about to visit. E-muse-
the tranquil surroundings of the This means that the promo- ums and e-libraries provide es-
sites, undisturbed by sounds tion of the intangible cultural sential information for the po-
and car gases. heritage such as songs, dances tential visitor. Good examples
or feasts of every kind requires for this is the Europeana Por-
Caring for disabled authenticity. Defining authentic- tal7, a multimedia library, mu-
people ity, one would describe it as the seum and archive incorporated
Visiting historical sites and ideal situation where both the into one website, offering direct
learning about a places history host community and the visitor access to digitised books, audio
should be a privilege for every- see the experience as authentic5. and film material, photos, paint-
one. However, it is not unusual The current trend in tourism is ings, maps, manuscripts, news-
to see open-air archaeological providing the visitor with posi- papers and archival documents
sites that cannot be accessed by tive experiences that he or she that compile Europes cultural
wheelchair users or adults with is bound to share with his or heritage.
babies in prams. Equipping cul- her friends at home, who could
But also traditional museums
tural sites with ramps or spe- be prompted to visit the coun-
have a great profit from the use
cially designed lifts is crucial try themselves. Unfortunately,
of new technologies. For exam-
for making them accessible to many times visitors are met by ple, numerous European muse-
everyone in an inclusive soci- staged events6, often organized ums use the QR code technology
ety. Caring for disabled people by their travel agency, that are so the visitor can scan the code
also reflects a countrys attitude in total lack of authenticity (e.g. on his or hers cell phone and get
towards vulnerable population bouzouki nights with Greek further information about the
groups, contributing to the im- dancing arranged exclusively object they are looking at.
age a that tourist acquires when for tourists). Thus it is crucial
visiting a foreign country. It is for tourists to be provided with Interactive media is also an
obvious that making sites acces- genuine experiences (e.g. culi- asset for museums nowadays,
sible to everyone is an invest- nary or musical) which have the as the visitor has the opportu-
ment, as more people will be able potential of acting as one of the nity to interact with the exposed
to visit the particular places and most decisive factors for visiting object. This makes the museum
contribute to their prosperity. a particular place. more exciting for the tourist
who in the opposite case eas-
Authenticity Use of new technologies ily gets bored by only reading
dusty tags of objects placed be-
Another important issue that The use of new technologies
hind windowpanes.
arises when it comes to cultural such as the internet, virtual re-
tourism is the authenticity of ality and QR codes play a vital Reaching out to the younger
what the tourist experiences. role for the growth of cultural population is also of great im-
Tourists are more and more tourism. Nowadays most people portance for museums, histori-
looking for true experiences, for inform themselves via internet cal sites etc. In order to acquaint
meeting and getting to know about the destination they want children with cultural tourism, it
230
Cultural Tourism: Potentials for Growth GEORGIA-ANNA KANAKI
231
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
232
Cultural Tourism: Potentials for Growth GEORGIA-ANNA KANAKI
democracy, cultural diversity time. As road communication of tourists travelling from far-
and identity, dialogue, mutual was very difficult for the travel- away countries to Europe and
exchange and enrichment across ler who wished to visit a far off more specifically to the Mediter-
boundaries and centuries.9 place, travel by sea was a fast ranean, it is vital for neighbour-
The European Union coop- and convenient way to travel, ing countries to cooperate with-
erates actively with the Council making use of the trading routes in the field of cultural tourism.
of Europe, the European Travel in the Mediterranean. The tourist who travels across
Commission, the World Tour- the globe to experience the cul-
Today, the role of city-ports is
ism Organisation and other tural heritage of a country will
also of great importance, taking
international partners, contrib- most likely be interested in vis-
into consideration the growth
uting to the further develop- iting cultural monuments in a
of cruise tourism worldwide. In
ment of Pan-European Thematic neighbouring country if given
the Mediterranean and the Black
Tourism Routes. At the time be- the chance. Thus countries with
Sea, major city-ports are located
ing, there are 26 trans-national shared sea borders could benefit
in the vicinity of archaeological
itineraries connecting several from combined tourist packages
and historical sites, contributing
cities, villages, rural communi- that include cultural visits to
to the growth of cultural tourism
ties across the continent and more than one country.
both in the city ports and in the
representing Europe as a single mainland. Thus infrastructure is Conc lu sion
tourism destination.10 a vital element for the develop-
The Organization of the ment of cultural tourism, with Every country has its own cul-
Black Sea Economic Coopera- the connection of harbours with ture that it is proud of and aims
tion (BSEC) also strives for the national roads, railways etc. at attracting tourists to visit its
promotion of cultural tourism monuments, museums, histori-
City-ports are also impor-
within the frame of the Working cal sites and experience its tradi-
tant in terms of daily excursions
Groups on Cooperation in Tour- tions. For the realisation of this
from neighbouring countries,
ism and Culture, by ensuring goal, many sectors must be com-
for example Greece and Turkey,
sustainable tourism develop- bined for a maximum effect. It is
whose ports can be visited dur-
ment enabling economic expan- important to remember that even
ing one-day excursions, con-
sion while preserving natural when financial resources are re-
tributing to the acquaintance of
and cultural heritage, promot- stricted, there is always poten-
tourists with the cultural heri-
ing new tourism packages for tial to develop cultural tourism
tage of each country and leading
the BSEC Region, joint market- by making the sites, museums
to economic prosperity for the
ing campaigns etc. etc attractive and interesting for
home and the destination port.
the visitor. The exchange of best
Cul tura l tou r i s m an d Promoting tourist packages practices and ideas, along with
c i ty -p o r ts
that stretch over several coun- the strengthening of internation-
City-ports have always played tries borders is a key element al cooperation, present a chance
an essential role in cultural tour- for the marketing of city-ports. for all countries to develop their
ism from antiquity to present Taking into account the number cultural heritage and identity.
233
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
N OTE S RE FE RE N CE S
1 World Tourism Organization, 1985, 131. Christou, E. 2005. Heritage and cultural tourism: A marketing-focused
2 According to the 2003 Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intan- approach. In the International Cultural Tourism: Management,
gible Cultural Heritage, the intangible cultural heritage (ICH) or Implications and Cases, edited by Sigala, M. & Leslie, D. London:
living heritage is the mainspring of humanitys cultural diversity Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann.
and its maintenance a guarantee for continuing creativity. Cooper C., Wanhill S., Fletcher J., Gilbert D., and Fyall A. 2005. Tourism:
3 Cooper et all. 2005, 346. principles and practice, 3rd ed., Harlow: Financial Times Prentice
4 Christou 2005, 5. Hall.
5 Cooper et all. 2005, 374. Council of Europe. 2014. Enlarged Partial Agreement on Cultural
6 MacCannell 1973, 589-603. Routes. http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/cultureheritage/culture/
routes/default_en.asp (8 September2015)
7 http://www.europeana.eu/portal/
8 In his interview, Kakavas (2014, 24 November) speaks of an increase European Commission. 2014. Cultural Tourism. http://ec.europa.eu/
of 81 % in tourist flow to the National Archaeological Museum dur- enterprise/sectors/tourism/cultural-routes/index_en.htm#h2-1
ing the summer months. (8 September 2015)
9 Council of Europe. 2014, Enlarged Partial Agreement on Cultural Kakavas, G. 2013, 24 November.
Routes. . (2013). http://www.
10 European Commission. 2014. Cultural Tourism. paron.gr/v3/article_print.php?id=85850&colid=&catid=60&
dt=2013-11-24%200:0:0 (8 September 2015).
234
Funding Opportunities for Cultural
Projects: How High is Culture in the
European Agenda?
Vassiliki Sotiropoulou
235
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
The Europe 2020 strategy is about delivering In order to achieve these goals, the Europe 2020
growth that is: strategy is focused on five ambitious goals in the
a) smart, through more effective investments in areas of: employment, innovation, education, pov-
education, research and innovation; erty reduction and climate/energy.
b) sustainable, thanks to a decisive move to- Table 1 is trying to give an overview of the ar-
wards a low carbon economy; and c) inclu- eas of EU activities and the programmes adopted
sive, with a strong emphasis on job creation for their implementation.
and poverty reduction. But what do these
three terms refer to? Thematic Priorities:
Smart growth means improving the EUs per- In order to contribute to the Union strategy for
formance in: education (encouraging people to smart, sustainable and inclusive growth as well as
learn, study and update their skills), research/ the Fund-specific missions pursuant to their Trea-
innovation (creating new products/services that ty-based objectives, including economic, social
generate growth and jobs and help address social and territorial cohesion, each European Structural
challenges) and digital society (using information and Investment Fund (ESIF) shall support 11 spe-
and communication technologies) cific thematic objectives. Thematic objectives shall
be translated into priorities (known as investment
Sustainable growth on the other hand sup- priorities) that are specific to each of the ESI Funds
ports the shift towards a resource efficient, low- and are set out in the Fund- specific rules.
carbon economy, that makes efficient, sustainable
use of resources, protecting the environment, 1. strengthening research, technological de-
reducing emissions and preventing biodiversity velopment and innovation;
loss, developing new green technologies and 2. enhancing access to, and use and quality
production methods introducing efficient smart of, ICT;
electricity grids, harnessing EU-scale networks
to give our businesses (especially small manu- 3. enhancing the competitiveness of SMEs,
facturing firms) an additional competitive ad- of the agricultural sector (for the EAFRD)
vantage, improving the business environment, and of the fishery and aquaculture sector
in particular for SMEs and helping consumers (for the EMFF);
make well-informed choices. 4. supporting the shift towards a low-carbon
Last but not least, the term Inclusive growth re- economy in all sectors;
fers to the initiatives for raising Europes employ- 5. promoting climate change adaptation,
ment rate i.e. more and better jobs, especially for risk prevention and management;
women, young people and older workers helping
6. preserving and protecting the environ-
people of all ages anticipate and manage change
ment and promoting resource efficiency;
through investment in skills & training. Also, the
term inclusive growth refers to modernising la- 7. promoting sustainable transport and re-
bour markets and welfare system and ensuring that moving bottlenecks in key network infra-
the benefits of growth reach all parts of the EU. structures;
236
Funding Opportunities for Cultural Projects VASSILIKI SOTIROPOULOU
Table 1
237
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
8. promoting sustainable and quality em- achieve the EUs strategic objectives of prosperity, soli-
ployment and supporting labour mobility; darity and security, and have led the Commission
to develop a common cultural agenda and new
9. promoting social inclusion, combating
partnerships and methods for cooperation with
poverty and any discrimination;
Member States, civil society and third countries.
10. investing in education, training and voca- As a result, in May 2007 the European Commis-
tional training for skills and lifelong learning; sion issued the Communication from the Com-
11. enhancing institutional capacity of public mission to the European Parliament, the Council,
authorities and stakeholders and efficient the European Economic and Social Committee
public administration. and the Committee of the Regions on a European
agenda for culture in a globalizing world, pro-
As seen in table 2 above, as well as in the the- posing objectives for a new EU agenda for culture.
matic priorities list that follows, culture is not a
priority per se. Cultural projects and initiatives for EUROPEAN AGENDA FOR CULTURE
the promotion and study of cultural issues can be Resolution of the Council, 16 Nov. 2007 the
financed through a number of Programmes that European Agenda for Culture is perceived as an
are designed to contribute to the targets of Europe important step towards further developing coop-
2020 for jobs and growth and satisfy Europes eration in the cultural field and increasing the co-
commitments to international agreements, such as herence and visibility of European action in this
the United Nations Convention on the Protection field, while at the same time strengthening the
and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Ex- transversal role of culture. Its Strategic Objectives
pressions. The main Programmes through which focus on the following three topics:
cultural projects can be supported are seen in the
promotion of cultural diversity and in-
table above coloured in light yellow.
tercultural dialogue;
However, in recent years, Member States have
promotion of culture as a catalyst for
explored new forms of flexible cooperation in or-
creativity in the framework of the Lis-
der to work together more closely in the pursuit of
bon Strategy for growth, employment,
shared objectives in the field of culture. A number
innovation and competitiveness;
of European institutions such as the Council, the
European Parliament and the Social Committee and promotion of culture as a vital element
the Committee of the Regions, have recognised the in the Unions international relation;
importance of culture and intercultural dialogue,
that are further specified into Specific Objectives
the role of civil society and of local and regional
that refer to three main categories of topics to be ad-
authorities and called for strengthened coopera-
dressed i.e. a) Promotion of cultural diversity and
tion in their reports and recommendations. Regular
intercultural dialogue, b) promotion of culture as a
ministerial conferences have also contributed to ex-
catalyst of creativity and c) culture as a vital element
changes of best practices and dialogue on policies.
of international relations. Each one of the Specific
These experiences contributed to the acknowl- Objectives will address a predetermined number
edgement that culture is indispensable feature to and nature of themes as shown in the table below:
238
Funding Opportunities for Cultural Projects VASSILIKI SOTIROPOULOU
mobility of artists and other professionals in the culture field, synergies between culture and education:
encouraging art education and active participation
promoting cultural heritage: mobility of collections,
in cultural activities for developing creativity and
digitisation, improving public access to different forms of
innovation,
cultural and linguistic expressions,
managerial, business and entrepreneurial training
promoting intercultural dialogue as a sustainable process
capacities specifically tailored to professionals in the
contributing to European identity, citizenship and social
cultural and creative fields,
cohesion,
favourable environment for the development of
intercultural competences of citizens;
cultural and creative industries, including the
audio-visual sector, thus maximizing their potential,
in particular that of SMEs
enhancing the role of culture in the EUs external relations and development policy,
promoting the UNESCO Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions,
fostering intercultural dialogue (EU m-s and third countries,
encouraging further cooperation between cultural institutions of EU m-s, including cultural institutes, in third countries and
with their counterparts in those countries;
The Work Plan for Culture 2015-2018 The European Commissions role is to help ad-
dress common challenges, such as the impact of
While individual EU Member States remain
the digitisation, changing models of cultural gov-
responsible for their own culture sector policies,
ernance and the need to support the innovation
the 2015-18 Work Plan for Culture, adopted by EU potential of the cultural and creative sectors.
Culture Ministers in December 2014, recognises
the importance of cultural heritage and sets out CREATIVE EUROPE
four main priorities for European cooperation in Creative Europe is the European Commissions
cultural policy making: framework programme for support to the culture
Accessible and inclusive culture, and audiovisual sectors.
239
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
240
Funding Opportunities for Cultural Projects VASSILIKI SOTIROPOULOU
More Information
More information on the opportunities avail-
able under the Culture sub-programme is avail-
able on the site of the Education, Audiovisual, and
Culture Executive Agency (EACEA)
https://eacea.ec.europa.eu/creative-europe/fund-
ing/cooperation-projects-2016_en
241
From Ancient Divers to Modern Diving
Industry and its Effect on Cultural
Tourism
F. Sancar Uuryol, Volkan Demir
243
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
244
From Ancient Divers to Modern Diving Industry F. SANCAR UURYOL, VOLKAN DEMR
245
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
N OTE S RE FE RE N CE S
1 United Nations 2002. Bachrach, AJ. 1988. Breathhold Diving. In A Pictorial History of Diving
2 Musa and Dimmock 2013, 232. edited by A.J. Bachrach B.M. Desiderati andM.M. Matzen, 2-3.
San Pedro: Best Publishing Company, Undersea and Hyperbaric
3 Edmonds 1981, 1-12; Bachrach et al. 1988, 2-3. Medical Society.
4 Davis 1962, 7-9.
Davis, R.H. 1962. Deep diving and submarine operations. 7th edition.
5 Diving Equipment and Marketing Association (DEMA) 2014. London: St Catherine Press.
246
Varna - A Crossing Point of Ancient
History, Cultural Heritage and
Tourism Opportunities
Irina Ugrinska
247
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Well developed sea and 70% of the city population Tourism Priority of Varna
cargo transport determine (approx. 230 000 people)
Nowadays Varna is a diverse
the city as a crossing road falls into active working
and dynamic city, a port of op-
between East and West age (between 18 and 65
portunities with a huge potential.
years)
Infrastructure: Port Varna, Tourism is a major branch. Varna
international airport, three 2.43% of the population has several good reasons for sus-
railway stations, Hemus lives in the villages tainable development of tourism:
and Cherno more high- Unique combination of
ways History nature mineral springs,
The railway connection The roots of the city lie in beaches and forests;
Varna-Ruse is a transport antiquity. For over 7000 years Well developed tourist in-
corridor between Danube its territory was a cradle of sev- frastructure over 60 000
River, Black Sea and Cen- eral prominent civilizations. beds, around 1 million
tral and Western Europe Thracians, Romans, Byzantines, tourists per year;
Bulgarians, Slavs and Turks Over 300 hotels total in
Varna airport, only 8 km
leave a long lasting impact on the area, over 90 of them
away from the city cen-
the evolution of the city dur- 4 and 5-star;
tre, connects the Northern
ing the centuries. The present
Black Sea with 35 coun- Colourful culture calen-
day city of Varna is a successor
tries and over 100 cities in dar festivals, music con-
to one of the oldest settlements
the world certs, opera, theatre and
in the Bulgarian lands Odes-
cinema events.
Area sos which means -town near
237 km2 total area of Var- the water, dating back from Resorts
na region, 30% of which is 6th century B.C. Founded as a
commercial colony at the place The world-2wide famous
populated
of an ancient Thracian village. resorts Golden Sands, St. St.
32 km coast line Constantine and Elena, Sunny
In the year 15 B.C. the prov-
5 km2 Varna lake ince of Moesia, which included Day, Riviera, have attracted
Odessos, finally became part followers of seaside tourism for
Demographic Structure of the Roman Empire. In 395 decades. Our resorts offer multiple
Varna is the third largest the town became an important choice of tourism opportunities:
city in Bulgaria port of the Eastern Roman Em- Recreational sea tourism
356 713 people (over half pire (Byzantine Empire) and Balneal, wellness and spa
a million during the sum- adopted Christianity as an of- Cultural and congress
mer season) ficial religion. In 1393 Varna tourism
was conquered by the Ottoman
4.72% of Bulgarias popu- Rural and ecotourism
army and was liberated on July
lation Health tourism
27 1878 as a result of the Russo-
Positive growth Turkish War (1877 1878). Sports
248
Varna - A Crossing Point of Ancient History, Cultural Heritage and Tourism Opportunities I. UGRINSKA
249
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Fig 4. Cathedral of the Holy from the Mediterranean, Asia and International music, jazz
Assumption
South America are grown in the and theatre festivals Var-
garden. Evksinograd is nowa- na Summer
days a government residence International Folklore
- the unique furniture from the Festival
tsarist period has been preserved
in the halls of the palace (Fig. 5). International May Choir
Competition
The Stone Forest
European Music Festival
The stone forest is a natural
Oldest international ballet
phenomenon located about 18
competition in the world
km west of Varna. It represents
natural stone columns, reaching Golden Rose national
a height of up to 6 meters, scat- festival of feature films
tered in a field. Has an attractive International Film Festival
group of forms of fossilized ani- Love is Folly
mals and frozen waterfalls. Ac-
World Festival of Animat-
cording to the prevailing theory,
ed Film
The Stone Forest was formed 50
million years ago when the area International Print Biennial
was part of the seabed (Fig. 6).
Culture Centres
Varna City Of Festivals
Varna is a centre of significant
Varna is one of the centres cultural life with culture centres
of the artistic and cultural life in and institutions, emblematic for
Bulgaria. Some of the most pres- the city and the region. They
tigious national and international have their own appearance, his-
Fig 5. View of the events are held here. All around tory and contribution. Some of
Evksinograd Palace
the year more than 40 festivals them are:
take place in the sea capital. Most
of them have long-standing tradi- Stoyan Bachvarov
tions. Seven festivals, which take Drama Theatre
The Evksinograd Palace
place in Varna, will receive Euro- In 1912 began the construc-
The Evksinograd palace was pean quality certificates during tion of the National Theatre in
built in 1882 on the design of Vi- an official ceremony in Brussels Varna. The building was finished
ennese architect Rumpelmayer. in September 2015. The Europe- in 1932. It stands opposite the ca-
The establishment of the famous an festival award for 2015/16 is thedral on the main pedestrian
local park began in 1890. More a good opportunity for cross-cul- alley. This nice building is a home
than 200 different plant species tural dialogue in the art sphere. both of the theatre and the Opera.
250
Varna - A Crossing Point of Ancient History, Cultural Heritage and Tourism Opportunities I. UGRINSKA
Tourist Information
Ce nte r
The TIC is very important for
the promotion of cultural tour-
ism. TIC is located in the heart
of the city - opposite the cathe-
dral. It is the most visited TIC in Fig 7. Palace of Culture and Sports
251
Youth Councils and interna-
tional youth organizations from
across the continent.
Varna A Crossing Point Of
Ancient History, Cultural Heri-
tage And Tourism Opportuni-
ties (Fig. 8)
History spanning 26 cen-
turies
Home of the oldest pro-
cessed gold in the world
Ancient Hellenic port
Thracian, Roman, Greek
and medieval remains
Aladzha Monastery - me-
Fig 8. Panorama from seaside service in just 3 months over
dieval rock mystery and
2000 tourists from different na-
legends
tionalities have benefited of this.
Renowned festival city
VARNA EUROPEAN
YOUTH CAPITAL 2017 Contemporary art and cul-
ture center
VARNA is very proud of be-
ing recognized by the EU as Eu- European Youth Capital
ropean Youth capital for 2017. 2017
The European Youth Capital VARNA is a city where his-
2017 will encourage participa- tory, culture and tourism live in
tion of young people through perfect harmony. VARNA is a
MUNICIPALITY OF VARNA
the promotion of new ideas and city of hospitality and through
www.visit.varna.bg innovative projects. One of the its cultural diversity and its rich
most important goals, which we cultural traditions we want to
would like to achieve as a Eu- reinforce this image.
ropean youth capital in 2017, is
creating a favourable environ-
ment for self-fulfilment in Varna
for the young people. The Euro-
pean Youth Forum is a platform
of youth organizations in Eu-
rope. It represents 99 National
Sustainability of Cultural Heritage
Exploitation and Local Tourism
Development: Balance and Costing
and the Role of the Stakeholders
Ioannis Tsoukalidis, Menelaos Chatziapostolidis
253
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Introduction flicts between groups of people who are attracted by the identity
with different interests. and branding of the place, at the
Cultural Heritage is widely
same time, in many cases, the
considered as precious local as- Local tourism development
parameters of the equilibrium
set that could be exploited for can cause severe damages in
(Fig. 1) between the groups of
growth of the local economies1. monuments, due to lack of wise
stakeholders are not identified.
It includes both tangible and in- planning and absence of any
tangible assets, covering a wide consideration for the future, not The first group of stakehold-
area of interest from architecture to mention the respect to the ers includes the tourism profes-
history and memories of the hu- sionals4 who wish to benefit fi-
to music, from poetry to dance,
manity2. nancially the maximum through
from prehistoric rock-art to the-
promotion of important monu-
atre and from ancient technol- The basis of the problem ments, places, myths, etc. We call
ogy to politics.
The basis of the problem is this group The Professionals.
The exploitation of existing that while cultural heritage at- The second group of stake-
cultural heritage in many places tracts a lot of people3, including holders includes culture special-
is connected with the planning not only those who are really ists who want sustainability of
of local development strategies. interested in visiting historical the cultural assets, protection,
Such strategies and their imple- places and monuments, but also preservation, respect to the
mentation usually create con- less enthusiastic cultural tourists heritage, further studies, more
space to breath, respect of the
available carrying capacity. We
call this group The Engineering.
The third group of stake-
holders includes tourists who
want to live an atmosphere,
to feel more, to touch, or to see
unchanged situations, with no
interventions, etc. We call this
group The Customers.
Fig. 1 The three groups In the equilibrium scheme
of stakeholders at
equilibrium
the local authorities and the
other political structures are not
included, while they have a key
role in planning of development
strategies.
The problem is similar to the
Fig. 2 The three bodies three bodies problem in Phys-
equilibrium ics. While the two bodies problem
254
Sustainability of Cultural Heritage Exploitation I. TSOUKALIDIS, M. CHATZIAPOSTOLIDIS
can be considered in general as Heavy investments and The results of applied solu-
relatively easy to solve, the three quick growth. tions as categorized above, can
bodies problem is almost unsolv- Prevention of Investments, be either slow development with
able in analytic forms, unstable Delays in exploitation of high protection of cultural assets
and chaotic5, with need for con- Cultural Assets. or enormous development with
tinues adjustment of the equilib- low protection of cultural assets
Stepping on two boats:
rium parameters (if any). In Fig. 2 (Fig. 3).
(1) Not having a solid
we give a scheme of a three bod-
and integrated strategy
ies system in stable condition6. The proposed approach
(Growth without connec-
to the problem
The use of resources of cul- tion to the cultural assets)
tural heritage for local devel- and (2) Promotion of the We propose to approach the
opment is an important factor cultural heritage without problem by analyzing the defi-
of prosperity for the local com- connection to the tourism ciency or needs and wants and
munities and the Regional and professionals decoding them into specific
National economies7. However, Growth without contin- quantitative customer necessities
local development should be ues changes and adjust- as well as design requirements
planned with respect to sustain- ment of The Profession- and parameters. That approach
ability and with the contribu- als, without linkage with requires consideration of the con-
tion of all stakeholders being the continuously changed tribution of all stakeholders. Fur-
involved directly or indirectly. needs and wants of the thermore, the people in charge
The procedure of planning in customers of applying that approach in the
most cases can be found as more
Others planning of a strategy for local
important that the plan itself,
while it engages the participa-
tion of those who will either
implement the plan or will ex-
perience the impact of such im-
plementation8. The role of local,
regional, national and European
authorities is of high importance
at that level.
255
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
tourism development should (a) also very efficient for the third
perform a detailed stakeholders sector of economy10. The tool
analysis, (b) bring all stakehold- would have to be adjusted for
ers together and accept conflicts, use in planning of local devel-
(c) promote the tradeoffs, (d) opment strategies. We propose
coach the stakeholders for cre- a model for that design phase
ative participation in meetings of local tourism development
with other stakeholders and (e) through quality analysis using a
make decisions for strategy and new version of the methodology
implementation with margins of QFD, the local development
for reviewing and adjusting pro- Quality Function Deployment
cedures. A useful utility for de- (ld-QFD). ld-QFD can become
coding the needs and wants of a functional tool to attain opti-
the customers, is the methodol- mal solutions at minimum cost
ogy of Quality Function Deploy- in terms of time invested and
ment (QFD), which is very suc- funds needed for the implemen-
cessful and well described in the tation of the planned strategies.
literature9.
Design of the utility of
The QFD tool is workable the model ld-QFD
for tangible products and over
ld-QFD is derived from the
the last twenty years tested and
original QFD which started and
evolved in Japan11. It entered as
a methodology in the USA about
15-20 years after Japan and now
it is an important products and
services development tool there
and also in Europe12.
QFD (and ld-QFD) is used
for improving quality, reducing
the number of new products13
that fail to succeed, reducing
the cost for the development
of products14 and reducing the
time between the new product
idea and the final product that
is released to the market and im-
proving the competitiveness of
Fig. 4 House of Quality (van de Poel 2007, 22) the organisations15.
256
Sustainability of Cultural Heritage Exploitation I. TSOUKALIDIS, M. CHATZIAPOSTOLIDIS
257
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
258
Sustainability of Cultural Heritage Exploitation I. TSOUKALIDIS, M. CHATZIAPOSTOLIDIS
259
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
RE FE RE N C E S
Almannai, B., Greenough, R. and Kay, J. 2008. A Decision Support Tool
Based on QFD and FMEA for the Selection of Manufacturing
Automation Technologies. Robotics and Computer-Integrated
Manufacturing. 24:4: 501-07
Chen, L.H., and Ko, W.C. 2009. Fuzzy linear programming models
for new product design using QFD with FMEA. Applied
Mathematical Modelling. 33:2: 63347
260
Cultural Routes of Kavala: Traces
of Muslim and Christian Orthodox
Refugees in the City of Kavala
B o s k o u C h r . E ff r o s y n i
ABSTRACT
A cultural route is a branded Muslim refugees and the second
tourist product, a product of one by the Orthodox ones. The
cultural tourism that is being first cultural route entitled
formed based on a specific binding Traces of Muslim refugees in
element. It has a main subject, the city of Kavala is proposed
it covers a determined spatial to be followed on foot and it
area and it acquires a tourist covers a three hour distance from
identity with a brand name. the Walls to Ibrahim Pashas
Nowadays, it emerges as a Public Bath House including the
major management tool for the visits to the sights. The second
sustainable tourist development of cultural route entitled Traces of
an area. Christian Orthodox refugees in
In this paper, two cultural the city of Kavala is proposed
routes are being proposed. Both to be followed by vehicle and
routes focus on the traces of the estimated duration from the
the refugees heritage that is neighborhood of Pentakosia to the
left in the city of Kavala due to chapel of Panaghouda is about
the exchange of populations in three hours including the visits to
the 1920s, the first one by the the sights.
261
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Ziountis House
262
Traces of Muslim and Christian Orthodox Refugees in the City of Kavala B. CHR. EFFROSYNI
Mehmet Ali Pasajics House served at the crossroads of The- Divisions10. During World War
Built by the Ottoman mer- odorou Poulidou and Mehmet II, it hosted the German Division
chant and landowner Mehmet Ali streets, where in the Otto- of Seaplanes.
Ali Pasajic in 1902-1907, it is a man era Hussein Beys Mosque
Mohamed Alis Statue-
characteristic sample of Otto- was located. The mosque was
Mohamed Alis House-
man classicism with Art Nou- demolished in the middle of Zeinebs tomb
veau influences. During the 1950s when a two-storey house
has been built8 . Mohamed Ali (1769-1849),
20th c. it hosted the Commercial
the founder of the last King Dy-
School, the Bulgarian Secret Ser-
Hatzi Sakir Omer Beys House nasty of Egypt, was born in Kav-
vice Ohrana (during World (now Generals House) ala. The Greeks of Egypt funded
War II) and the Night High
It was the official residence the creation of the bronze eques-
School. Nowadays, it houses the
of Sakir Omer Bey, an Ottoman trian statue of Mohamed Ali as a
5th High School of Kavala6.
tobacco merchant. Built about gift to the people of Kavala. The
Imaret of Mohamed Ali Pasha 1910, it combines Ottoman neo- statue was sculptured by the
(Fig. 1) famous sculptor, Constantinos
classical and Turkish baroque
In the early 19th century Mo- elements on Constantinopolitan Dimitriadis in 1934 and was un-
hamed Ali Pasha, the Vali of models9. After the exchange of veiled in 194911.
Egypt, founded and supervised, populations, it served as a resi-
as a donation to his hometown, dence of military officers and,
the construction of the magnifi- since 1950, as a residence of the Fig. 1 Imaret of Mohamed Ali Pasha,
cent complex of buildings (Kl- Generals of the Greek military Archive of Apotas Komninos.
263
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Mohamed Alis House was lows the layout of harem (place with paintings in the style of Ot-
built in the last quarter of the for women) and selamlik (place toman Rococo.
18th c. Its typology follows the for men)12. Zeyneb Hanim13 was
buried in the Ottoman cemetery Kadi Ahmet Efendis Mosque
wide front traditional two-sto-
(base of the mosque)
rey house with hayiati on the of Kavala in the Liberty Square.
ground and the first floor. It fol- In 1968 Zeinebs tomb was de- In 26th Anthemiou st one can
molished and the sarcophagus see the remnants of Kadi Ahmet
was transferred in the courtyard Efendis Mosque, a half-demol-
of Mohamed Alis House14. ished minaret of the mosque
that in 1926 was transformed
Complex of Halil Bey (Mosque into a two-storey house16. The
and Medrese) (Fig. 2)
mosque dates back to the early
Halil Beys complex includes ottoman period17.
the mosque of Halil Bey or
Mosque of Kutub of the early Acropolis- Citadel (Fig. 3)
20th century, broadly known One of the most impor-
as mosque of Music15 and the tant sights of the city, Kavalas
Fig. 2 Mosque of Halil Bey,
Medrese of Halil Bey or the Acropolis, was built on ancient
Archive of Boskou Effrosyni. Medrese of Mosque of Kutub. and Byzantine foundations. The
A restoration revealed the rem- first defensive works by Otto-
nants of an early Christian Ba- mans date back to 1425,18 but the
silica, with meso-Byzantine and Acropolis was for the most part
3. Kavalas Acropolis Citadel,
post-Byzantine layers. The walls constructed about 1520-153619. It
Archive of Papadopoulos Theodoros. of the mosque are decorated was divided into two parts, the
previous built internal (the up-
per) and the subsequent built ex-
ternal (the lowest) surrounding
walls. The internal surrounding
walls include a central cylindrical
tower, a prison (ex ammunition
and food storage house), the rem-
nants of a small mosque Kale
Cami (ex water cistern) and an
area suitable for guards lodging.
The surrounding walls include
bastions, towers and gates.
Since the 17th century, the
acropolis also served as a place
of exile and imprisonment for
264
Traces of Muslim and Christian Orthodox Refugees in the City of Kavala B. CHR. EFFROSYNI
the sultans subjects. In 1964, the Complex of Hatzi Ali Pasha Ottoman Administrative
Municipality of Kavala bought (Mosque and Medrese) Services (Old Courts)
the fortress from the Egyptian Remnant of the small com- It was built by Emin Pasha,
government20 and, nowadays, plex (Klliye) of Hatzi Ali Pasha the last kaymakam of Kavala in
it is open to the public and also of the 19th c., is found at the end 1896-1898 and funded by the tax-
hosts occasionally various sum- of Kolokotroni st next to the Aq- es of the members of the Muslim
mer cultural events. ueduct23. It included the Hatzi community27. It included the Ad-
Ali Pasha Mosque and the hom- ministrative Services, the Mus-
North Gate
onymous Medrese. Nowadays, lim Court and a coffee house.
It was built in 16th c. probably its reconstruction is funded in In 26th of June 1913, commander
on the foundations of an ancient order to be used as a cultural Ant. Kriezis raised the Greek flag
gate. The North Gate led via L. venue. from the balcony of the building
Katsoni st to the residential area showing the deliberation of Ka-
of the Panaghia peninsula21. Prob- Ottoman school Idadiye
vala and its unity to the other
(now Male High School)
ably next to this gate existed a bas- national Greek country. In 1960,
tion for the control of the gates, It was built in 1909-191024 in after internal and external recon-
the access to the residential area order to house the Ottoman city struction, it housed the Court of
of the peninsula and the traffic to school Idadiye. During the Bal- Kavala up to 2009.
the shipyard and the aqueduct. kan wars, it housed the Greek
hospital until about 1916. For Imbrahim Pashas Mosque
Aqueduct - Kamares (now Church of Aghios
many years, it housed the Male
The most impressive and im- Nikolaos) (Fig. 4)
High School of Kavala and,
posing monument-landmark of nowadays, the 1st High School The mosque was built by
Kavala- broadly known as Ka- of Kavala. An interesting archi- Ibrahim Pasha in the early 16th c.
mares (=arches)- was built in tectural feature is the wooden probably on the site of an early
the third decade of the 16th c. by ledge leaning on wooden cor- Christian church. It belongs
Ibrahim Pasha probably on the bels25. to classic one-dome type with
site of a roman or middle byzan-
tine aqueduct of the city. It was Hatzi Sikir Agas House
(N.E.L.E.)
the last section of a public water
supply network that brought It was built by Hatzi Sikir
water from a spring in Palaia Aga in the first decade of the
Kavala to the citys faucets 20th c. It is one of the biggest Ot-
(fountains), public baths, imaret toman houses of Kavala, sample
and distinguished private build- of the Ottoman revival trend26.
ings (Mohamed Alis house). After 1923, it hosted for many
It supplied the city with water years the Kavalas Division and
until the 1930s. Its total length then an educational foundation
is about 280m and at the highest N.E.L.E (Public Education Pre- Fig 4 Ibrahim Pashas Mosque (now Church of
point is about 25m high22. fectural Committee). Aghios Nikolaos), Archive of Boskou Effrosyni.
265
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
porch. It was the largest mosque Cultural Route 2: Traces visitors, descendants of other
of Kavala and resembled an Im- of Christian Orthodox refugees that have experienced
perial mosque.28 In the 20th c., a refugees in the city of similar adventures and other
Kavala (Map 2)
few modifications29 (the porch visitors interested in knowing
and the minaret were demol- During 1920s Kavala ac- the heritage remnants of these
ished) took place in order for the cepted almost 25.000 Christian populations.
mosque to be converted into the Orthodox refugees from East The route is proposed to be
current Church of Aghios Niko- Thrace, Constantinople, Pontus, followed by vehicle and the es-
laos in 192830. Asia Minor and Cappadocia, timated duration from neighbor-
doubling its population33. hood of Pentakosia to the chapel
Ibrahim Pashas Double Public
Bath House (Hamam) The refugees initially found of Panaghouda is about three
shelter in tobacco warehouses hours including the visits to the
Built by Ibrahim Pasha in
under miserable conditions. sights. The departure point is the
the first half of the 16th c.,31 it
Later, the Greek country cov- Customs Parking space and it
was part of his foundation kul-
ered the refugees accommoda- includes the following itinerary:
liye that included a mosque, an
tion needs by settling them in
inn, a marketplace with shops, Neighborhood of Pentakosia
the interchangeable houses and (Fig. 5)
an Imaret (soup kitchen), a Me-
by establishing new refugees
drese , a Mekteb, a Tekke (Der- It was built by Apostolos
vish Logde) with a Mescid and neighborhoods34.
Girzis and is also referred to as
a Sebilhane (building for the free The main subject of the route Kallithea because of the beauti-
distribution of water). Nowa- is the Christian Orthodox refu- ful view. The neighborhood was
days, the Ottoman Public Bath gees heritage that has been cre- named Pentakosia (=five hun-
House has been converted into ated in Kavala and can be traced dred) because it hosted five hun-
bars and restaurants, where by tourists nowadays. The route dred refugees families35.
one can admire the remaining covers the most of the refugees
domes32. neighborhoods and could attract Neighbourhood of
Aghia Varvara
In this neighborhood, 190
houses had been constructed
in 40 two-storey buildings with
wide faades, many windows
organized in columns and
French tiled roof. Its building in-
cludes four residences36.
266
chants and other wealthy resi-
dents and by the numerous refu-
gees from Asia Minor who settled
in the area. The refugees donated
to the church precious icons and
sacred vessels that had carried
with them from their never-to-
be-forgotten motherlands.
The sizable three-aisled ba-
silica tiled roof, without a dome,
with projections to the north and
south wall, takes the shape of a
cross. It is entirely stone-built,
with noteworthy benchmark the of their settlement in Kavala Fig. 5 Neighborhood of Pentakosia,
stylish tall built temple. through the exhibition of their Archive of Savopoulos Achilleas.
267
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
268
Traces of Muslim and Christian Orthodox Refugees in the City of Kavala B. CHR. EFFROSYNI
N OTE S RE FE RE N CE S
1 Chatzinikolaou, Girini and Sofikitou 2014, 1. Aggeloudi-Zarkada, S. 2008. Kavala then and now. Kavala: Prefecture of
2 Karavasili and Mikelakis 1999, 82. Kavala.
3 Dakari, Bakirzis and Karabassis 2008, 9. Apotas, K., and N. Tsoubakis. 2014. Virgin Mary of refugees-Virgin Mary of
4 Dakari, Bakirzis and Karabassis 2008, 17. Sylivria. Kavala: Thrakiki Estia Kavalas.
5 Aggeloudi-Zarkada 2008, 13, 150-51. Boli, K. 2014. Water. Reflections of civilasation. Translated by Glossima
6 Aggeloudi-Zarkada 2008, 150-51. Wehrheim. Kavala: Municipality of Kavala.
7 Lykourinos 2005, 96-8. Boskou, Chr. Ef. 2014. Mohamed Alis biography (1769-1849) In
8 Karagiannakidis 2008, 89-90. Proceedings of seminars of local history, edited by K. Apotas and V.
Lolidis. Vol. 2, 255-86. Kavala: Municipality of Kavala.
9 Dakari, Bakirzis and Karabassis 2008, 48.
10 Aggeloudi-Zarkada 2008, 89. Chatzinikolaou, B., I. Girini, and M. Sofikitou. 2014. For a cultural
and environmental route in the island of Kea: From yesterday
11 Aggeloudi-Zarkada 2008, 186-87. to today & guide of tomorrow. http://www.diazoma.gr/300-
12 Aggeloudi-Zarkada 2008, 186-87. Diadromes-Parka/8._KEIMENO-GIA-POLISTISTIKH---
13 She was Mohamed Alis mother, see: Boskou 2014, 258. PERIVALLONTIKH-DIADROMH-KEAS.pdf (20 July 2015).
14 Aggeloudi-Zarkada 2008, 140-141. Dakari, K., A. Bakirzis, and G. Karabassis. 2008. Kavalas Sea Walls.
15 Because during the decade of 1930 it hosted the Municipal Band, Kavala: Hellenic Ministry of Culture-12th Ephorate of Byzantine
see: Stefanidou 2007, 277 and Papazoglou 2008, 77. Antiquities.
16 Stefanidou 2007, 278 and Papazoglou 2008, 78. Karagiannakidis, N. 2008. The space and the History/Places of Worship
17 Karagiannakidis 2008, 89. In Neapolis, Christoupolis, Kavala, edited by N. Karagiannakidis
and K. Lykourinos, 80-92. Kavala: Municipality of Kavala.
18 Dakari, Bakirzis and Karabassis 2008, 9.
19 Dakari, Bakirzis and Karabassis 2008, 47. Karavasili, M., and E. Mikelakis. 1999. Cultural routes. Towards an
interpretation of the Cultural Landscape in a Developmental
20 Lykourinos 2005, 75-9.
Perspective. Archaeology and Arts 71: 82-6.
21 Lykourinos 2005, 81.
Lowry, H.W. 2008. The shaping of the Ottoman Balkans 1350-1550. Istanbul:
22 Dakari, Bakirzis and Karabassis 2008, 9, 61-2 & Aggeloudi-Zarkada
Bahesehir University.
2008, 122-23 & Boli 2014, 27-35 & Lychounas 2008, 59.
23 Stefanidou 2007, 287. Lychounas, M. 2008. Medieval Aqueduct of Kavala-Kamares, Kavala:
Hellenic Ministry of Culture-12th Ephorate of Byzantine
24 Aggeloudi-Zarkada 2008, 80.
Antiquities.
25 Ziogas 1995, 56.
Lykourinos, K. 2005. Kavala of the Ottoman era (late 14th c.-1912) The
26 Aggeloudi-Zarkada 2008, 13.
old town- Panaghia neighborhood In he old town of Kavala (7th-
27 Aggeloudi-Zarkada 2008, 62. 20th c.). Vol.1, 51-231. Kavala: Cultural Club of Panaghia The
28 Lowry 2008, 240. Castle.
29 Papazoglou 2008,58. Papazoglou, G., and K. Papazoglou. 2008. Prefecture of Kavala. In
30 Aggeloudi-Zarkada 2008, 23, 84. Religious Monuments of the Region of East Macedonia and Thrace.
edited by G. Papazoglou, 45-78. Komotini: Region of East
31 Ibrahim Pashas Double Public Bath House were completed in 1530
Macedonia and Thrace.
according to a register referred to : Lowry 2008, 236.
32 Lowry 2008, 234-36. Stefanidou, E. 2007.The city port of Kavala during the Ottoman Empire.
Kavala: Historical and Literature Archive of Kavala.
33 Ziogas 1995, 29.
34 Ziogas 1995, 30. Ziogas, P. Chr. 1995. The traditional buildings of modern Kavala, 2nd ed.
Kavala.
35 Aggeloudi-Zarkada 2008, 94-5.
36 Aggeloudi-Zarkada 2008, 130.
37 Apotas and Tsoubakis 2014, 30.
38 Aggeloudi-Zarkada 2008, 98-9.
269
The St. Paul Trail
Kate Clow
271
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
The city aqueduct provided ir- munications. Both contain pres- paths, stone-lined wells and cis-
rigation in some areas. All farm- ervation areas (Kprl Canyon terns, etc). Today, communica-
ing was labour intensive and, National Park and andir Na- tions masts have been construct-
without irrigation, produced ture Park). Widespread forest ed on some peaks; the Romans
one crop per year of wheat, fresh cover includes red and black must have used the same peaks
vegetables or fruit. Animals, es- pine, juniper, oak, cypress and, (ca. 2500 m) as surveying points.
pecially sheep and horses, pro- above 1500 m, Lebanese cedar.
Northern slopes
vided wool, meat and transport Alluvial land is used for wheat-
and fertilised the land. Perges growing or grazing but loss of The northern Taurus descend
domestic needs included local ground-water makes higher to an alluvial plain at about
clay and lead extraction (the land unproductive; farming is 1000m. Grazing herds (both
Perge aqueduct is fed by the replaced by seasonal forestry summer and winter), have re-
Kurunlu (lead) river) for ce- work. Now that road access is duced many areas to scrub with
ramics and metalwork. Nearby almost universal, concrete sum- low-growing kermes oak and
low-quality timber supplied mer homes replace traditional typical maquis plants. Roman
bathhouses, etc. architecture. quarries have been identified;
in the last few years open-cast
Land use has changed dra- Via these rivers, Perge and
stone or marble mines were
matically: irrigation, fertiliser Aspendos transshipped boat-
opened. Labour-intensive ani-
and plastic greenhouses, plus building timber for Egypt. The
mal husbandry, plus marble and
the proximity of the airport, sup- Romans may have managed the
stone extraction, is still the main
port early-season high-density forests by selective cutting, re-
source of income.
production of strawberries and planting or erosion control. An-
cut flowers. Inland, often two cient terraces at Selge, Stler Lakes basin
crops of wheat and vegetables and Adada have grape presses
Around Antioch in Pisidia
can be produced. Small forested and once supported vines. For
(Yalva), the plain is undulat-
hills are managed by periodic many summers, coastal popula-
ing and supports arable crops
cropping. The area is now a sub- tions moved here for fresh graz-
and fruit trees. Today, other
urb of Antalya and population ing, to avoid malaria and work
than farmers, villagers migrate
density is high. on timber extraction and wheat
to urban centres. The traditional
and/or wine production.
Forested canyons industry of rose oil production
Summer pastures and high continues in a few villages.
Moving north, the Taurus
peaks
mountains rise gradually and In summary, the hills remain
irregularly to the peaks of Sarp Until recently, small sum- unchanged; flatter land is still
Da and Davraz Da. The mer settlements, just above the devoted to agriculture but the
andr canyon, carrying the Ces- treeline at 1800 m, were well- tools of the trade have changed
trus river, and the Kprl Can- used for short periods in sum- dramatically. The advent of the
yon, carrying the Eurymedion, mer. They show signs of pro- tractor (1950s) and concrete
run N-S and impede E-W com- longed but undatable use (paved irrigation channels (1960s on-
272
The St. Paul Trail KATE CLOW
wards) enables large scale culti- west-east road, walking north- and Antioch in Pisidia, via
vation and ensures a difference west from Antalya to Burdur Adada. We added a side-branch
in prosperity between irrigated Lake and then east to Antioch following well-made ancient
and non-irrigated areas. in Pisidia. We disagree for two roads up the Kprl Canyon.
reasons: Thus the route forms an in-
DEVELOPMENT OF THE many other direct roads have verted Y with the Pisidian/Ro-
TRAIL been rediscovered. man settlement of Adada at the
St. Paul in History junction of the arms. The route
Pauls background enabled
was designed to take advantage
St. Paul was a letter-writing him to use a direct walking
of the existing accommodation,
missionary who travelled in route.
divided into stages of 5-8 hours
present-day Israel, Syria, Cy-
The local name of Adada walking and includes the most
prus, Turkey, Greece, Italy and
(Kara Bavulu/Black Paul), sug- beautiful viewpoints. The first
Malta. Uniquely amongst the
gests that Paul travelled direct- St Paul Trail guide book was
Apostles, Paul, neither knew
ly; William Ramsay and Anta- published 2004, coinciding with
Jesus nor came from a Jewish
lya Conservation Commission the GEF-2 funded National
milieu, but both his supporters
historians agree. An elderly vil- Parks development plan for
and detractors agree that his let-
lager told me that (before 1923) Kprl Canyon National Park.
ters had a major effect on church
Greeks often came from the Unfortunately, the plan was not
doctrine.
south to visit Adada. implemented and the route not
Christian Baur suggests that supported.
Pauls birthplace was Tarsus,
... the harmonious relation . be-
200 km east of Perge and in sight On the west branch are the
tween the apostle Paul and the of the Taurus. As tentmakers,
older apostles is unhistorical, ancient settlements of Perge
his family used wool and hides (500,000 visitors per year), Ped-
and .. the conflict of the two parties produced by transhumant shep-
entered .. deeply into the life of nelissos, Takap and Parlais, on
herds who used the summer
the early Church. 1. the east, Selge and Asar Tepe and
pastures/yaylas of the Taurus
on the north Akrotiri/Prostanna,
for fresh grazing. Paul probably
Route Development and Parlais and Antioch in Pisidia.
walked to and between yaylas,
Use Due to dam construction or loss
accepting hospitality from shep-
of ancient bridges, some original
The Trail is a 500km walking herds, as travellers do today.
roads are unusable but over 50%
trail based on part of St Pauls
Design of the route of the trail follows roads which
first journey, from Perge to An-
were in use from before the Ro-
tioch in Pisidia. St Luke (Acts of With no detailed maps, we
man occupation through Byzan-
Apostles) mentions few place designed the St Paul Trail by
tine and Seljuk periods.
names and no timescales, so the walking and re-walking alter-
route is speculative. Some bib- native paths through the moun- At several points, topogra-
lical historians assume that St tains, using old roads/paths on phy forced Roman roads into
Paul used the main Via Sebaste the shortest line between Perge narrow confines. For example:
273
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
A Roman road marked by and generating station cuts Operators and users of
two inscriptions enters the the route in three places. the trail
andr Canyon from the south.
New stone quarries have de- I have maintained contact
From the canyon north exit, it
stroyed the route at andr with accommodation owners
continues to Adada. Inside the
and other places. and travel agencies operating on
canyon it is now partly miss-
the route since 2004; from 2012,
ing but villagers report that There is no provision in Turk-
Ibrahim Aartan represented
it was once used by fayton ish law for conserving historic
the St Paul Trail on the commit-
(horse-drawn carriages). Two routes; the Conservation Com-
tee of the Culture Routes Society
earthquakes in 1914 and 1959 mission (part of the Culture and
and convened an annual meet-
caused the collapse of bridges Tourism Ministry) can only reg-
ing to continue contacts. Until
and abandonment of this major ister paved, datable sections of
the break in relations in 2010,
road. The Roman road between road. Nature conservation was
Israeli trekkers predominated.
Lake Hoyran and Lake Eirdir transferred from the Water and
Now most users are European
was submerged when the lat- Forestry to the City Planning
recreational trekkers; occasional
ter was dammed and the water Ministry but Landscape Con-
groups of priests are welcomed
level raised 2m. The road still vention implementation given
exists on both sides of the lake by villagers and operators.
to Forestry, so impeding conser-
but trekkers now cross by small vation activities. Seven Turkish tour opera-
boat. tors (mostly CRS members) run
Existing accommodation group or self-guided trekking
Damage to and and tourism patterns holidays (marketed by foreign
conservation of the operators) along the route. With
Tourism before construction
ro u te
of the route consisted of: independent trekkers, bicycle
Damage by new road con- Antioch in Pisidia / Yalva and horse riding groups, users
structions, forest fire, dam / hy- day visitors (mainly guided total about 2500 people per year.
droelectric projects and mining groups) to the historic site. (Compare this with 25 opera-
has required rerouting for ex- tors and 30,000 trekkers on the
ample: Eirdir backpackers trav- Lycian Way). Visitor volume is
elling between Konya and barely sufficient to support ex-
Two new motor-roads to Bey-
Antalya; averaging 1-2 over- isting pensions and homestays,
dili village destroyed parts
nights. let alone encourage new accom-
of a paved Seluk road sys-
tem and facilitated construc- Bekonak nearly a mil- modation.
tion of concrete buildings lion white-water rafters are The tour operators (Moslem)
amongst traditional houses bussed in from coastal hotels.
are hampered by lack of suitable,
of stone and cedar.
Barla followers of Sheikh well placed accommodation and
A major hydro-electric proj- Said Nursi spend 1-2 over- lack insight and experience to
ect on the Kprl river, in- nights at a purpose-built ho- market to a religious (Christian)
cluding a dam, 17km tunnel tel. sector.
274
The St. Paul Trail KATE CLOW
275
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
herds all along the route have similar lives and The huge growth of towns in Antalya is due to
incomes. boundary changes. Although towns in Isparta ap-
pear relatively stable, smaller towns are declining
Public services rapidly to village size and only Yalva and Eirdir
In 1996, the government closed many rural are growing.
schools, transporting children by bus to larger
Beneficiaries of the route
schools. There are 19 unused village schools along
the route; most empty and in poor condition. The Excluding the towns of Eirdir and Yalva,
Education Ministry built them on communal land there are 23 pension or accommodation owners
and retain control although they have been nomi- and a few restaurant/caf owners in small villages
nally re-assigned to village headmen. While some along the route who derive an income from users
village headmen want to use them as accommoda- of the route. Over the lifetime of the route, accom-
tion centres, the Education Ministry refuses per- modation providers have increased from 3 to 23.
mission. Of these, only 5 are licenced pensions; the rest are
School reform was followed by health service home-stays run on an informal unlicenced basis.
reforms based on visiting doctors and centralized The 5 locations where there are licenced pensions
hospital treatment. Local clinics are often empty show a population decrease similar to that above,
but the Health Ministry does not permit re-use. so the route has not so far a significant effect on
migration. Nevertheless, the pensions and home-
Roads stays do provide an income for at least one family
per village.
Changes to services were enabled by improve-
ment to rural roads. For example, the north-south In general, pension or home pension owners
road along the Kprl river was first bulldozed and potential pension owners enjoy interaction
in 2003, surfaced in 2007 and is now a direct as- with visitors and would rather run accommoda-
phalt link between Kasmlar and Antalya; a new tion than farm; typically they would like their chil-
Konya Antalya road will cut it and improve ac- dren to learn foreign languages so that they can
cess to the trail. Some road construction is poorly work in tourism. They see the potential of the trail
executed and roads often collapse. and admire the initiative of their successful neigh-
bours. However, most have small houses which
Numbers of villagers along the route cannot accommodate many visitors without re-
The following table gives numbers of residents building; they lack capital to invest, do not have
along the route and rates of decline: language skills or training to deal with the local
authorities, accountancy or marketing.
Place Population/ Population/year % of 1st
year column
Difficulties in making/expanding
Towns in Antalya 3895 (1990) 67476 (2012) 1700%
accommodation
Villages in Antalya 5407 (1985) 3455 (2012) 64%
Two schemes allow villagers to finance pen-
Towns in sparta 46551 (1990) 46558 (2002/2013) 100%
sions: the Forestry Ministry can loan up to
Villages in sparta 7852(1985) 5072 (2012) 65%
30,000TL (repayable interest free) or a develop-
276
The St. Paul Trail KATE CLOW
ment agency can grant up to guide book and map, maintain- to learn about their development
50% of costs (non-repayable). ing a website with accommoda- and place in the range of tour-
Both schemes require licenc- tion information, encouraging ism offerings. For this reason the
ing, health and fire certification, villagers to open accommoda- society has made an agreement
proof of tax and insurance pay- tion, suggesting tour programs with the European Association
ments, etc. Since all receipts are for agencies and by keeping the of the Via Francegina, the ulti-
required, the recipient has to route clear and waymarked. We mate aim of which is to extend
pay 18% value added tax plus hold annual meetings with pen- the existing Via Francegina from
20% income tax (normally vil- sion owners and agencies to dis- Rome to Bari, along the via Eg-
lagers would do the work them- cuss their concerns. natia to Istanbul and though
selves or employ a builder who Turkey to the St Paul Trail. This
avoids tax); we dont know any CONCLUSION FUTURE is a major programme which
grant applicants. OPPORTUNITIES FOR will take several years and re-
DEVELOPMENT peated grants to realise. Subject
Obtaining an operating or al-
A quick trawl through search to grant acceptance, work will
cohol licence is cumbersome and
engines produces scores of com- start in 2016.
expensive as the building has
to conform to hotel standards. panies offering holidays follow-
Without a licence, the accommo- ing the travels of St Paul from a
dation cannot be advertised for religious or historical aspect; the
fear of attracting attention of the standard tours include the Sev-
authorities. If detected, fines are en churches tour, Footsteps of
prohibitive, easily wiping out St Paul tour, tours covering both
profits. Greece and Turkey, etc.
We have shown in this paper
Society activities to that the St Paul Trail has consid-
support the route erable historical validity as well
The Culture Routes Soci- as landscape and cultural inter-
ety has made four applications est. There is no doubt that if the
(jointly or alone) for local devel- trail was further developed and
opment grants for work on the marketed, it could attract tour-
route; in spite of conforming ism from the pilgrimage sector.
with stated government devel- It thus has unrealized potential
opment programs, three have as a religious tourism trail and
been rejected in favour of politi- could be compared with the
cally important applicants (the route of St James to Santiago de
one accepted project was for an Compostella.
i-phone application).
As a society which special-
The Society supports the route ises in trekking rather than pil-
by producing and marketing the grimage routes, we have much
277
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
N OT RE FE RE N CE S
1 Dr. F.C. Baur, Paul - His life and Works, Preface to 1st edition, Theo- Baur, F.C. 1876. Paul the Apostle of Jesus Christ: His Life and Works, His
logical Translation Fund Library, Willams and Norgate 1876. Epistles and Teachings. 1st edition. Theological Translation Fund
Library, Williams and Norgate.
Mitchell, S. 1993. Anatolia: Land, Men, and Gods in Asia Minor, Volume
I: The Celts in Anatolia and the Impact of Roman. Oxford.
Mitchell, S. 1995. Anatolia: Land, Men, and Gods in Asia Minor Volume
II: The Rise of the Church. Oxford.
Pehlivan, L. 2012. Isparta Krsal Kalknma Plan Taslak Metni. Bat Akdeniz
kalnma Ajans (BAKA)
Ramsay, W. M. 1895. St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen.
278
The in the Context of CBC -
Targeted Synergies for Bringing EU
and its Neighbors Closer Together
Anastasia Evangelidou
279
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
the ENP, including theEastern dates the EU approach to devel- ship Instrument (ENPI) and
Partnershipand theUnion for opment assistance. brings moretangible benefitsto
the Mediterranean. both the EU and its Neighbour-
The two main principles un-
hood partners. It has atotal
CBC in the European Neigh- derlying the European Neigh-
budget of15.433 billionand
bourhood extends the principles bourhood Instrument (ENI) is
will provide thebulk of fund-
of Cross-border co-operation giving incentives and reward-
ingto the European Partner
within the EU, which is part of ing best performers, as well as
countries through a number of
the European Territorial Co-op- offering funds in a faster and
programmes.
eration (ETC) programmes. CBC more flexible manner. The in-
in the Neighbourhood receives dicative financial allocations for The 16ENIPartner Countries
funding from the European each of the CBC programmes are divided in two strands:
Regional Development Fund are established for the period
ENI South:
(ERDF) as well as from the Eu- 2014-17, together with illustra-
Algeria, Egypt,Israel,Jor-
ropean Neighbourhood Instru- tive allocations for 2018-20. The
dan,Lebanon,LibyaMoroc-
ment (ENI). In addition to sup- indicative total ENI funding for
co,Palestine,Syria*,Tunisia.
porting the Euro-Mediterranean the period 2014 - 2020 is EUR
and Eastern Partnerships as set 489,000,000 - EUR 598,000,000 ENI East:
out above, CBC in the Neigh- Euros. Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belar-
bourhood also complements us,Georgia,Moldova,Ukraine.
Based on the experiences
other important regional or sub- In the Programming Period
gained from ENPI Programmes
regional initiatives including the 2007-2013 ENPI was the finan-
implementation until today,
Northern Dimension, Black Sea cial instrument that covered
the ENI supports theEuro-
Synergy and the EU Strategy for relation with Russia. Howev-
pean Neighbourhood Policy
the Baltic Sea Region. er, in the Programming Period
(ENP)and has as its major ob-
The main objectives of the jective to turn decisions taken 2014-2020 Russiahas acquired
policy involve building deep on a political level into actions a special status, as EU Rus-
and sustainable democracy, on the ground for the partici- sian relations are not developed
supporting inclusive and sus- pating countries. through the ENP, but a strate-
tainable economic growth, gic partnership covering four
strengthening the Eastern and 2. Relevant Financial common spaces. Therefore it
Southern regional dimensions Instruments to the is only eligible for ENI regional
and providing mechanisms and ENP - The European and Cross-Border Cooperation
Neighbourhood programmes, for which it co-
instruments to support these
Instrument (ENI)
objectives. The ENP is comple- finances projects. Bilateral co-
mented by other important EU The ENI builds on the operation with Russia is funded
external policies including the achievements of the European under the new Partnership In-
Agenda for Change which up- Neighbourhood and Partner- strument (PI).
280
Targeted Synergies for Bringing EU and its Neighbors Closer Together ANASTASIA EVANGELIDOU
3. How support is given ence with CBC within the EU ing experience between pro-
through ENI under the European Territorial grammes and other relevant
ENI support is programmed Co-operation programmes and actors.
and given in three different CBC between Member States
and IPA beneficiaries under the Other important lessons
ways:
Instrument for Pre-Accession learned from feedback from
By bilateral programmes CBC stakeholders, the Mid-Term
Assistance, and under older in-
covering support to one part- Evaluation of CBC Programmes
struments such as Phare, TACIS
ner country;
and Meda. under the ENPI 2007-2013 and
By multi-country programmes wider reviews of external assis-
which address challenges 4. Lessons learned tance have also been addressed
common to all or a number The new approach of the in the ENI CBC Programmes
of Partner Countries, and re- ENI CBC Programmes brings such as:
gional and sub-regional coop- greater coherence with ETC pri- The governance challenges
eration between two or more orities and programmes includ- of involving multiple stake-
Partner Countries; ing thematic priorities. Joint holders from different lev-
By Cross-Border Coopera- programmes under ENI have els of government in multi-
tion programmes between built on the previous experi-
country programmes;
Member States and Partner ence and have addressed issues
Countries taking place along such as: The reduced impact of Sea
their shared part of the exter- The need for coherence and Basin programmes in terms
nal border of the EU (includ- complementarity between of addressing common chal-
ing Russia). projects on each side of the lenges (e.g. environmental)
border to ensure real cross- if important countries in the
Moreover, enhancing sub-re- Basin do not participate;
border added value;
gional, regional and Neighbour-
hood wide collaboration as well The importance of synergy The need to focus the vast
as Cross-Border Cooperation on with other ENI and other EU majority of the effort and
EU external borders is one of the programmes and the need to funding on populations close
six (6) targets of ENI, as referred avoid overlap and prevent a to the border to maximise
in the Council and European Par- risk of double funding; cross-border impact;
liament Regulation 232/2014 and The need to balance local The need for a more focused
a key priority in the European
ownership with national in- approach to thematic/sec-
Neighbourhood Policy (ENP);
volvement, especially for toral priorities within pro-
Cross Border Cooperation policy areas (e.g. border secu- grammes to increase efficien-
references are grouped under rity) which may be centrally cy of the beneficiaries and
one specific Title of the ENI. controlled; improve the quality of the
Cross Border Cooperation The benefits of capacity projects proposed for fund-
under ENI draws on experi- building support and shar- ing;
281
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
5. 2014-2020 ENI CBC Programmes ENI Regulation is being followed by the Com-
(EU contribution 1,052 MEUR) mission Implementing Regulation 897/2014 and
the Programming Document for EU Support to
For the Programming period 2014-20, a total of
ENI CBC. These rules are used for the creation of
twelve (1)2 land-border and one (1) sea-crossing
the Joint Operational Programmes (JOPs) envis-
programme will be financed, as well as four (4)
aged under ENI.
sea-basin ENI CBC programmes. These 17 pro-
grammes are listed in the table below. 7. ENI Strategic Framework on CBC
Land Border Programmes Sea crossing Programmes
CBC contributes to the overall ENI objective
Kolarctivc Italy/Tunisia
Karelia
of progress towards an area of shared prosperity
South East Finland/Russia and good neighbourliness between EU MS and
Estonia/Russia their neighbours;
Latvia/Russia
Lithuania/Russia
To advance this goal, CBC under the ENI will
Poland/Russia have three (3) strategic objectives:
Latvia/Lithuania/Belarus Sea Basin programmes
1. Promote economic and social development in re-
Poland/Belarus Ukraine Baltic Sea Region
Hungary/Slovakia/Romania/Ukraine Black Sea
gions on both sides of common borders;
Romania/Ukraine Mediterranean Sea 2. Address common challenges, in environment, pub-
Romania/Moldova Mid-Atlantic
lic health, safety and security;
3. Promotion of better conditions and modalities for
6. The Legal framework
ensuring the mobility of persons, goods and capital.
The ENI CBC Rules have aligned as much as
*Each ENI CBC programme must contribute to
possible with ETC/IPA CBC instruments in order
at least one of the strategic objectives.
to facilitate both management bodies and benefi-
ciaries in project implementation. In order to increase the impact and efficiency of
programmes, within the framework of objectives
As part of the external aid policy of the Eu-
set out above, each programme will focus on a
ropean Union the legal framework for ENI CBC
maximum of four (4) Thematic Objectives selected
programmes is based on Regulation 966/2012 on
from a list which is broadly aligned to the Euro-
the financial rules applicable to the general budget
pean Territorial Cooperation goal.
of the Union (Financial Regulation), the relevant
Commission Delegated Regulation 1268/2012 on The list is attached as Annex 1 of the ENI
the rules of application of Regulation 966/2012 Programming Document and includes the
and Regulation 236/2014 laying down common following Thematic Objectives:
rules and procedures for the implementation of
1. Business and SME development
the Unions instruments for financing external
action. Then these rules are being specified by 2. Support to education, research, technological devel-
the application of the relevant specific Financial opment and innovation
Instrument, Regulation 232/2014 establishing a 3. Promotion of local culture and preservation of his-
European Neighbouhood Instrument. torical heritage
282
Targeted Synergies for Bringing EU and its Neighbors Closer Together ANASTASIA EVANGELIDOU
4. Promotion of social inclusion and fight against poverty } Envisage more financial responsibilities for
5. Support to local & regional good governance both EU Member States and Partner Countries
(recoveries procedures - expenditure verifica-
6. Environmental protection, climate change mitiga- tion for Partner Countries by ex-ante designat-
tion and adaptation ed Control Contact Points).
7. Improvement of accessibility to the regions, develop- } Four (4) out of ten (10) Thematic objectives
ment of sustainable and climate-proof transport and have to be select per programme as for ETC
communication networks and systems Programmes.
8. Common challenges in the field of safety and security } Address the new obligations imposed by
9. Promotion of and cooperation on sustainable energy the EU Financial Regulation 966/2012 con-
and energy security cerning the designation of Authorities, the
Programmes management bodies, on the de-
10. Promotion of border management and border secu-
scription of the Management and Control Sys-
rity, mobility and migration management
tems (DMCS) and it bring about new reporting
11. Other areas not listed above likely to have a substan- deadlines etc.
tial cross-border impact
} CBC Programmes in the Neighbourhood Pol-
8. ENI Implementing Rules for the icy receive funding from ERDF & ENI; IPA
Programming Period 2014 -2020 funds are also eligible for pre-accession coun-
The ENI Programming Document sets out tries participating in the ENI Programmes;
the EUs general policy and objectives for the ENI } The financial allocation for ENI in total, for the
CBC Programmes. It refers to European Neigh- Programming Period 2014-2020, is approxi-
borhood Policy, the types of CBC programmes mately 18 billions Euros; Up to 5% is allocated
co-funded under ENI and lists the individual CBC to the CBC component. The rest depends upon
programmes, including their geographic eligibil- the ERDF contribution and the national co-fi-
ity, and the general expected results. nancing of the participating countries.
The detailed rules and procedures applicable } Other matters that are covered by the Imple-
to all ENI CBC Programmes are included in the menting rules include, inter alia, the:
Commission Implementing Regulation (EU)
rate and modalities of the co-financing. The
897/2014 laying down the specific provisions for
minimum National Co-financing has been
the implementation of the CBC Programmes fi-
set to 10%.
nanced under ENI.
procedures regarding the preparation of the
The Implementing rules for ENI CBC Pro-
joint operational programmes,
grammes have the following features:
paying and certifying functions,
} Build upon the principles of Continuity and
Shared Management! Implementing rules make role and function of the Joint Monitoring
a clear distinction between the programmes and Selection Committees and of the Joint
management modes. Technical Secretariat,
283
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
284
Targeted Synergies for Bringing EU and its Neighbors Closer Together ANASTASIA EVANGELIDOU
285
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
RE FE RE N C E S
http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/neighbourhood/cross-border-
cooperation/index_en.htm
http://enpi.interact-eu.net/enpi/358
286
OLKAS: International Contribution to
the Development of Cultural Tourism
in the Black Sea Region
Sofronis Paradeisopoulos
Perhaps not everybody knows Black Sea area, the OLKAS proj- period. Moreover, in many cities
that the ongoing LIMEN proj- ect, was designed to facilitate and archaeological sites one can
ect had its predecessor called the development of cultural see architectural traces of me-
OLKAS: From the Aegean to the tourism around the Black Sea dieval buildings and standing
Black Sea Medieval Ports in the and in the adjacent regions of monuments, ecclesiastical and
Maritime Routes of the East. De- the Aegean and the Caspian Sea secular, fortifications and tow-
signed by the European Center by means of promoting cultural ers which are preserved from
of Byzantine and Post-Byzantine heritage of their historic city- the past. This heritage, which is
Monuments from Thessaloniki ports. part of the culture that was orig-
in Greece, the OLKAS project The project covered 46 histor- inally developed in the eastern
was implemented from January ic city-ports in Greece, Turkey, part of Europe under the strong
of 2012 until April of 2014 in col- Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, influences of the Byzantine civi-
laboration with 7 partner orga- Georgia and Azerbaijan. lization, is represented today
nizations and 4 associates from by very important monuments
From historical and archaeo-
Greece, Turkey, Bulgaria, Ro- from the medieval and later pe-
logical point of view, the Black
mania, Ukraine, Georgia, Russia riods.
Sea area holds a very high posi-
and Azerbaijan thanks to finan-
tion among the regions where a A very important category
cial support from the European
rich cultural heritage was pro- of cultural sites is the coastal
Union within the framework of
duced. In the various museums city-ports, which have a long,
the Black Sea Cross Border Co-
of countries around the sea there constant and rich historical past,
operation Program.
are exhibited a lot of movable testified by monuments and
As much as the LIMEN proj- monuments, valuable martyrs of archaeological sites preserved
ect today addresses issues of the civilization that was spread there. However, many archaeo-
cultural tourism in the wider in the area during the medieval logical sites, standing monu-
287
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
288
Int. Contribution to the Development of Cultural Tourism in the Black Sea Region S. PARADEISOPOULOS
289
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
290
Int. Contribution to the Development of Cultural Tourism in the Black Sea Region S. PARADEISOPOULOS
291
The BSUDRA Project, Evaluation,
Outputs, Susta inability and
Perspectives
P o l y x e n i A d a m -V e l e n i
In June 2015, two years have It is a project that aimed, as its but with separate, self-sufficient
passed since the approval of title mentioned, to examine the funding*.
the European project BSUDRA common elements and the dif-
A sudden, exogenous twist
(Black Sea Unity and Diversity ferences in the regions around affected the entire project. Dur-
in Roman Antiquity) and in es- the Black Sea in Roman times. ing its course, and nearing its
sence this signified its comple- Similarities and differences, that middle, in June 2014, Ukraine
tion, which was nevertheless is, among the nations and com- left the project, due to the war
given a three-month extension munities that fell under Roman taking place in the country
until the end of September of imperialism. We shall see fur- and Crimea, which participated
the present year. The project ther on what was discovered in the project with its institu-
will come to an end with an and whether the initial aim was tions, was annexed to Russia.
international conference orga- achieved. Seven countries par- Thus, after several months, un-
nized in Istanbul in the follow- ticipated in the project. Romania til the matter was resolved by
ing September. Consequently, was the leader, with Greece com- the managing authority of Ro-
we are indeed at the end and ing second in honorary position, mania (the well-known to par-
I will attempt in the limited due to its long-standing experi- ticipants, JMO), our Ukrainian
space offered to follow the ence in European programmes. (and now Russian) colleagues
course of the project, highlight- Then came Bulgaria, Moldova, took part in Georgia for the last
ing its negative as well as posi- Ukraine, Georgia, while Turkey time and never again as their
tive aspects. participated as a full member, expenses were not eligible any-
* P. Adam-Veleni, Black Sea-Unity and Diversity in the Roman Antiquity, in F. Karagianni (ed.) Medieval Ports in North Aegean and Black Sea.
Lins to the Maritime Routes of the East, International Symposium, Thessalonike, 4-6 December, Proceedings, Thessalonike 2013, 548-468, where
the project has been presented when it kicked of.
293
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
more. Hence, all Yalta events maining countries participated bers, who did not participate in
were cancelled. with representatives from their the funding and organization
scientific institutions. For spe- of the main events but played a
The project was oganised by
cifically, Greece was represented supporting role with their pres-
the Tulcea periphery, with Mick-
by archaeologists of the Archae- ence or participation on an aca-
aela Lugu as its administrative
ological Museum of Thessaloni- demic level. I will not tire you
director, as the elected represen-
ki, Bulgaria by an archaeologist by enumerating them, as they
tative of the periphery, while in
of the Archaeological Museum are presented in detail on the list
charge of the scientific direction
of Varna, Moldova by research- you are looking at.
was Mickaela Iakob, archae-
ologist-researcher of the Envi- ers and professors of the Univer- The projects entire structure
ronmental Institute of Tulcea. sity of Ukraine by the scientific included an ambitious plan of
Respectively, for Turkey, the staff of the Yalta Institute and continuous meetings and travels
periphery of Sinop was respon- Georgia by an archaeologist of for the participants in order for
sible for the project with Profes- the Archaeological Museum of every country to host an exhibi-
sor. Clair Barat of the University Vatum. Apart from the main tion and a workshop. Initially,
of Valansien being responsible members, the project included three preparatory meetings took
for the scientific aspect. The re- a multitude of associated mem- place. Apart from the first, kick-
off meeting in Tulcea (July 2013),
a second one followed in Sinop
(September 2013) and a third
one in Thessaloniki (November
2013) where procedural issues
were discussed and dealt with
the organization and agenda of
the workshops in general, the
determination of the dates of
the following meetings, the cre-
ation of a website, the database,
where major archaeological sites
of each country would be regis-
tered, the organization of a sum-
Fig. 1. 1rst exhibition in
mer excavation at Slava Roussa,
Tulcea, Mars 2914 (minority province of Tulcea)
and the promotion of the proj-
ect in general. Six more meet-
ing followed in the remaining
participating countries. During
Fig. 2. Exhibition
in Thessaloniki those first meetings, it became
(February 2015) clear that based on the techni-
294
The BSUDRA Project, Evaluation, Outputs, Sustainability and Perspectives P. ADAM-VELENI
295
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
region. These interesting top- Roman site of Slava Roussa, a ners and associated members
ics were mostly followed, but in provincial town near Tulcea, of was also large. The experience
several instances they were ne- a mixed population. I suppose had many challenges and sev-
glected, possibly due to the lack that the site was chosen for two eral difficulties.
of researchers dealing with the reasons: The first one was due to
Nevertheless the outcome
predetermined topics for each the fact that it is the birthplace
was positive, as the impres-
country. Thus, it so happened of Michaela Iacob, the scientific
sions of the participants reveal,
that in the workshop dealing supervisor of the project, who
as many people from different
with sources and inscriptions also conducts research there
cultural backgrounds came to-
included presentations dealing for several years. The second
with pottery, or numismatics to gether in order to have a scien-
reason was to reinforce and at-
be presented in the pottery work- tific and communal experience,
tract at least of a few days, to
shop and architecture issues and the entire project left them
this remote land, the attention
in the numismatics workshop. all with a happy aftermath, de-
of scholars, who were given an
This caused some confusion as spite the difficulties they had to
empirical experience, together
it was difficult to have a mean- face. Given the opportunity with
with some archaeological tours
ingful discussion, which was re- the above positive comment on
to nearby sites. From the Greek
duced to superficial explanatory the summer excavation camp,
side, four persons participated,
questions and rarely penetrated I think it would be useful to at-
two students of the Department
deeper into the topics. tempt a general assessment of
of History and Archaeology of
the entire project, searching to
The summer excavation camp the Aristotle University of Thes-
determine certain weaknesses
(Fig. 3) was attended by under- saloniki and two scientists, a
in the organization and the ben-
graduate and postgraduate stu- member of the Greek Archaeo-
efits offered.
dents from all countries, par- logical Service and an indepen-
ticipating in the excavation of dent researcher. Respectively, One of its major drawbacks
the University of Iasi at the late attendance from both main part- was the density of the project,
Fig. 4
2nd Meeting in
Thessaloniki
296
The BSUDRA Project, Evaluation, Outputs, Sustainability and Perspectives P. ADAM-VELENI
regarding its actions, which had they should, nor the attention of objective. Similar mismatches
variety and diversity, despite the students and antiquarians, were also noted with our Turk-
the fact that this was initially in order to produce meaningful ish partners, whose heads were
seen as an advantage and was, I scientific discussions (Fig. 4). members of the local govern-
suppose, one of the reasons the Nevertheless, due to the com- ment and showed no interest to
project was approved in the first plex team and the necessity to the scientific part. On the con-
place. The two-year time limit move swiftly to all actions, we trary, they clearly showed how
proved to be too short for so spent long hours discussing the bored they were during the
many actions, in order for them organization of our meetings workshops in various countries.
to be complete and meaningful. with procedural issues. The There were difficulties with the
project was too demanding and English translations of the post-
The short amount of time,
the specifications for its imple- ers, inadequacies in the transla-
which in certain instances was
mentation, according to Roma- tion to the national languages in
only a month or two, between
nian laws, difficult. The inex- the website, which still remain.
workshops, resulted to an in-
ability to prepare original sci- perience of the organisers in A large part of the discus-
entific papers by each countrys topics of financial management sions dealt with the foundation
representatives. Most of us, led to delays in expenses pay- of an association, with the partic-
with very few exceptions, re- ment and mainly in the expen- ipating countries as the founding
sulted to present scientific top- diture of certified installments, members, which would aim to
ics previously prepared and in especially during the second the further viability of the proj-
many cases already published year, when most of us partici- ect and its continuation through
fully or repeatedly. Concur- pants had to borrow money to another project that would ex-
rently, the goal of most of those be punctual to the timetable of tend to the late Roman times,
meetings was only partially the project. Another important as we had agreed to place a 3rd
reached: the workshops did not procedural obstacle was also century AD limit on this project
have the expected effect on the the fact that the financial ad- during our first meeting, though
local scientific communities, nor ministration and the scientific this later on breached. The es-
on the local society wherever responsibility of the project was tablishment of this common for
they took place. Apart from the conducted by different institu- all members of the project time-
Thessaloniki workshop, where tions, with common reclimina- table was binding as it had been
approximately 200 people from tions and delays between them. incorporated into the projects
the Artistotle University and the The Romanian local adminis- natural topic, but nevertheless
Archaeological services around tration of Tulcea was obviously clashed with the various legis-
Macedonia, in the other work- interested solely in the right lative regulations of the partici-
shops, the participants would and punctual management of pating countries. As a result an
address each other, attendance the various stages of the proj- association was founded, based
by local institutions was mini- ect and showed no interest for on Romanian legislation and the
mal to non-existent, they did not the essential scientific aspect, other partners signed up. But this
provoke researchers interest, as which was the projects main made participation in this associ-
297
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
298
The BSUDRA Project, Evaluation, Outputs, Sustainability and Perspectives P. ADAM-VELENI
country and through it, the visi- their introversion and came into is the greatest achievement, the
tor could find the common ele- contact with relevant institutions founding of true and meaning-
ments and cultural differences of their neighbouring countries. ful relations through which any
during Roman times in the Black Countries that neighboured each future project regarding Roman
Sea region. Thus, a very impor- other for many years got to know antiquity can be sustainable, as
tant step was done towards this each other. Furthermore, the there is still much to do in terms
direction, so in a possible con- projects countries were asked to of research on the topic. Roman
tinuation of the project, it could organize similar actions which antiquity remains, still in a great
be made possible to determine were needed to be adjusted to degree, unknown in all these re-
more accurately these data of their national characteristics, gions and many scientific issues
similarities and differences in gaining valuable experience on in different fields should be dis-
the Black Sea populations during legislative, procedural and scien- cussed by the researchers in the
Roman times (Fig. 5). tific adjustments. The project, de- future. The two years BSUDRA
In conclusion, we could say spite its imperfections, reached project was just the beginning,
that in a scientific project like all its technical goals, which was we hope that it will be continued.
ours, even if its goal is, in asso- a necessary prerequisite for its
ciation with its strictly scientific further sustainability. It was a
character, to inform and awaken very good initial stage and cre-
the local communities, to draw ated all secure conditions for its
attention and interest to a histor- continuation. Already, all mem-
ical era, in that case the Roman, bers were asked to participate
and reinforce tourism, it would to the BSUDRA project through
be best if the entire operation its association that is about to be
was dealt by scientists and not founded in the final conference in
elected officials of local govern- Istanbul in late September, with
ments or periphery employees. Norway as the leader, regarding
Many issues that arose could its nautical actions (Fig. 6).
have been avoided if there was The participants got to know
a more dynamic scientific over- local specificities, customs, even
view and the scientific results the cuisine and came in contact
would have surely been more with places they possibly would
meaningful and helpful. never have visited, as they are
What was in the end the final located in peripheral districts
profit of the project and what in most cases. The participants,
impact will it have? The biggest despite their different origins,
advantage of this multinational surpassed themselves and man-
European (and not just Euro- aged to feel like a big family with
pean) company was that for the its convergences and, of course,
first time, these countries exited its divergences as well. And this
299
The Digital Economy, Culture and
Tourism in the Black Sea Region
Pyrrhus Mercouris
Before explaining the impor- Maastricht Treaty 1993. It is ist sector is subject to laws re-
tance of the digital economy to within the context of the single lating to competition (Title VII,
the culture and tourist sectors market that the EU has perused Chapter 1)1.
of the Black Sea region, it is im- the development of the digital Digital technologies include
portant to examine some of the economy. The regulatory frame- the information society, which
background relating to the way work for the digital economy in includes the internet and so-
the European Union encour- Europe is established at EU level cial networking also includes
ages the developments of these as is a lot of the investment. Of the development of all kinds of
sectors. This means looking in course the single market is not communication products and
some detail at the legal context just about the digital economy. It services. Including software
and the funding context. Then it includes other sectors including developments, mobile phones
is worth examining projects that creative industries, tourism and and all kinds of portable devic-
develop tourist and cultural ac- culture. Though where culture is es like androids, smart phones
tions and contribute to the digi- concerned there are provisions I-pads, lap-tops, note books,
tal economy for the Black Sea re- which permit states to fund cul- and all kinds of smart mobile
gion specifically the Black Sea ture, namely the arts and heri- devices that are now available
Silk Road Corridor project and tage and the audiovisual sector. to consumers to view content
the Culture Exchange Platform. Enforcement of the single mar- and download information. The
The European Union (EU) ket is done through competition EU formally started supporting
for many years now has been rules. However, states can sub- the development of the digital
encouraging the development side culture in accordance with economy in a serious way as far
of the Digital Economy within rules on state aid as determined back as the year 2000 with the
the context of a single market. by articles 107, 108 and 109 of adoption of the Lisbon Strat-
The single market became the the Treaty of 2012 and in accor- egy which is sometimes called
primary objective of the Euro- dance with Article 167 specific to the Lisbon Agenda. It aimed
pean with the adoption of the culture. Unlike culture, the tour- to make the European Union
301
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
the worlds most dynamic and monized rules on issues such The Audiovisual and Media
competitive economy by 2010. as the transparency and infor- Services Directive 2010/13/EU
Since then the European Union mation requirements for online regulate TV broadcasting over
has pushed through a whole se- service providers, commercial traditional terrestrial network
ries of laws and funded all kinds communications, electronic and also over the internet. It is
of activities. contracts and limitations of li- currently under review.
ability of intermediary service These are just some, but the
Laws include
providers. This is a very pow- most important laws which the
Satellite and Cable Council erful directive and some critics culture, tourist and digital sec-
Directive 93/83/EEC of 27 Sep- feel that it gives too much pow- tors need to consider. However,
tember 1993. There are serious er to telecoms. It has however the European Commission is
moves to revise this directive. It provided a regulatory frame- anything but pleased with the
is a one-size-fits all law which work for financial transactions current status quo. On the 6th
regulates transmissions over sat- over the internet. of May the EC issued a Com-
ellite TV and cable TV and cre- munication on A Digital Single
The Directive on Copyright in
ates a single market in the gov- Market Strategy for Europe2.
the Information Society, 2001/29/
ernance of copyright. This law The Commission makes it quite
EC. This directive tries to harmo-
is not popular with the culture clear about its intentions. It be-
nize the diverse copyright laws in
sector, because it sets out one set lieves that there are still far too
each member state. It primarily
of rules to be implemented by many obstacles in creating a
all member states. It is a law that harmonizes rules on exceptions.
single digital market economy.
regulates a technology that This law is heavily criticized by
This communication is a radical
is cables and satellite. Artists, lawyers and by rights-holders. It
document and should be viewed
meaning creators and authors was a very difficult law to enact
within the context of the negotia-
are wary of a directive that does and took many years before it
tions relating to the Transatlantic
not take into account the differ- was finally agreed to.
Trade and Investment Partner-
ent cultural traditions of a mem- The Directive on services in ship (TTIP). The most important
ber state and they do not see this the internal market (2006/123/ points of the Communication:
directive as a good model for EC.) This directive is supposed Point 2.1 expresses the real
regulating authors rights. to be a codification of judgments thinking of the authors that
The Electronic Commerce made by the European Court is the new Commission led
Directive, 2000/31/EC. Accord- of Justice upholding the rights by Claude Junker. The single
ing to the European Commis- of businesses to operate in the market for a digital economy
sion website, this directive single market. The law was so has not been created, as they
sets up an Internal Market controversial that it became a see it. This is because every
framework for electronic com- muddle and confusion. Culture country has its own rules. Es-
merce, which provides legal is exempt but not tourist and in- pecially regarding the details
certainty for business and con- formation and communication relating to copyright and
sumers alike. It establishes har- services. consumer rights.
302
The Digital Economy, Culture and Tourism in the Black Sea Region PYRRHUS MERCOURIS
Point 2.3 is about geo-block- right practices as an obstacle The funding context
ing. This includes broadcast- and to maximize the potential
This is influenced by the legal
ers blocking access to their of these portable devices and
context. All funding programs of
online services to other coun- cloud computing. The Com-
the European Union, including
tries. The document consid- munication is of the view
the Black Sea Cross Border Co-op-
ers geo-blocking as a huge that it should be easier to ac-
eration Program have to take into
obstacle to the single market cess copyright information
account the legal aquis of the EU,
and wants to get rid of this for educational and research
which includes all the above rules.
practice. It does not ask why purposes for free.
a broadcaster or any other The EU views culture in-
Point 3.2 calls for the review
online service provider has creasingly as a creative industry.
of the Audio-visual Media
chosen to block its services This not popular with artists and
Services Directive (AVMS)
to another territory. Valid cultural professionals, but due
and this is actually happen-
reasons like contractual ob- to the economic crisis, employ-
ing at the time of writing.
ligations are not mentioned. ment and economic growth are
On 7 July 2015 the Europe-
This could be a subtle move upper most in EU policymaking.
an Commission launched a
towards pan-European cross Increasingly more money is be-
consultation with a view of
border licensing. The Euro- ing made available to the digital
reviewing the validity of the
pean Commission will also economy. We see this in particu-
directive. The consultation is
review the Satellite and Ca- lar with the hundreds of Opera-
set to end on 30 September
ble Directive (SATCAB). tional Programs which manage
2015. The representatives of
the European Regional Develop-
Point 2.4 mention is made of the culture sectors (actors,
ment Funds and the European
the forthcoming communica- actors, musicians, film direc-
Social Funds. Billions are going
tion on copyright to be pre- tors and screenwriters) have
to develop the digital economy.
sented later in 2015. The EC is in the past warned the Eu-
Probably after agriculture the
fascinated by Cloud comput- ropean Commission that the
digital economy is the most sub-
ing, Big Dada, the Internet scope of the directive should
sidized sector3.
of all things and by portable include video-on-demand
devices like androids and services, Telecoms and other Other programs, namely the
I-pads, smart-phones, and users of audio-visual prod- Interreg Mediterranean Pogram,
other mobile devices which ucts and to consider a con- part of the wider Interreg Pro-
are transforming the way tent directive and not have gram is now seriously funding
we live. It is using these new a two tier system, which the tourist sector. This sector is
products as a justification regulate traditional linear not mentioned explicitly in the
to seek out changes to copy- services more severely than Treaty, unlike culture. Intrigu-
right. Though the documents non-linear internet services. ingly, tourist projects are to be
stresses the importance for Now the EC is questioning funded, but within the context
copyright and the need to re- the validity of having a two of cultural heritage and the nat-
tain it nonetheless sees copy- tier system. ural heritage4.
303
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
304
The Digital Economy, Culture and Tourism in the Black Sea Region PYRRHUS MERCOURIS
BSSRC is an online platform an inclusive list of tourism nia, Moldavia, Ukraine, Russia
which is now up and running service providers (lodging, and throughout Greece.
and offers visitors opportunities food, local crafts, souvenirs,
to experience the destinations of tour guides, etc.) at destina- 2. The Culture Exchange
the Black Sea Basin countries of tion points. The directory Platform (CulturEXP) 9
Turkey, Georgia, Armenia and and the applications have This project10 has as its ob-
Northern Greece, while learning been designed by Armenian jective to create a cross-border
about local history and culture. IT engineers and are used exchange of culture by provid-
Apart from significant economic across all four countries. Lo- ing an innovative, multi-lingual
growth, the BSSRC Project Tour cal entrepreneurs and stake- IT platform, based on available
Trail brings many environmen- holders can register in the open source social platform so-
tal benefits. The paramount of online directory, immediate- lutions and adapted for culture
them is the protection of biologi- ly reaching users of the web producers (artists), culture op-
cal resources. The project8 had portal and mobile applica- erators (museums, festivals, etc.)
three main components. tions (APPs). and other actors of the culture
a. From 2013 to 2015, series market. The platform is up and
c. A number of events and
cultural-historical and natu- running and provides an online
training courses were or-
ral sites have been marked tool, where all entities related to
ganised locally for tourism
with directional signs, infor- the culture can advertise, dis-
service providers on the ef-
mation panels, trail markers, cuss and organise cultural assets
fective use of online oppor-
and walking tour plaques, and events in the region. The
tunities granted by the web
which provide multi-lingual platform will also be an impor-
portal and the applications.
content about the site. In tant source of information about
Greece, there are twenty-five The project has successfully the culture and related cultural
such sites, in Turkey hun- been completed within budget events (artists, operators, events)
dred, in Armenia forty-three and met or exceeded nearly all for the culture consumers. The
and in Georgia thirty-four expectations and outcomes. The structure of the platform has six
sites. On the panels there is a physical layout of the trail has parts.
bar code that can be swiped been laid out and by the time the The first part is a user pre-
by a mobile device like a project officially ended in March sentation module. This creates
smart phone which enters 2015, detailed information on and stores platform users own
you into the portal. over 1500 tourist services and profile, the user presentation
b. A web portal has been cre- heritage sites and natural parks module supports three catego-
ated and it features the vir- were available of a comprehen- ries. The first category is for art-
tual version of the trail, along sive online platform available to ists. It allows digitized samples
with five smart-phone ap- APP users. Currently, the proj- of an artists own art, express in-
plications with social media ect is aiming to expand to other terest in types and geographical
integration. An online direc- countries in the Black Sea re- locations of performance events,
tory is available and gives gion, including Bulgaria, Roma- interest in particular arts or cul-
305
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
ture areas. The second category users from different areas, cul- with huge potential. Already
relates to culture infrastructure tures may freely participate and they have drawn the attention
owners: which permits for in- express their opinions on events, of some of the cities in Greece
ventories of performance sites art and tradition. which are bidding to be cultural
operated and available to artists, capitals in 2021. There is every
The platform is up and run-
timetable of the events and avail- hope that Romanian cities will
ning and in now provides a
ability. And the third category is take the opportunity to use these
rich content on the platform
for culture operators to describe online platforms and even Plo-
by attracting, encouraging and
their activities and post informa- vdiv which will be the cultural
training culture providers to
tion on an event schedule. capital in 2019 could consider
advertise on the platform and to
The second part is a specific provide own cultural content. It also using these platforms. In-
event scheduler. This is a sort of ensures the uptake of the plat- deed, everybody is free to join
thematic calendar, where plat- form by the users by dissemi- in. Lastly it is important to note
form participants are able to lo- nating, advertising, training ac- how the EU is convinced that
cate and advertise their events. tivities.Target groups: Culture the digital economy is the fu-
The third part is a culture producers, culture operators, ture economy. The recent Com-
browser. This module provides infrastructure owners - artists, munication issued by the EC
a catalogue and search facility performers, art galleries, muse- could result in the consolidation
for any type of content on the ums, theatres, cultural organisa- of existing laws which are even
platform. It is tailor-made to en- tions, culture consumers includ- more focused in generating an
able searching the content (e.g. ing cultural tourism. environment conducive to the
events) by art, region, operator, To conclude, these two proj- development of a digital single
artist, etc. ects are good illustrations on market economy.
The fourth part is collab- how the EU is developing the
orative tools. This is a popular digital economy for tourist and
collaboration tools to enable cultural purposes in the Black
conferences and, chats and is Sea region. In this way it is con-
integrated so the platform users tributing towards peaceful co-
are able to work online for prep- operation through culture and
aration of common events. tourist development by bringing
peoples together to share their
The fifth part is announce- common heritage and enjoy
ment boards. This is a function- each others cultural genius and
ality allowing for posting mes-
at the same time encouraging
sages, announcements related to
visitors to come to the region.
culture.
However, the digital economy
The sixth and last part of the is already huge and it is going
platform is a thematic discus- to become even bigger. These
sion/reflection spaces where projects are two small projects
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The Digital Economy, Culture and Tourism in the Black Sea Region PYRRHUS MERCOURIS
N OTE S RE FE RE N CE S
1 http://europa.eu/eu-law/decision-making/treaties/index_en.htm. Treaty of the European Union (2012) - http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
2 http://ec.europa.eu/priorities/digital-single-market/docs/dsm-com- content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=OJ:C:2012:326:FULL&from=EN.
munication_en.pdf or http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-15- Satellite and Cable Council Directive 93/83/EEC of 27 September 1993 -
4919_en.htm. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX
3 http://ec.europa.eu/esf/main.jsp?catId=576&langId=en. :31993L0083:EN:HTML.
4 http://www.programmemed.eu/en/the-programme/program- The Electronic Commerce Directive, 2000/31/EC. http://eur-lex.europa.
ming-2014-2020/med-2014-2020.html. eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex:32000L0031.
5 http://ec.europa.eu/programmes/creative-europe/.
The Directive on Copyright in the Information Society, 2001/29/EC.
6 www.blacksea-cbc.net/. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX
7 www.blackseasilkroad.com. :32001L0029:EN:HTML.
8 The lead partner for the Project is The Directive on services in the internal market (2006/123/EC.) http://
AMAP Human Development NGO (Yerevan, Armenia). eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex:32006L0123.
The other partners:
European Regional Framework for Cooperation Interregional The Audiovisual and Media Services Directive 2010/13/EU - http://eur-
Development Organization (ERFC), Greece. lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2010:095:000
The Economists Association, Turkey. 1:0024:en:PDF.
TADZRELI Foundation, Georgia. Communication on A Digital Single Market Strategy for Europe -
Armenian Society for the Protection of Birds/Birdlife Internation- http://ec.europa.eu/priorities/digital-single-market/docs/dsm-
al Associate in Armenia (ASPB), Armenia communication_en.pdf or http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_
9 http://cultur-exp.eu/. IP-15-4919_en.htm.
10 The project is led by: European Regional Development Funds (ERDF) and European Social
Georgian Research and Educational Networking Association Funds (ESF) http://ec.europa.eu/esf/main.jsp?catld&langld=en.
(GRENA), Georgia
Interreg Mediterranean Program - http://interreg-med.eu/en/home/.
The project partners are:
European Regional Framework for Co-operation (ERFC), Greece Creative Europe Programme - http://ec.europa.eu/programmes/creative-
District Government of Burgas, Republic of Bulgaria europe/.
AMAP Human Development NGO
Research and Educational Networking Association of Moldova
Black Sea Silk Road Corridor (BSSRC)
(RENAM), Republic of Moldova
Contact details of the partners of the Blacks Sea Silk Road Corridor
Project (BSSRC). You can find a detailed description on the website:
http://www.blackseasilkroad.com/en. The partners:
307
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
S P ON S ORS
European Union
USAID
ARMINCO
Apivita (Greece)
S P ON S OR
European Union
308
Black Sea Port-Cities, 1780s-1910s:
Objectives and Actions of an
Interdisciplinary Project
Gelina Harlaftis, Athina Vitopoulou
ABSTRACT
The aim of the paper is of Education. It was led by the
to present the objectives, the Department of History of the
methodology and the main Ionian University in collaboration
products of the interdisciplinary with other 5 Greek Universities
and inter-university research and Research Institutes and 23
project The Black Sea and foreign Universities, Research
its port-cities, 1774-1914. Institutes and Archives mainly
Development, convergence and from the Black Sea countries.
linkages with the global economy. Subsequently, the paper focuses
The project, held out during on one of the six research axes of
2012-2015, was included in the project concerning the study of
the Action Thales which was urban planning and architecture
financed by the Greek National of the Black Sea port-cities and
Strategic Reference Framework, briefly discusses its main goals,
the E.U. and the Greek Ministry methodology and outcomes.
309
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
1. Identity and The aim of the project was the Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine,
objectives of the project identification, analysis and syn- Russia, Georgia and Turkey).
thesis of the economic and social These port-cities became centres
The interdisciplinary and in-
develpment of 24 port-cities of of attraction for economic immi-
ter-university project The Black
the Black Sea which formed an gration from the whole region
Sea and its port-cities, 1774-1914.
integrated market that became of Central and south-eastern
Development, convergence and
the larger grain-exporting area Europe, while main agents of
linkages with the global econ-
in the world in the second half of economic integration proved to
omy was included in the Ac-
the 19th century until the begin- be the mobile groups of the so-
tion Thales, financed by the
ning of the 20th century. By plac- called people of the classic dias-
Greek National Strategic Refer-
ing in the centre of the analysis pora like the Greeks, Jews and
ence Framework, the E.U. and
the sea and its ports, the analy- Armenians, as well as those of
the Greek Ministry of Education.
sis penetrates in the economic other central European groups.
The project was led by the De-
activities of the port-cities, the It was these mobile entrepre-
partment of History of the Ionian
coastal area and the hinterland, neurial groups that undertook
University (project coordinator:
the integration of markets and the control of external trade and
Gelina Harlaftis) in collabora-
their interlinkages with the glob- shipping and those of the link-
tion with the University of Crete,
al economy, beyond political ages with the global economy.
the National Hellenic Research
boundaries and divisions. The The project intended to indicate
Foundation, the Institute of Med-
linkages with the global econo- the unity of markets during the
iterranean Studies, the Universi-
my triggered development and period before the Russian revo-
ty of Thessaly and the University
convergence of regional markets lution and their integration in
of the Aegean. It also collaborat-
in the global economy. the global economy at the begin-
ed with 23 academic institutions
ning of the 20th century. It also
Universities, Research Insti- From the late 18th century
reviewed briefly the isolation
tutes and Archives from the to the early 20th century the
and re-incorporation of the area
Black Sea countries, that is Tur- Black Sea coastal line had been
in the world transport system in
key, Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, transformed to an international
the soviet and post-soviet times.
Russia and Georgia, as well as market with linkages with the
from Moldavia, Norway, Italy, Mediterranean sea, the north- Moreover, the project aimed
Israel and the United States1. The ern European seas, the Atlantic at the renewal of the method-
Main Research Group consisted and the Indian ocean. Despite ological analytical tools through
of 19 scholars and the External the existence of old port-cities in an interdisciplinary approach
Collaborators Research Group the southern Black Sea coast, like and the internationalisation of
of 71 scholars (professors, senior Trebizond, during the period Greek historical studies.
researchers, young researchers, under examination, more than
2. Methodology
that is Ph.D. holders, PhD. stu- 20 port-cities were created and
dents, post-graduate students), developed on the rivers and the The methodology of the re-
57% of which were Greek and coastline of the western, northern search project was historical,
43% foreigners. and eastern Black Sea (todays based on the analysis and study
310
Black Sea Port-Cities, 1780s-1910s GELINA HARLAFTIS, ATHINA VITOPOULOU
of primary archival sources in cities of Kerch, Berdyansk, Mari- well as formation of intercon-
the different Black Sea coun- upol, Taganrog, Rostov-on-Don, nected data-bases and statis-
tries and in western European tothe southeastern coast of the tical series.
archives. The study was ap- Black Sea that includes the port-
3. Organisation and realisation
proached in an interdisciplinary cities of Novorossiysk and Ba-
of workshops and confer-
way by combining maritime, toum. The fifth maritime region
ences (parallel to the on-go-
economic and social history includes the southern Black Sea
ing research) to prepare and
with social sciences, geography, ports Trabzon, Samsun, Giresun
present the results, as well as
oceanography, transport, city- and Sinop (Fig. 1).
participation in international
planning and architecture. The project consisted of four conferences of Social and
One can distinguish five mar- gradual stages which concerned Economic History, Slavic and
itime regions in the Black Sea each port-city and maritime re- Ottoman Studies.
which form the main five port gion and constituted in fact the
4. Preparation of the main de-
systems that developed to serve main actions of the program:
liverables of the project, that
the needs of the sea transport of 1. Localisation, collection and is a number of books, a da-
short and long distances. Start- registration of archival data tabase, historical statistical
ing from west to the east: the and concentration of pub- series and a website (see also
first maritime region is the one lished records and secondary Results and deliverables).
of southwest Black Sea (pres- bibliography by conducting
ent-day Bulgaria), with main several research missions in
ports Varna and Burgas and all cities under study.
secondary ports Pomorie, Sozo-
2. Process of collected material Fig. 1 The 23 Black Sea port-cities
pol, and Michurin. The second (including Nhezin, an important
from many countries and lan-
maritime region is that of the 18th century land port, makes
guages (translation, taxono- them 24 cities) under study and
northeast Black Sea (present day my and homogenisation), as the five maritime regions
Rmania) and includes mainly
the ports of the Danube, Galatz
and Braila, and Constana. The
third maritime region covers the
port-cities of the northern coast
of the Black Sea, Odessa, Niko-
layev (Mykolaiv) and Kherson
and the Crimean port-cities, Eu-
patoria, Sevastopol and Theo-
dosia (Feodosiya). The fourth
maritime region is that of the
Azov Sea (divided presently
between Ukraine and Russia)
that includes mainly the port-
311
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
In each of the five maritime 3. Results and solid basis of interaction and
regions research took place ac- deliverables of the networking, first on a local
cording to the following six axes: project level among Greek Universi-
1. The Black Sea as a unit of re- ties and Research Institutes
The essence of the project
search. Marine environment and second on an international
was international cooperation,
level between them and their
and five port systems. the creation of working net-
counterparts in the countries of
works of communication with
2. Five maritime regions. Eco- Eastern Europe situated around
the Universities and Research
nomic and social develop- the Black Sea. The project en-
Institutes of Black Sea countries
ment of 24 port-cities. couraged this way the extrovert
and the collective and organized
orientation of Greek academic
3. The form of the cities. City- academic opening in an academ-
institutions by rendering them
planning and architecture. ic area still almost inaccessible to
centres for the study of the econ-
4. Macro-analysis. Formation of the independent researcher. The
omy and society of the Black Sea
reasons lie on the lack of efficient
macro-economic statistical se- area. In fact, it gave the possibil-
knowledge of the national lan-
ries. Comparison with world ity of scheduled and systematic
guages or the lack of a common
economy. flow of movement of scholars
language of communication in a
between countries and facili-
5. Micro-analysis. Entrepreneur- world that is nationally and po-
tated communication not only
ial elites and major business litically fragmented.
between Greek historians and
families.
Indeed, one of the most im- Black Sea countries historians
6. Linkages with the Mediterra- portant contributions of the but also of scholars among the
nean and the Atlantic. project was the formation of a Black Sea countries, thus open-
Fig. 2 Homepage
of the interactive
historical map Port
Cities - Short Histories
312
Black Sea Port-Cities, 1780s-1910s GELINA HARLAFTIS, ATHINA VITOPOULOU
ing the way to more permanent Administration, 2. Form of the the port cities of the Black sea
forms of academic cooperation. cities, 3. Economy, 4. Culture, region in which documentation
The project contributed as 5. Maritime Environment. The from local archives and different
well to introduce in the his- website contains also annotated ethnic languages is combined
torical studies of southeastern bibliography and archival sourc- and translated in a common lan-
Europe the History of the Sea es for each port-city. guage and b) the formation of
and/or Maritime Economic His- processed homogeneous statisti-
B. Formation of databases
tory, which during the last ten cal series of imports and exports
and historical statistical series
years has taken off internation- in value and quantity, shipping
(quantitative products). This
ally along with Global History arrivals and departures from
action includes the combination
and Global Economic History. each port-city from a combina-
of archives for all port-cities and
It also supported the training tion of available contemporary
the collection of statistics from
and education in research of the statistics.
Russian, Romanian, Bulgarian,
younger generation as 55% of
the external collaborators team Ottoman and British sources. The website, the databases
were young scholars (10% PhD The aim was a) to provide a rich and the historical statistics (Fig.
holders, 30% PhD students, 16% and multi-faceted database for 3-4) fed with data of all kinds,
graduate students and 9% first
university degree holders).
The deliverables of the re-
search project were:
A. Creation of a website
in three languages- English,
Russian and Greek available
in the addresswww.blacksea.
gr (Fig. 2). Within the website Fig. 3 The five
there is the interactive histori- databases
313
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
from demographic data to town economic development of the six states. These port-cities are:
planning, business histories, mi- port-cities through statistics and Varna, Burgas, Constana, Brai-
cro- and macro- statistical series, one on the shipping, ports and la, Galati, Odessa, Nikolayev,
geographical, environmental and cities in Soviet and post-Soviet Kherson, Yevpatoria, Sevasto-
port information etc. are avail- period. Three monographs were pol, Feodosia, Kerch, Berdy-
able to draw information from written, one on the social his- ansk, Mariupol, Taganrog,
a very difficult region and to be tory of Imperial Odessa, one on Rostov-on-Don, Novorossiysk,
used for comparative approach- the integration of the Black Sea Batum, Trabzon, Giresun, Sam-
es in global economic history, markets to the global economy sun and Sinop. This axis of the
social history, urban and port and one on the British Consuls research was led by the School
development and economics, at Berdyansk. Finally, one PhD of Architecture of the Univer-
geography, marine environ- thesis was also produced on the sity of Thessaly (scientific re-
ment etc. economic and social develop- sponsible: Vassilis Colonas)3.
C. Conferences. During the ment of the Crimean port-cities2. The research was based on
research three Black Sea Proj- The deliverables of the re- works dealing with the broader
ect International Conferences search are in the three languages context of the development of
have been held: the first one in of the project, English, Russian the city, on studies on urban Eu-
Odessa on September 2013, the and Greek in order to be used rope and the specific character of
second one in Constana-Varna by scholars of all regions. Spe- the Russian, Ottoman and Bal-
on May 2014 and the third one cial care was taken to have vari- kan experience, as well as on pri-
in Istanbul on October 2014. The ous aspects of the research along mary sources found in various
members of the research groups with the database and the web- national or local archives, mainly
also participated in an important site in English to be available to city plans, urban design projects
number of international confer- all scholars worldwide. and construction plans for infra-
ences presenting their work on structures. The main goals were:
the different research axis of the 4. Urban planning a) to formulate a framework of
project. and architecture of comparative analysis between
Black Sea port-cities, the Black Sea port-cities and b)
D. Books. There are 12 vol-
18 th -20 t h c.: a brief to outline the key stages in the
umes coming out of the project.
presentation of the urban transformations, show
The members of the research
third research axis the interplay of new life patterns
groups co-authored nine collec-
The aim of the third research and urban forms and bring for-
tive volumes, the four of which
axis was to examine the histori- ward affiliations and discrepan-
on the economic, maritime and
cal evolution and urban trans- cies of the developed formal and
social history of the maritime
land use patterns.
regions of the Black Sea, one on formations of port cit-
the linkages with the west, one ies lying around the Black Sea Although each side of the
on urban planning and architec- coast, from the end of the 18th to Black Sea has a singular story,
ture of the port-cities, one on the the beginning of the 20th centu- shaped by different sovereign-
merchants of Nezhin, one on the ries and belonging nowadays to ties, groups of inhabitants, as
314
Black Sea Port-Cities, 1780s-1910s GELINA HARLAFTIS, ATHINA VITOPOULOU
315
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
316
Black Sea Port-Cities, 1780s-1910s GELINA HARLAFTIS, ATHINA VITOPOULOU
317
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
opted during the period of study modernisation process. In fact, similar spatial segregation phe-
in the area. We can see for certain although the Black Sea port-cities nomena as the land-use zoning
the renunciation of the tradition- were under different sovereign- and the socio-economic zoning
al urban patterns and the intro- ties and despite their geographi- (i.e. beaux quartiers and poor
duction of new models drawing cal restraints, the economic and neighbourhoods).
mainly from the European plan- social context prevailed and the The third axis concerns the
ning practice of the 18th century, cities acquired a rather similar way the planning models and
more or less adapted to local con- persona - depending also on practices are transferred and
ditions. Common characteristics their size - diffused. We should first bear
of these plans are: the use of one that tran- in mind the presence of mili-
or more rectangular grids (often scended the existing differences tary engineers - specialized in
composed at an angle) aiming at in urban form and architectural fortifications and public works
providing equal advantages for styles. The urban patterns and - that were circulating around
private lots, impressively wide building types of the bourgeois Europe transferring planning
streets and clearly defined pub- city are present in all Black Sea models, while working for dif-
lic spaces, the extrovert urban port-cities, and allowed the ac- ferent rulers and authorities.
space (open city that replaces tivities of private business, pro- Certainly, this doesnt dimin-
the former closed city), as well duction and consumption, mod- ish the role that played also
as uniform and strict regulations ern administration, leisure and the presence of a multicultural
to control the construction and prestige to flow freely. Build- bourgeoisie: Tradesmen, indus-
the urban form. We should also ings and open spaces for po- trialists, bankers, etc. traveling
point out that most of the cities litical gatherings and discourse, to central and west-European
start as free ports and organize and the functions of self-gov- metropolitan centres to do busi-
basic port installations which are ernment (town halls and civic ness acquired new manners and
gradually developed most often squares, clubhouses and lecture habits, adopted new ways of
by reclaiming land from the sea, halls, seats of professional asso- living (social life, political activ-
a practice that leads to interest- ciations, etc.) soon appeared in ity, education, entertainment),
ing observations concerning the the cities. With them industrial new attitudes to matters related
changing relation of the cities premises and warehouses, and to private and public space and
to the sea. Another characteris- infrastructure works accom- new architectural forms and
tic is the important role of the panied the rising needs of the typologies and claimed urban
imported and widely used new ports and other transport facili- space modernisation.
technology in private and civic ties. One specific characteristic,
buildings, public works and in- related to the topography of
frastructure and the shift to new
the Black Sea coast, is the urban
materials and techniques.
staircases found in many cities.
The second axis concerns the At the same time the similar pro-
rather similar character acquired cess of urban space modernisa-
by the port cities following the tion leads to the appearance of
318
Black Sea Port-Cities, 1780s-1910s GELINA HARLAFTIS, ATHINA VITOPOULOU
N OTE S
1 The collaborating group consists of the following academic institu-
tions: Boazii University, Bilkent University, Dzce University and
19 May University from Turkey, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences
and Varna University from Bulgaria, Dunarea De Jos University of
Galati from Romania, Moldavian Academy of Sciences from Molda-
via, State Archives of Odessa, State Archives of Nikolaev, National
Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, University of Berdiansk, Univer-
sity of Mariupol and University of Kharkov from Ukraine, Russian
Academy of Sciences (Moscow), Southern Russia Academy of Sci-
ences (Rostov-on-Don), State Russian University of Human Studies,
European University of St. Petersburg and State University of St.
Petersburg from Russia, Elia State University (Tiblisi) from Georgia,
Jerusalem University from Israel, Southern State Connecticut Uni-
versity from U.S.A and Maritime Museum of Bergen from Norway.
2 The nine collective volumes are: Constantin Ardeleanu and An-
dreas Lyberatos (eds), Port-Cities of the western shore of the Black Sea:
Economic and Social Development, 18th-early 20th centuries, History of the
Black Sea, volume 1; Evrydiki Sifneos, Oksana Iurkova and Valentina
Shandra (eds), Port-Cities of the northern shore of the Black Sea: Institu-
tional, Economic and Social Development, 18th-early 20th centuries, Histo-
ry of the Black Sea, volume 2; Gelina Harlaftis, Victoria Konstantinova
and Igor Lyman (eds), Between Grain and Oil from the Azov to Cau-
casus: The port-cities of the eastern coast of the Black Sea, 18th-early 20th
centuries, The History of Black Sea, volume 3; Edhem Eldem, Vangelis
Kechriotis, Sophia Laiou (eds), The Economic and Social Development
of the PortCities of the Southern Black Sea Coast, Late 18th-Beginning
of the 20th century, The History of Black Sea, volume 4; Maria Christina
Chatziioannou, Panayotis Kapetanakis, Apostolos Delis (eds), Link-
ages of the Black Sea with the West. Trade and immigration, The History of
the Black Sea, volume 5; Vassilis Colonas, Athina Vitopoulou, Alexan-
dra Yerolympos, Black sea port-cities. Urban planning and architecture,
18th-20th c., The History of the Black Sea, volume 6; Socratis Petmezas,
George Kostelenos and Alexandra Papadopoulou (eds), with the
collaboration of Marios Emmanouil, The development of 24 Black Sea
port-cities. A statistical approach, The History of the Black Sea, volume 7;
A.A. Pallis, M. Lekakou, I. Theotokas (eds), Shipping, Ports and Cit-
ies in Soviet and post-Soviet period. Reintegration in the global economy,
The History of the Black Sea, volume 8 and Iannis Carras and Eugene
Chernukhin, The Balkan Merchants of Nezhin 17th-19th centuries, The
History of the Black Sea, volume 12. The three monographs are: Evry-
diki Sifneos, Imperial Odessa: Peoples, Spaces, Identities, The History of
the Black Sea, volume 9; Alexandra Papadopoulou, The intregration of
the Black Sea markets to the Global Economy, 19th century, The History of
the Black Sea, volume 10. The PhD thesis is: Anna Sydorenko, The eco-
nomic and social development of the Crimean city-ports during the second
half of the 19th century, The History of the Black Sea, volume 11.
3 The research team consisted of Vassilis Colonas, Athina Vitopoulou
and Alexandra Yerolympos.
319
LIMEN. The New Institution:
Cultural Port of the Black Sea
Flora Karagianni, Anastasia Chatzinikolaou
The Framework cultural port, the city-port of cultural heritage of the city-ports,
Istanbul. the development of cultural tour-
The main goal of the project
ism as well as the wider local de-
LIMEN is to highlight the cul- This effort is inspired by the
velopment efforts. The proposed
tural role of the city-ports in the timeless and successful Institu-
Institution will to join the area on
Black Sea area. LIMEN project tion of the European Capital of
the basis of culture and to sup-
-which is also based on the re- Culture, which was established
port every mobilization activity
sults and products of the recent- 30 years ago after the initiative
in the field of cultural tourism.
ly implemented project OLKAS of the Greek Minister of Culture,
(www.olkas.net)- proposes and Melina Mercouri. The monuments tangible and
works systematically on the pi- intangible reflect the historic,
The Aim social, cultural and economic con-
lot implementation of a new cul-
tural Institution, the Cultural The Limen project aims to ditions under which the common
Port of the Black Sea give all participants and stake- cultural heritage was formed.
These monuments consist the
holders directly or indirectly
The establishment of this living testimonies of the contacts
involved- the chance to support
new and very promising Institu- developed throughout time in be-
a new cultural institution, which
tion is the main objective of the tween the city-ports of the Black
will contribute dynamically to
project and it is proposed as an Sea since they bear the influences
the friendship and collabora-
innovative tool for the promo- and trends that were circulated in
tion relationships in between the
tion of the city-ports of the Black the area via the maritime routes.
Black Sea, but also to multiply
Sea and of their cultural trea- The historic networking of the
the development possibilities of
sures. The pilot implementa- city-ports that is testified by the
the area.
tion attempts to be put forward archaeological data and written
through the financial resources It is about an attempt to devel- sources is what the Institution of
of the project LIMEN and with op a timeless Institution which the Cultural Port of the Black Sea
first participating city-port as will support and highlight the wants to revive and to highlight.
321
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Therefore, one of the goals of Stable partnerships between by the mistakes and omis-
the project LIMEN is that the public authorities, universi- sions of the Institution of the
new institution will establish an ties, organizations, enterpris- Cultural Capital of Europe.
institutionalized cooperation of es and tourism agencies that
A truly useful Institution for
the city-ports in a permanent are involved in the fields of
the citizens and the local so-
base, will develop a structured culture and tourism.
cieties.
cultural-tourism-social network,
Coordination and improve-
improve the management ca-
ment of the managerial ca- Our First Actions
pacity at local level and create
pacity of organizations at lo- Research of the existing situ-
circumstances of promotion and
cal and regional level. ation by gathering useful in-
support of SMEs that are active in
Development of specialized sight and information.
the fields of tourism and culture.
cultural-tourism products of Search for experts who can
Expected Results and high quality and internation- supportthe promotion of the
Benefits al recognition of the area as a the establishment of the Insti-
Estimated-expected results tourist destination. tution
and benefits are: Search for specialists with
The development of a com- experience of the Cultural
mon strategy for the protec- What We Do Not Want It Capital of Europe.
tion and promotion of the to Be
Acquiring a common base-
common cultural heritage A temporary project, without line of thinking with all part-
and the promotion of good perspective ners about what we want to
practices and excellence
Another institution which achieve and how to achieve it.
models of management and
promotion of the common will substitute -even partly- Presentation of the idea in
cultural heritage. other institutions that have respective events in all par-
been seriously working with- ticipating city-ports.
Rich and reliable knowledge in the Black Sea for years.
for the main cultural monu-
A bureaucratic Institution What We Achieved Up
ments of the ports.
Until Now
New opportunities for socio- What We Want It to Be Initial approval of the EU
economic development and
A vibrant, recognizable, sus- and funding of the LIMEN
differentiation of the cultural
tainable Institution project which if focused on
offer through the sustainable
the new idea, by the Black
management of the cultural An Institution that will bene-
Sea Basin Joint Operational
resources. fit from the good practices of
Programme (http://www.
the 30-year experience of the
New, sustainable archaeolog- blacksea-cbc.net) as a natural
Cultural Capital of Europe.
ical-cultural routes for tour- continuation of the OLKAS
ism development. An Institution that will learn project (www.olkas.net).
322
LIMEN. The new Institution, Cultural Port of the Black Sea F. KARAGIANNI A. CHATZINIKOLAOU
323
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
on the cultural ports of the of the Black Sea Basin Pro- within the Black Sea and espe-
Black Sea with a promotional gramme that has supported cially through the cities-active
workshop, presentation of and funded our initial at- ports of the area. It will create a
the proposed Institution to tempt and we hope that this platform that in terms of culture
the media, screening of the will continue in the near fu- and economy will ensure the
documentary, and other) ture as well. equal and sustainable coopera-
Deal with the legal aspects, Private schemes, NGOs, and tion, as well as it will serve the
the institutional framework, others that contribute reli- contemporary needs of the soci-
etc. ably to our effort. eties and local economies.
324
Feasibility-Sustainability Study of the
Proposed Institution Cultural Port of
the Black Sea - The Marketing Plan
Sofia Bournatzi, Chryssa Kopra
Cultural Ports and the production Port will draw attention to the
of a feasibility-sustainability values, diversity and common
study for the establishment of the features of a new European
Institution. tourist destination. It will create
The objective of the study has a a platform for sharing good
twofold orientation. The first one practices across the city-ports and
ABSTRACT is to strengthen the ties between will promote networking between
The project LIMEN proposes nations by establishing the cultural cultural destinations.
the establishment of a new institution of the Cultural The initiative will promote
institution, the Cultural Port of Port; an institution that aims to new European cultural itineraries
the Black Sea. This institution develop a vital cultural, economic and raise awareness about their
is inspired by the prestigious and tourism connection between potential for tourism among
E.U. Institution of the European city- ports. The second objective stakeholders and businesses,
Capitals of Culture and through the study aims to fulfill is to destination managers, national and
this new Institution will be develop an action plan towards the local authorities.
pursued the promotion of the Black establishment and the promotion of This Study has made clear
Sea city-ports and of their cultural the institution. that culture can be the way to re-
recourses with the ultimate aim of Within the Study a thorough connect the city-ports, regions and
promoting the cultural tourism in and detailed step by step action the peoples of the Black Sea and to
the area. plan was provided, in order to become the vehicle to re-establish
Within the above scope part of promote the proposed Institution cultural relations between them,
the projects activities has been the accurately and effectively. with Europe and the rest of the
promotion of the Institution of the The Institution of the Cultural world.
325
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
The Cultural Port will among other priori- pean Parliament and approved for funding by
ties- draw attention to the values, diversity and the European Commission. The result was the
common features of a new European tourist des- publishing of call for proposals for pilot proj-
tination and will seek to maximize the synergies ects on transnational cultural tourism products
between Culture-Tourism-Creative Industries. (COSME, 2014). The document of the call clear-
ly stated: It is the intention of the Commission to
In particular, the Cultural Port answers to
capitalise on those initiatives (i.e. ECoC, European
major challenges raised by most EU policies for
Heritage Days, European Heritage Label) and look
the next years:
for synergies with similar or complementary initia-
A. Cultural Policies: EUs Cultural Policy, among
tives undertaken by other International and Euro-
other specific priorities, is to promote cultural
pean Organisations.
diversity and to strengthen the competitive-
ness of the cultural and creative sectors and C. Maritime Policy: Since 2007, the EU has fos-
through transnational cooperation. Addition- tered an Integrated Maritime Policy (IMP),
ally, Culture within EU;s external relations is which aims to increase coordination between
a new development and has been put into ac- the maritime sectors and to provide a more co-
tion through the Preparatory Action initiated herent approach to cross-cutting issues. Since
in 2014 by the European Parliament, regard- 2012, the IMP has focused among others, on
ing the cultural dimensions of the EU external Blue Growth and on Sea Basin strategies. The
relations. This Action is being funded by the Integrated Maritime Policy (IMP) Commu-
European Commission and a first study and nication on a European Strategy for Growth
inquiry was prepared by a Consortium of eight and Jobs in Coastal and Maritime Tourism
international cultural organizations and insti- (COM(2014) 86 final) encourages the diversi-
tutions. This Study called for the development fication and integration of coastal and inland
of visible common EU strategy on Culture in attractors, including through transnational
the EU external relations. Among the proposals thematic itineraries like cultural, religious or
of this Action is that the EU should find ways ancient trade routes (Action 11) and invites
to open EU strategies, such as the Institution of Member States, regional and local authorities
the European Capitals of Culture Programme to develop cultural heritage based tourism,.
(ECoC) to third countries and within the Black ,develop innovative practices for regenerating
Sea non-EU members, in order to encourage a and re-using existing maritime infrastructure.
focus on shared histories. Should such a devel- Also, it invites them to encourage internet
opment is to be put into practice at European connectivity and promote electronic marketing
Commission level, then the Cultural Port tools. Within this Policy Paper, is announced
could become a parallel theme to test this de- the Commissions intention to explore links
velopment. with the Black Sea Synergy, mainly through
the promotion of cross-cutting policy elements.
B. Tourism Policy: Transnational Cultural Tour-
ism Products have also been a focus of previ- The Cultural Port should be a factor to con-
ous Preparatory Actions initiated by the Euro- tribute to a long-term strategy of the city-ports.
326
Study of the Proposed Institution Cultural Port of the Black Sea S. BOURNATZI, C. KOPR
Its sustainability will be measured on terms of be- on that strategy, the Institution can be established
coming a catalyst for a change in the city-ports by the coordinated efforts of the LIMEN partners.
cultural and general development producing The suggested networking strategy has two direc-
sustainable cultural, social and economic impact tions:
by developing links between culture, education, a. Networking for the establishment of the insti-
tourism, territorial planning, social services etc. tution.
The Institution of the Cultural Port can be a b. Networking for the tourism promotion of the
unique opportunity for the organizing city-ports in city-ports which first will create the need to the
the area to differentiate themselves in terms of in- future customers and second will contribute to
ternational visibility, status and prestige, reinforc- the growth of the arrivals number, the increase
ing their cultural identity and positioning them as the local economy and the GDP (Gross Domes-
cultural destinations on the international scene. tic Product).
The creation of the proposed institution will
a) Establishment of the Institution of the Cultural
offer a multidimensional opportunity to improve
Ports
development prospects of the city pots. The do-
mains that will significantly advance are expected As it has been analyzed in the previous chap-
to be the following: ters of this study, the establishment of an insti-
tution activates a serious number of productive
Contribution to long-term strategy,
units that are willing to participate. As an exam-
European dimension, ple, the Institution of European Capitals of Cul-
Cultural and artistic content, ture has opened new ways of presenting the cities
Implementation capability, by strengthening arts, culture and local mentality.
Access and The Institution is proposed to begin as a pilot
Management project which will seek to maximize the synergies
between Culture, Tourism and Creative Industries
For the establishment of the Cultural Port it is
by funding the development and promotion of a
necessary to have support of the European Parlia-
new European cultural route around a high-end
ment, the European Commission and its relevant
product.
DGs and most importantly by major international
organizations, such as the BSEC. However, before The initiative will present a shared vision of the
that a network needs to be build and operate in port-cities with creative potentials as the key driv-
order to explore the potentials of the actual estab- ing forces behind city and regional development.
lishment of the Institution of the Cultural Port. The steps that need to be followed by each
partner in that direction are:
Building the Network of the Cultural Port
a.1. Local Authorities
Synergy and cooperation are the only two ways
of making things happen. The project LIMEN itself First of all is to secure an Agreement between
is an idea based in connecting different countries public and major- private organisations of the
by using the ports and the culture as links. Based city-ports of the Black Sea. The participation of the
327
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
local governments of the cities is of highest impor- aims at promoting tourism initiatives as well as
tance. This initiative is a city-centred one, and the the cultural ones, but also because the tourism sec-
obvious step is to secure the consensus of the local tor involves mainly private sector the consensus of
Authorities. which will further promote the Institution.
There are several reasons for that: Ensuring the support of the associations is not
as much officially required as it is necessary for
Shows the official support and agreement of
getting the real statistics, goals and needs from
the city.
the professionals. Those are the ones who know
Ensures the help of the local authorities con- the market and develop marketing strategy for it.
cerning the materialization of the project. Those are also the ones who will measure in num-
bers the results. The productive unions are:
The local governments are firstly, responsible
for the administration of the city-ports. Chamber of Commerce
Tourism Associations (described bellow in 2.b.
They are the authority closest to the local com-
section).
munities, and thus as such they can ensure the
consensus of the local communities. a. 3. EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT
This will also secure a bottom-up lobbying The Agreement needs to be promoted at E.U.
from local cultural professionals as well. level.
Engaging in the project the organizations sup- The Members of the European Parliament are
ported by the Municipality or the Prefecture. elected congressmen by various parties who rep-
resent their country and take duties in specific
Gets advantage from their previous experience fields such as culture, tourism, development, sus-
in similar projects. tainability etc. They are the ones responsible for
Combines the project with other cultural, tour- introducing a new institution to their colleagues
ism of developing projects run by the local au- in European Union and ensure their support for it.
thorities. After getting the support of the local and national
authorities, the procedure is:
The authorization for a project is provided by Getting a list of each MEP (name, contact de-
the following councils: tails, party, specialty)
The Mayor and the citys council
Sending them an introduction letter asking for
Governor and prefectural council an appointment
The Management of the Port
Arranging meeting with the manager of their
a.2. Productive Associations office in EU
Presenting the proposal for the institution Cul-
Additionally, the participation in the Agree-
tural Ports
ment of the tourism sector is also important. The
major local Tourism Associations need to be in- Requesting for the introduction of the institu-
cluded, not just because the proposed Institution tion by them to their colleagues
328
Study of the Proposed Institution Cultural Port of the Black Sea S. BOURNATZI, C. KOPR
Setting the terms and criteria of establishing National Association of Romanian Travel Agen-
the institution cies (ANAT):
http://www.anat.ro/
Besides the European Parliament, the Euro-
pean Commission and the most relevant Di- Istanbul Turkey
rectorates need also to be approached. The Istanbul Convention & Visitors Bureau (ICVB):
most relevant Directorate Generals are the http://icvb.org.tr/
Regional and Urban Policy, (DG REGIO), the
International Cooperation and Development Turkish Hotel Association (TUROB):
(DG DEVCO), the Education and Culture http://www.turob.com/
(DG EAC) and the Directorate General for Association of Turkish Travel Agents (TURSAB):
Internal Market, Industry, Entrepreneurship http://www.tursab.org.tr/
and SMEs responsible for the tourism sector.
The approach of the respective DGs is crucial Kavala Greece
since this is the place where the major funding Kavala Hotel Association:
comes from. http://www.kavala-hotels.gr/
Association of Travel Agents Northern Greece:
a.4. Other Major Organisations and Stakeholders
http://www.etgmth.gr/
a. This Agreement is to be supported by major
transnational organisations such as the BSEC. Hellenic Association of Travel and Tourism Agen-
cies (HATTA):
b. Tourism promotion of the city-ports http://www.hatta.gr/
Tourism is a wide open field that includes ev-
Odessa Ukraine
ery section of each region so a study that refers
Odessa city tourism portal:
to ports and culture is very much involved with
http://omr.gov.ua/en/tourist/
the tourism business. Lots of parts of this study
include tourism or apply to it. Starting by the local Ukraine Tourism Organization:
associations and reaching the national ones, the http://www.traveltoukraine.org/
networking of each partner should include:
Thessaloniki Greece
Batumi Georgia Thessaloniki Hotel Association:
Batumi official tourism portal: http://www.tha.gr/
http://gobatumi.com/ Thessaloniki Convention Bureau (TCB):
Georgian Tourism Association (GTA): http://www.tcvb.gr/
http://www.tourism-association.ge/index.php Association of Travel Agents Northern Greece:
Constanta Romania http://www.etgmth.gr/
Romania Tourism official site: Hellenic Association of Travel and Tourism Agen-
http://www.romaniatourism.net/where-to-go/ cies (HATTA):
towns-cities/constanta-romania/ http://www.hatta.gr/
329
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
330
Study of the Proposed Institution Cultural Port of the Black Sea S. BOURNATZI, C. KOPR
331
Experiences of the Cultural Capital
Institution
R o be r t P a l me r
ABSTRACT
The article briefly traces the The competitive element of the
history and different phases of initiative has been an important
the European Capitals of Culture component, provoking cities to
(ECoC) initiative of the European develop wide multi-stakeholder
Union, which began in 1985 and support as an essential part of
will be continued until 2035, with the process. Successful common
formalised criteria and selection approaches used by ECoCs are
processes .The objectives of the summarized, and many of these
initiative and the ways in which have led to significant impacts for
cities have used the ECoC as a the cities holding the title. The
tool for cultural economic and question of whether the Limen
social development are outlined. project should use the ECoC model
The bids from candidate cities to create a programme geared to
are evaluated in relation to how port cities is discussed. If Limen
they address certain key issues wishes to advance such an idea,
and newly enhanced criteria the current project would likely
concerning the cultural strategy of need to transform into a more
the city, the European dimension formal organization. In doing so,
of the bid, the proposed cultural it would be important to address
and artistic programme, the citys and resolve issues connected
capacity to deliver, the approach with membership, governance,
to outreach and participation of leadership and management, as
citizens, and the management well as securing a sustainable
and financing of the event. financial base.
333
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
European Capitals of Culture ally through their Ministry for Culture. Cities in-
terested in participating in the competition must
The European City/Capital of Culture (ECoC)
submit a proposal for consideration.
initiative of the European Union (EU) was estab-
lished in 1985 by the Council of Ministers as a The submitted applications are reviewed
EU Community Action (Resolution 85/C 153/02)1. against a set of established criteria during a pre-
Over 60 cities have been given the title of either selection phase by a panel of independent ex-
European City of Culture (1985-2004) or European perts in the field of culture. The panel agrees on a
Capital of Culture (2005 to the present). There was short-list of cities, which are then asked to submit
also a parallel programme of European Cultural more detailed applications. The panel reconvenes
Months established in 1990 where cities outside to assess the final applications and recommends
the EU were designated host a special month of one city per host country for the title. The recom-
culture, which ran from 1992-1999 (Resolution mended city is then formally designated as Euro-
90/C 162/01)2. pean Capital of Culture. The role of the European
Commission is to ensure that the rules established
According to the European Commission, the at EU level are respected.
European Capitals of Culture initiative is designed
If the designated ECoC meets the established
to achieve the following objectives3:
criteria for the title, the European Commission
Highlight the richness and diversity of cultures will award the Melina Mercouri Prize (currently
in Europe; 1.5m funded from the EU Creative Europe pro-
Celebrate the cultural features Europeans gramme) to the city. Although the ECoC can seek
share; funds from other programmes of the European
Union, the major financing is given directly by the
Increase European citizens sense of belonging
municipality that receives the title, the EU member
to a common cultural area;
state concerned, other public authorities (county,
Foster the contribution of culture to the devel- province and regional authorities), private-sector
opment of cities. businesses, foundations, and part is often raised
from earned income derived from ticket sales and
Experience has shown that the event is an ex- other revenue-generating activity. On average,
cellent opportunity to achieve other objectives: the financial contribution from the public sector
Regenerating cities; (a combination of city, region, state and European
Raising the international profile of cities; bodies) has accounted for, on average, 78% of the
income for ECoCs, with the remainder raised from
Enhancing the image of cities in the eyes of private-sector sponsorship and earned income4.
their own inhabitants;
In the past, the European Commission has pub-
Developing a citys cultural offer; lished an evaluation reports on the outcomes of
Boosting tourism. the European Capitals of Culture. For the ECoCs
post 2019, the cities themselves will carry out their
Six years before the title-year the selected host own evaluation and send it to the Commission by
member states publish a call for applications, usu- the end of the year following that of the title.
334
Experiences of the Cultural Capital Institution R. PALMER
Reviewing the development of ECoC, three refining selection criteria and strengthening
main phases can be distinguished5. the monitoring and subsequent evaluation
Phase 1 (1985-1996): the first cycle of ECoC processes.
cities, representing each of the 12 EC mem- The European Parliament and Council have
ber states at the time. In this phase, the Pro- adopted a new framework for the initiative, post
gramme was considered intergovernmental 2019, in April 2014 (Decision 445/2014/EU)6. It in-
activity and did not have a legislative frame- cludes the chronological list of member states that
work. Cities were mostly nominated by the can host the title from 2020 until 2033. Croatia and
state and most had less than two years to Ireland will host the event in 2020, and launched
plan their programme, which posed a chal- their respective competitions in June and Decem-
lenge to their capacity to fund or develop ber 2014. Greece and Romania will host the event
ECoC-specific initiatives. A few cities, such in 2021 and launched their national competitions
as Glasgow, stood out for their capacity to in December 2014. Lithuania and Luxembourg
innovate and take the Programme forward will host the event in 2022, and launched their re-
a tool for the transformation and regenera- spective competitions in July 2015.
tion of the city.
This new framework also makes it possible for
Phase 2 (1997-2004): started a new cycle, a city in a candidate country or potential candidate
involving 19 cities in 14 countries. Selec- for EU membership to hold the title every third year
tion criteria and bidding deadlines were from 2021. This city will be also selected through an
implemented from 1998, bringing consider- open competition. In December 2014, the Commis-
able advancement to the capacity for ECoC- sion published a call for the 2021 title, to be given to
specific programming and raising the scope a city in a EU candidate country, and several cities
of ambition. The Programme also secured in Serbia have presented their candidacy.
greater EU centrality by being under the The selection criteria for candidate cities com-
umbrella of the main EU culture pro- peting for the ECoC from 2020 onwards have been
gramme. Dedicated EU funding towards strengthened. The bids from candidates are evalu-
the ECoC grew over this period. ated in relation to how they address certain key
Phase 3 (2005-2019): the most extensive, in- issues. The main ones are as follows:7
cluding 29 cities from 29 countries, of which
A: Contribution to the long-term
10 are new EU members (having joined af-
cultural strategy
ter 2004). The ECoC Programme had its first
legislative framework and became a Com- that a cultural strategy for the candidate
munity Action at the start of this new Phase, city, which covers the (ECoC) action and
involving the inclusion of formal European includes plans for sustaining the cultural
Dimension criteria, in line with the Maas- activities beyond the year of the title, is in
place at the time of its application;
tricht Treaty, and clearer Selection Panel
guidelines. Two subsequent decisions ap- the plans to strengthen the capacity of the
plied during this period have contributed to cultural and creative sectors, including de-
335
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
veloping long-term links between the cul- posed and their overall artistic quality;
tural, economic and social sectors in the
the capacity to combine local cultural heri-
candidate city;
tage and traditional art forms with new, in-
the envisaged long-term cultural, social and novative and experimental cultural expres-
economic impact, including urban develop- sions.
ment, that the title would have on the can-
didate city; D: Capacity to deliver
the application has broad and strong politi-
the plans for monitoring and evaluating the
cal support and a sustainable commitment
impact of the title on the candidate city and
from the local, regional and national au-
for disseminating the results of the evalua-
thorities;
tion.
the candidate city has or will have an ad-
B: European dimension
equate and viable infrastructure to hold the
the scope and quality of activities promot- title.
ing the cultural diversity of Europe, inter-
cultural dialogue and greater mutual un- E: Outreach
derstanding between European citizens; the involvement of the local population
the scope and quality of activities highlight- and civil society in the preparation of the
ing the common aspects of European cul- application and the implementation of the
tures, heritage and history, as well as Eu- action;
ropean integration and current European the creation of new and sustainable oppor-
themes; tunities for a wide range of citizens to at-
the scope and quality of activities featuring tend or participate in cultural activities, in
European artists, cooperation with opera- particular young people, volunteers and the
tors or cities in different countries, includ- marginalised and disadvantaged, includ-
ing, where appropriate, cities holding the ing minorities, with special attention being
title, and transnational partnerships; given to persons with disabilities and the
elderly as regards the accessibility of those
the strategy to attract the interest of a broad
activities;
European and international public.
the overall strategy for audience develop-
C: Cultural and artistic content ment, and in particular the link with educa-
a clear and coherent artistic vision and strat- tion and the participation of schools.
egy for the cultural programme;
F: Management
the involvement of local artists and cultural
the feasibility of the fund-raising strat-
organisations in the conception and imple-
egy and proposed budget, which includes,
mentation of the cultural programme;
where appropriate, plans to seek finan-
the range and diversity of the activities pro- cial support from Union programmes and
336
Experiences of the Cultural Capital Institution R. PALMER
funds, and covers the preparation phase, ing the capacity and ambition of the cultural ac-
the year of the title, the evaluation and pro- tivity in the host city (internally), and raising
visions for the legacy activities, and contin- the profile of the city and particularly in cultural
gency planning; terms (externally). The dominance of these two
objectives is a likely explanation for the two most
the envisaged governance and delivery
common areas of positive impact of ECoCs: rais-
structure for the implementation of the ac-
ing the capacity and ambition of the cultural sec-
tion which provides, inter alia, for appropri-
tor; and achieving image enhancement for the host
ate cooperation between the local authori-
city, often involving a repositioning of the city as a
ties and the delivery structure, including
leading cultural centre.9
the artistic team;
Another objective emphasised by bidding cities
the procedures for the appointment of the
has been to use the ECoC as a catalyst for change
general and artistic directors and their fields
in areas, such as tourism development, increased
of action;
inward investment, supporting the growth of cul-
the marketing and communication strategy tural industries, physical regeneration, social en-
is comprehensive and highlights that the ac- gagement and enhanced pride in the city. In most
tion is a Union action; cities, there has been a significant increase in tour-
ism, with remarkable rises in visitors both during
With the growth of ECoCs across Europe, the
the ECoC year itself, which has been sustained af-
bid process has become a high profile event in
terwards in certain cities depending on the citys
most EU countries. In this context, the most widely
ambitions and strategies10.
recognised strengths of successful bids have been
broad multi-stakeholder support, a clear rationale A commonly perceived weakness of successful
for seeking the title, and an appropriate and vi- bidding proposals is the absence of a strong Euro-
sionary European concept for the programme. pean Dimension11. While cities tend to stress the
Essential to a successful ECoC has been the need European and/or multi-cultural character of their
to confirm widespread ownership of a citys bid city and its cultural ambitions, plans are often not
across different interests. A key lesson learnt is in place to establish meaningful connections with
that those cities which begin the process signifi- the rest of Europe. Special efforts need to be made
cantly in advance of the bidding period for the to ensure that relationships are developed with
year in which they want to host, tend to build bet- other European cities, countries, cultural organisa-
ter support with key stakeholders, which include tions, universities, and networks.
public authorities (at local and regional levels), Many common approaches and strategies for
businesses, cultural and social organisations, art- success are used by the majority of cities, regard-
ists, and a very wide range of NGOs and indepen- less of size, geography or length of EU member-
dent groups involved in the cultural, social and ship. Some of the most noticeable common ECoC
economic life of the city8. approaches include12:
In terms of overall vision, the most common Developing a vision, aimed not just at cel-
objectives expressed by successful cities are rais- ebrating the city but also at providing op-
337
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
portunities for transformation. The notion The impact of the ECoCs European Dimen-
latter reflects the ambition to use the ECoC sion is visible in a smaller number of cities,
as a catalyst for change in other areas: im- including the opportunity to open debate
age change and cultural or social change. with the local population, so that consid-
eration of European identity and exchange
Using the ECoC to generate a momentum
is clearly seen as complementing, and not
to develop shared cross-sector development
competing with, the exploration and cel-
in the city commonly across culture, tour-
ebration of their local identity.
ism, education and social services in order
to position or reposition a city and, occa- The ECoC initiative has become one of the
sionally, its surrounding region. most visible and prestigious EU flagship cultural
initiatives, and one can understand why the par-
The ECoC can have a significant effect on
ticipants of the Limen project wish to study this
the citys cultural vibrancy. Its contribution
model.
to strengthening networks, opening up pos-
sibilities for new collaborations, encourag- The Limen Symposium raised the question
ing new work to continue, and raising the of whether the ECoC experience might suggest
capacity and ambition of the cultural sector the appropriateness of developing a similar pro-
and individual artists and creative people is gramme for Port Cities either on restricted ba-
commonly acknowledged. sis (Port City of the Black Sea) or more widely
spread (covering the port cities of the Mediterra-
Many cities with a previously low (and, at
nean, Adriatic and other areas).
times, even negative) profile have experi-
enced an image renaissance, attracting con- Before developing such an initiative, careful
siderable media attention and enhancing lo- consideration needs to be given to whether or
cal, national and international perceptions. not the Limen partners and participants wish to
grow into a formal association or network, as a le-
The dimension of social impact can be un- gal entity. If so, the new association would need
derstood in terms of effects on local percep- to develop effective governance and management
tions and fostering a sense of pride, which structures, and a realistic financial base. It would
partly relates to image impacts and is close- be highly unrealistic to expect financing from Eu-
ly influenced by local and national media ropean or regional bodies unless the Limen organ-
attitudes. isation developed a more sustainable organisa-
As mentioned earlier, ECoC can have a con- tional structure, which was not totally dependent
siderable effect on immediate to medium- on external funding. Most effective networks or
term tourism trends, which, in turn, can associations of cities depend on contributions and
have a significant impact on the citys econ- fees directly from their members.
omy. In the case of cities capable of under- The issue of leadership will also be important
going considerable repositioning, growth to discuss. Which current members of the Limen
in tourism visits and spending can be sus- project might offer strong leadership? How might
tained for many years to come. a shared-leadership structure be developed? This
338
Experiences of the Cultural Capital Institution R. PALMER
is a different issue to ensuring that the future or- (iii) the creation of a fair and expert process of se-
ganisation has a stable, experienced and profes- lection, where proposals by cities are evalu-
sional management and administrative structure, ated against the criteria;
which can support a more complex set of activities
(iv) the need to strengthen connections between
and projects of the organisation.
cities and other partners;
The nature of the membership of any future
(v) a means of monitoring and evaluating the
association is a key question for Limen partici-
initiative, and information sharing across the
pants. Clearly there are advantages to have dif-
network
ferent types of members: city councils, regional
councils, inter-governmental and European asso- The designation of Port City might be ap-
ciations, other associated networks, universities, plied as an entirely emblematic action, and be the
individual academics, archaeologists, historians, result of an entirely informal process of consensual
urban planners, port authorities, tourist agen- decision-making, without applying strict criteria.
cies, cruise ship industries, tourist guides, artists, Each designated city might be left to do anything it
communication specialists, local and regional wishes, without evaluation, and cities might sim-
businesses, and others. Careful consideration ply use the brand to build their own individual
needs to be given how such a combination of in- images, draw media attention to themselves and
terests can be achieved, and how this will impact increase visitors to their own cities. However, the
on the priorities activities of any future formal as- experience with the ECoCs has demonstrated that
sociation. such a loose approach will likely be unsuccessful
and unsustainable. The title would soon become a
In seeking support or recognition by bodies
meaningless invention without impact or results,
such as the European Parliament, the European
and be discredited as a tool for development.
Commission or the Organisation of the Black Sea
Economic Cooperation, clear decisions would
need to be made about the issues mentioned
above. If a programme along the lines of ECoC
were to be created (e.g. designated Port Cities of
the Black Sea), the following issues would need
to be considered:
(i) the development of precise criteria to be ap-
plied when making the selection (a study of
the criteria used in the ECoC competition
may be helpful);
(ii) the establishment of a formal process of ap-
plying to be a candidate (by a municipal-
ity, or a consortium different partners, who
would bear responsibility for meeting the Locations of European Capitals of Culture. Green designates current cities;
criteria and managing the events; red is for past cities; and blue for future cities.
339
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
N OTE S RE FE RE N CE S
1 Council of the European Union, 1985 Council of European Union, 1985. Resolution of the Ministers responsible
2 Council of the European Union, 1990 for Cultural Affairs, meeting with the Council, of 13 June 1985
concerning the annual event European City of Culture. 85/C 153/02
3 European Commission, http:ec.europa.eu/programmes/creative-
europe/actions/capitals-culture_en.htm Council of European Union, 1990. Conclusions of the Ministers of Culture
4 Palmer 2004, 90-1 meeting within the Council of 18 May 1990 on the future eligibility
for the European City of Culture and on a Special European Cultural
5 European Parliament, 2013: 39-45 Month event. 90/C 162/01
6 European Parliament and Council, 2014
European Parliament, 2013. European Capitals of Culture: Success Strategies
7 Ibid. and Long Term-Effects (Garcia, B, Cox, T). European Union
8 European Parliament: 2013: 53
European Parliament and Council, 2014. Decision of the European
9 European Parliament: 58-62 Parliament and of the Council establishing a Union action for the
10 Palmer, 2004: 99-119 European Capitals of Culture for the years 2020 to 2033 and repealing
11 Palmer, 2004: 77-83 Decision No 1622/2006/EC. 445/2014/EU
12 Ibid, and European Parliament, 2013 Palmer, R, 2004. European Cities and Capitals of Culture. Palmer/Rae,
Brussels
340
Embracing a New Institution
for the Black Sea:
Cultural Port of the Black Sea
Michael B. Christides
341
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
342
Cultural Port of the Black Sea MICHAEL B. CHRISTIDES
Help form the program of ple of the opposite: that is, hav- not even the beginning of the
events that are to be held in ing the BSEC Organization and end of a cooperation and syn-
the city-port selected as the the EU jointly supporting, in ergy between the BSEC Organi-
cultural port of the Black Sea, concrete and practical terms, a zation and the initiators of the
project that promotes the collec- new institution. BSEC is ready
Help efforts to secure the
tive cultural and touristic identi- and willing to discuss and for-
necessary funds, although
ty of the wider Black Sea region. mulate the framework of this co-
in this specific sector of fund
operation and, thus, participate
raising, BSEC has not been Ladies and Gentlemen,
from its initial phase in the real-
very successful until now!
Your symposium has prov- ization of this important project.
On the other hand, of course, en beyond any doubt that the
BSEC is one of the few Inter- North Aegean and the Black Ladies and gentlemen, thanks
national Organizations that Sea regions enjoy a very rich again for the invitation to a really
enjoy the privilege of naming and diverse cultural heritage, very interesting symposium and
a Bank as its related body! going back to antiquity, if not congratulations to its initiators
to mythology. Promoting - and and organizers.
BSEC can help increase the
sense of ownership of this preserving in a sustainable way
project among Black Sea this unique heritage was and
countries, a very important remains our obligation and re-
prerequisite for the initia- sponsibility, consisting of efforts
tives success. As I mentioned that will be more effective if we
before, I hope that we can in- can all share their burdens.
volve more cities and ports The new institution the Cul-
in the wider region because, tural port of the Black Sea can
among other, this could lead become one of the most valuable
to a healthy competitive spir- and effective vehicles to achieve
it, which can only add to the the above aim. This is the reason
importance of the project. why BSEC (which, by the way,
Most hopefully the project regrets not having itself thought
will continue to enjoy EU fund- of this brilliant idea!) will stand
beside the initial promoters of
ing and support. You might have
the new institution and why
heard that cooperation between
BSEC wishes to actively partici-
BSEC and the EU is flourishing
pate in its dissemination and in
and doing fine! Well, in practi-
the efforts to help it reach ma-
cal, realistic terms, this is not the
turity.
case, unfortunately, for reasons
that I will not bother you with. So, I dont wish this to sound
So, I hope that this very project as a threat, but rather as an ear-
can become a very good exam- nest promise: this is not the end
343
Legal Aspects in Creating Cultural
Networks: The Case of the
Cultural Port of the Black Sea
Dimitrios Nikolakakis
345
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
346
Legal Aspects in Creating Cultural Networks DIMITRIOS NIKOLAKAKIS
347
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
ation issues are also relevant to permanent local reference point The next dimension of the
the form of legal entity that the in order to communicate with analysis of the legal conditions
institution could acquire6. It is the institution. However, the for organized cultural network-
obvious that the network should place of the official seat is of sub- ing is about the status of mem-
be created as an entity settled stantial significance, since it in- bership. Being a member of
under public law, while also dicates the applicable law for the a network means taking over
enjoying some privileges for ini- regulation of the relations of the some obligations, in order to
tiatives under the legislation for network with third parts, while enjoy specific rights and privi-
the private sector. Furthermore, at the place of the seat a number leges. On the other hand, be-
the operational capacities of the of juridical acts for or against the coming a member is a process of
network demand its incorpora- network could be performed. special content, since the avail-
tion, condition that could offer As a consequence, for the selec- able options could vary from
the ability to hire and to employ tion of the location of the seat, full members to partial mem-
personnel, to own property and the higher degree of compat- bers or associates. The degree of
assets, to perform transactions ibility between the national legal engagement of each part in the
and acts in its own name and to frameworks of the parties on the activity and life of the network
enter into contracts7. one hand and the goals and ob- is an affair of legal regulation
jectives of the institutionalized and specifies the character of
The next critical issue con-
network on the other should be the membership and therefore
cerns the adoption of a name
taken under consideration. In the privileges and the obliga-
and brand name of the incor-
other words, the country, whose tions of the parts. A secondary
porated network. These two
legal order could better serve the point of legal concern is the re-
appellations may be identical
accomplishment of the purposes gime and the necessary condi-
or different, suggesting an ab-
of the cultural network, is the tions under which a candidate
breviation as brand name that
one to be chosen for the location could become member of the
could be adopted more easily
of its seat and headquarters9. network. Under this aspect, le-
by the public opinion. Both ap-
The location of the seat might af- gal suggestions about the proce-
pellations should be officially
fect the official language of the dure for entering as well as for
guaranteed as trademarks of the
network. In all cases, the part- quitting or being expelled from
network in a worldwide scale,
ners have to decide about the the network could be made. In
marking its presence and action
designation of the official lan- the same spirit, the correct or-
as autonomous entity repre-
guage or languages of the net- ganization of the network de-
senting all signatory parties8. A
work. This factor determines the mands legal definition of the
relevant matter concerning the
externalization of the network potential disciplinary offenses
legal identity of the institution
of the members as well as of the
has to do with the selection of its (communication with the rest of
available penalties that should
official seat (head office), which the world), while it dictates the
be imposed on them11.
implies the permanent location language which has to be used
of its headquarters. This factor in all the networks contracts, Each organization, associa-
is important for the creation of a agreements and deals10. tion or institution has its own
348
Legal Aspects in Creating Cultural Networks DIMITRIOS NIKOLAKAKIS
administrative structure accord- ter of representation, but also a tive ways for the management
ing to the form of the legal entity condition for continuously re- and consumption of the net-
chosen for its foundation. The inforcing cultural relationships works financial resources. By all
same analogy finds room for and exchanges between the part- matters, economic transparency
application in the case of a cul- ners12. should be the key factor behind
tural institution of international the financial management with
As an institution, the net-
partners. The legal details of the legal framework ensuring
work will be created with a
the matter concern the appoint- the publicity of all procedures
specific temporal horizon. The
ment and the function of the and expenses. A consequence of
founding members will decide
basic administrative organs that extended financial publicity
the exact duration of the insti-
could be of solitary or collective would reveal to public the eco-
tutionalized network, the condi-
nature. Generally speaking, the nomic health of the network,
tions and the procedures for its
principal and most powerful which would facilitate the pro-
extension and the reasons for its
administrative organ of an insti- cess of attracting investments in
dissolution. In any case, it is pro-
tution is the General Assembly its activities13.
posed that the cultural network
of all members. As the principal is better to be founded primar- As an organization with cul-
source of institutional authority, ily for a specific period of time tural background and targeting,
the Assembly appoints the soli- (for example a trial period of one the network has unavoidably
tary administrative organs, such or two years), that could be in- a scientific, educational and re-
as the President or the Secre- definitely extended according to search character. The result of
tary General, while defining the the successful or not activation this condition will be the elabo-
width of their authority and or- and presence of the network. At rate output of a variety of model
ganizational capacity. However, the same time, a very important or prototype intellectual works,
in the case of a cultural network subject of legal interest is the which have to be protected as ex-
which is founded over values origin and management of net- clusive products of the creativity
such as cultural diversity and works resources. All partners and originality of the network.
cross-cultural interrelations, it is have to contribute financially for This raises issues of copyright,
suggested that constant admin- supporting the institution, while intellectual property, patents
istrative task should be given to there has to be a prediction for and trademarks. Thus, legal
a collective organ that could be a flexible legal context encour- providence should clarify the
characterized as Steering Com- aging individuals, governments exact framework for the devel-
mittee or Administration Board. or international foundations to opment of all scientific research
The members of that body invest in the activity of the net- coming from the network, the
would come obligatory from all work. Tax reduction for private ownership of all products of in-
partners in equal terms, ensur- sector organizations could be a tellectuality coming from part-
ing the equivalent representa- motive for donations and grants. ners or associates as well as the
tion of all participants in the On the other hand, legal predic- ways according to which the re-
effective administration of the tions are necessary for designat- search and scientific work of the
network. This is not only a mat- ing the most efficient and effec- network would invade the life
349
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
350
Legal Aspects in Creating Cultural Networks DIMITRIOS NIKOLAKAKIS
N OTE S RE FE RE N CE S
1 Allee 2009, 3-5. Allee, V. 2009. Value Creating Networks: Organizational Issues and
2 vob-oki 2011, 26-8. Challenges. The Learning Organization Special Issue on Social
Networks and Social Networking 6: 427-442.
3 Information about the aims and objectives is available in Limen
(2014, http://www.limenproject.net/ aim-objectives/). Commission of the European Communities. 2007. Commission Staff
4 Routledge 2009, 68-71. Working Document. Impact Assessment on the Directive on the cross-
border transfer of Registered Office. Brussels: SEC: 1707.
5 Innocenti 2015, 125-7.
6 Hansmann 1987, 40-1. Farinha, C. 2011. Networks as contemporary diasporas: artists in
between individuality and the community in Europe. In
7 Varbanova 2013, 2-7. Networks: The Evolving Aspects of Culture in the 21st Century, edited
8 Robertson 1989, 69. by B. Cvjetianin, 141-50. Zagreb: Institute for International
9 Commision of the European Communities 2007, 25-6. Relations Culturelink Network.
10 Thomas 2007, 92, 94. Hansmann, H. 1986. Economic Theories of Non Profit Organization.
11 Farinha 2011, 146-7. In Between Public and Private: The Non Profit Sector., edited by W.
Powell, 27-42. New Haven and London: Yale University Press.
12 Klabbers 2002, 169-96.
13 Klaic 2007, 120. Innocenti, P. 2015. Cultural Networks in Migrating Heritage. Intersecting
Theories and Practices across Europe. Farnham: Ashgate Publishing
14 World Trade Organization 1994, Part IV. article 62.
Limited.
15 Greenhalgh and Rogers 2010, 4-5.
Greenhalgh, C. and Rogers. M. 2010. Innovation, Intellectual Property and
16 Mercer 2011, 32-35; Raj Isar 2011, 50.
Economic Growth. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Raj Isar, Y. 2011. Cultural networks and cultural policy: some issues
and imperatives . In Networks: The Evolving Aspects of Culture in
the 21st Century, edited by B. Cvjetianin, 45-51. Zagreb: Institute
for International Relations Culturelink Network.
351
APPENDIX
353
LIST OF AUTHORS
355
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
356
LIST OF AUTHORS
357
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
358
PROGRAM
On Board Symposium
Registration
359
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
KEYNOTE ADDRESS
15.1515.45: E. CHRYSOS,
PORTUSHARBOUR in metaphorical use.
1 5 . 4 5 1 8 . 45: S E S S ION 1
ME D IE VAL N ORT H AE GE A N AN D
B LACK S E A CIT Y - P ORT S .
( HIS T ORY - ARCHAE OLOGY - ART )
360
PROGRAM ON BOARD SYMPOSIUM
1 9 . 0 0 20 .15 S E S S ION 2
TRADE AND ECONOMY IN THE CITY-PORTS OF
NORTH AEGEAN AND THE BLACK SEA (HARBOURS,
TRADE ACTIVITIES, TRADE PRODUCTS)
20.00-20.15: DISCUSSION
20.30h Dinner
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CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
1 6 . 0 0 - 1 7 . 45 S E S S ION 3
CONSTANTINOPLE AND THE MARITIME ROUTES
BETWEEN BLACK SEA AEGEAN-MEDITERRANEAN
CITY-PORTS (COMMUNICATION OF PORTS,
NETWORKS, TRAVELS- TRAVELERS)
1 8 . 0 0 - 1 9 . 45: S E S S ION 4
P RE S E RVA T ION - P RE S E N T A T ION OF T HE
ME D IE VAL CULT URAL HE RIT AGE
Chairpersons: Ufuk Kocabas, Lydmyla Tarakhtii
362
PROGRAM ON BOARD SYMPOSIUM
0 9 . 0 0 - 1 1 . 30: S E S S ION 5
T OURIS M AN D CULT URE
363
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
11.15-11.30: DISCUSSION
11.30 11.45h: Coffee Break
1 1 . 4 5 - 1 4 . 15: S E S S ION 6
CULT URAL ROUT E S AN D N E T W ORK IN G
14.00-14.15: DISCUSSION
14.30 - 16.00h: Lunch
364
PROGRAM ON BOARD SYMPOSIUM
1 6 . O O - 1 7 . 40: S E S S ION 7
CULT URE AN D T OURIS M P ROJE CT S IN T HE
B LACK S E A
17.30-17.40: DISCUSSION
17.40-18.00h: Coffee Break
365
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
1 8 . 0 0 20 .15: S E S S ION 8
T HE P ROP OS E D IN S T IT UT ION : CULT URAL P ORT
OF T HE B LA CK S E A
366
PROGRAM
Agenda Cruise
367
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
368
PROGRAM AGENDA CRUISE
Registrations
Greetings
Beginning of Symposium Works
1 5 . 4 5 1 8 . 45 S E S S ION 1
ME D IE VAL N ORT H AE GE A N AN D B LACK S E A CITY-
P ORT S . ( HIS T ORY- ARCHAE OLOGY - ART )
In the session, topics related to the history of the medieval North Ae-
gean and Black Sea city-ports are included, based on the examination of
historical resources. There are also included topics related to the presen-
tation and interpretation of archaeological data (e.g. excavations, fortifi-
cations, standing monuments), or topics on architectural and artistic ele-
ments which characterize the medieval cultural heritage.
369
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
1 9 . 0 0 20 .15 S E S S ION 2
T RA D E A N D E CON OMY IN T HE CIT Y- P ORT S
OF N ORT H A E GE AN A N D T HE B LA CK S E A
( HARB OURS , T RA D E A CT IVIT IE S , T RAD E
P ROD UCT S )
The session includes topics related to the harbours and the trade that
was developed between the city ports in the medieval period. In this ses-
sions are included papers on trade activities that were developed in the
harbours and the products that were transported. Moreover, here are in-
cluded studies on harbor facilities which served the commercial activities,
or even archaeological material that is connected with them (coins, seals,
pottery).
20.30h: Dinner
1 6 . 0 0 - 1 7 . 45 S E S S ION 3
CON S T A N T IN OP LE A N D T HE M ARIT IM E
ROUT E S B E T W E E N B LA CK S E A - A E GE AN -
ME D IT E RRA N E AN CIT Y- P ORT S ( COM M UN ICAT ION
OF P ORT S , N E T W ORK S , T RA VE LS - T RA VE LE RS)
370
PROGRAM AGENDA CRUISE
18.00-19.45 SE SSI O N 4
P R E SE R V A T ION - P RE S E N T A T ION OF T HE
M E D I E V A L CULT URA L HE RIT A GE
ON-BOARD
09.00h - 20.00h: CONTINUING OF THE SYMPOSIUM WORKS
0 9 . 0 0 - 1 1 . 30 SE SSI O N 5
T O U R I SM AN D CULT URE
The purpose of the session is to set and discuss the issue of cooperation
and networking between destinations, increasing the added value of the
tourism product.
14.15 16.00 : Anytime Dining
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CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
1 6 . O O - 1 7 . 40 S E S S ION 7
CULT URE AN D T OURIS M P ROJE CT S IN T HE
B LACK S E A
1 8 . 0 0 20 .00 S E S S ION 8
T HE P ROP OS E D IN S T IT UT ION : CULT URAL P ORT
OF T HE B LA CK S E A
This final session is a Round Table which aims to codify the proposed
methodological steps to be taken for the promotion of the proposed Insti-
tution of the Cultural Port of the Black Sea.
The participants will be asked to discuss whether the initiative of Cul-
tural Ports, will continue to add appropriate value to the cultural Unity
among Back Sea region citizens.
20.30h Dinner
372
PROGRAM AGENDA CRUISE
20.30h: Dinner
373
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
374
PROGRAM AGENDA CRUISE
375
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
376
Sailing Through History with
Symposium-On-Board
Sailing Through History with
Sym posium-On-Board
U fuk K o c a b a , I l z s a i t -K o c a b a , T a n e r G l e r , E v r e n T r k m e n o l u
Within the frame of the LI- to study the city-ports from the cultural heritage of our region,
MEN Project, we had a nine-day points of archaeology, history its sustainability, and its healthy
sailing trip from the Archipela- and art history, and to discuss transfer to the future and rel-
gos to the inhospitable Pon- seafaring routes, preservation evant implementations.
tus Euxinus holding an inter- of the cultural heritage as well
national on-board-symposium as tourism itineraries by deliver- G r e e c e A t he n s ,
City-Ports from the North ing papers. The symposium cre- F r i d ay , 2 1 st A u g u s t 2 0 15
Aegean to the Black Sea. Medi- ated the sphere for sharing very The international symposium
eval Modern Networks. The valuable and technical informa- was held on board Emerald
participants thus had a chance tion regarding the richly varied Princess cruise ship setting off
from Athens (Fig. 1). About one
hundred participants from nine
countries attended the sessions
and a total of fifty-seven papers
were delivered. The cruise ship
starting from Athens visited Vo-
los, Chios, Constanta, Varna and
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CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
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Sailing Through History with Symposium-On-Board U. KOCABA, I. ZSAIT-KOCABA, T. GLER, E. TRKMENOLU
Fig. 4 Bronze statue of a Piraeus Artemis. Fig. 5 Detail from Piraeus Artemis.
It dates from the mid-4th century and is Artemis. It dates from the mid-4th century
attributed to the sculptor Euphranor. and is attributed to the sculptor Euphranor.
381
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Fig.12-13 The new Acropolis Museum lies on the archaeological Fig. 15 Lamp in the shape of a warship. End of
site of Makrygianni and the ruins of a part of Roman and early 5th century BC.
Byzantine Athens.
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Sailing Through History with Symposium-On-Board U. KOCABA, I. ZSAIT-KOCABA, T. GLER, E. TRKMENOLU
Greece V o l o s,
Sunday, 22 nd August 2015
383
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
before the Trojan Wars in the barked, Argo, which literally Colchis and was guarded by the
Greek mythology. They appear means swift. The ship with giant Serpent. Jason, the leader
in a myth in which Jason went fifty oars actually was named af- of the Argonauts, managed to
to Colchis thought to be in the ter Argos, its builder. The Gold- get hold of the Golden Fleece
eastern Black Sea to look for the en Fleece symbolises the wealth after a long journey on board a
Golden Fleece. The heroes were and power in Greek mythology. galley and much struggle.
named after the ship they em- It was hanging on an oak tree in This replica was built in 2007
as per the shipbuilding tradi-
tions of its time (Fig. 18). This
warship-style galley was fur-
nished with a bronze ram at its
bow in order to attack enemy
ships.
The Rooftile and Brickworks
Museum N. & S. Tsalapatas was
founded by Nikolaos and Spyri-
don Tsalapatas and is consid-
ered an industrial heritage
Fig. 19 The Roof
(Fig. 19). This factory manufac-
tile and Brickworks
Museum N. & S. tured bricks and roof tiles but it
Tsalapatas.
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Sailing Through History with Symposium-On-Board U. KOCABA, I. ZSAIT-KOCABA, T. GLER, E. TRKMENOLU
Fig. 24 Opening speech of the Melik Ayaz, Fig. 25 Presentaton of the LIMEN Fig. 26 Keynote address, Prof. Dr.
General Directorate of Cultural Heritage and Project, Dr. Flora Karagianni. Evangelos Chrysos.
Museums, Head of Department of Excavations
(Turkey)
stopped production when baked Our second venue was the land. Nea Moni Monastery was
clay products were replaced by Nea Moni Monastery located 12 at its height when it was under
others in modern constructions km away from the islands cen- the Byzantine hegemony; it is re-
(Fig. 20-21). Then it was convert- tre; it was built by three monks ported that there were about one
ed to a museum (Fig. 22-23). in 1042 and it is one of the big- thousand monks at the monas-
The academic program of our gest tourist attractions of the is- tery at its peak time (Fig. 29).
symposium started the same day Nea Moni Monastery features
that with the opening speeches typical examples of Byzantine
and the first two sessions; in the mosaic art executed by masters
mean time, the cruise ship con- from the capital (Fig. 30-31).
tinued its route towards Chios
Island (Fig. 24-25-26).
Greece C h i o s I sland ,
Monday, 24 th August 2015
385
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Our next stop on the island the Byzantine period (14th-15th Following the trip on Chios
was the Mesta Village, a very centuries). Only two gates lead Island the participants con-
well-preserved medieval settle- into village, which features ducted the third and fourth ses-
ment located 35 km away from narrow alleys and houses built sions of the symposium back
the centre.This village with adjoining each other leaving no on board the Emerald Princess
unique architecture was built in gaps in between (Fig. 33-34). (Fig. 35-36).
386
Sailing Through History with Symposium-On-Board U. KOCABA, I. ZSAIT-KOCABA, T. GLER, E. TRKMENOLU
On Board,
Tuesday, 25 th August 2015
The cruise ship entered the
Dardanelles early in the morn-
ing and with the announcement
by the captain of the ship the
passengers were invited to a
minutes silence in memory of
those who fell in the Gallipoli
Battle a century ago (Fig. 37).
Fig. 37 anakkale Martyrs' Memorial. Fig. 38 Full day of sailing and symposium.
The voyage from Chios Is-
land to Constanta port of Ro-
mania was a full day of sailing rival into the Bosporus from the (Fig. 39-40). The Emerald Prin-
when the fifth, sixth and sev- Sea of Marmara was a moment cess sailed up the gorgeous Bos-
enth sessions of the symposium awaited with great enthusiasm porus and in the darkness of the
were held on board (Fig. 38). Ar- by all the passengers on board night to Constanta (Fig. 41-42).
Fig. 41-42
Emerald Princes
going through
Fig. 39-40 Bosporus the Bosporus.
387
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
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Sailing Through History with Symposium-On-Board U. KOCABA, I. ZSAIT-KOCABA, T. GLER, E. TRKMENOLU
Fig. 49 The figurines of sitting woman Fig. 50 A street toward to the harbour. Fig. 51 One of the iconic buildings in the
and the thinker Romanian seaside city of Constanta, the Casino.
389
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
B ul ga r i a B ur ga s
Va r n a Ne s e ba r ,
Thursday, 27 th August 2015
390
Sailing Through History with Symposium-On-Board U. KOCABA, I. ZSAIT-KOCABA, T. GLER, E. TRKMENOLU
Fig. 62-63-64
The Varna Necropolis
findings.
391
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
Tur k e y Is t a n bul ,
F r i d ay , 2 8 th A u gu s t 2 0 15
392
Sailing Through History with Symposium-On-Board U. KOCABA, I. ZSAIT-KOCABA, T. GLER, E. TRKMENOLU
Fig. 78 Dolmabahe
Palace is in the
Beikta district of
Istanbul, served as the
main administrative
center of the
Ottoman Empire from Fig. 79 Haydarpaa
1856 to 1922. Historic Train Station
Fig. 81 Istanbul
Archaeological
Museum. It has
one of the biggest
archaeological
collection in the
Fig. 80 Ortaky Mosque world.
393
CITY PORTS FROM THE AEGEAN TO THE BLACK SEA
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Sailing Through History with Symposium-On-Board U. KOCABA, I. ZSAIT-KOCABA, T. GLER, E. TRKMENOLU
Turk ey I st anb u l,
Saturday, 29 th August 2015
395