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FAKULTI SAINS SOSIAL GUNAAN (FASS)

SEPTEMBER 2015

THINKING SKILLS AND PROBLEM SOLVING

By

Padlyalpattani

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Content:-

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Five major factors that have contribute to the problem of child abuse
using the means-end analysis strategy.

Parent or caregiver factors.

Family factors.

Child factors.

Environmental factors.

Protective factors.

3.0 Three forward chaining strategies techniques that can be implemented

to overcome child maltreatment.

4.0 Conclusion.

5.0 References

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1.0 Introduction

Each day, the safety and well-being of some children across the Nation are threatened
by child abuse and neglect. Statistics of the Malaysian Royal Police (PDRM) show
the child abuse, molestation and rape are on the increase, from 2,236 cases in 2005 to
5,744 in 2008. Children are important to the countrys human capital. Human capital.
Human capital can be developed to an optimum level by providing a safe and
conductive environment. Therefore, the protection of children from neglect, abuse,
violence and exploitation is an important aspect and should be given priority.

The above statement is a problem. Depending on the context, some problems may be
minor, personal or caused by external factors. Different authors define a problem
differently, for example; A question raised for consideration or solution (WordNet 2.0,
Princeton University, 2003), however, generally, we can define a problem using three
approaches:

1) A problem is an opportunity for improvement.

2) A problem is the difference between your current state and your goal state.

3) A problem results from the recognition of a present imperfection and the belief in
the possibility of a better future.

Problem solving is a series of techniques, both cognitive and behavioral, that can be
applied in various fields or areas to generate solutions. According to Woods (1975)
and colleagues suggested, Problem solving is the process of obtaining a satisfactory
solution to a novel problem, or at least a problem which the problem solver has not
seen before. However, to do all this, we must have thinking skills. Ruggiero, V.
(2008) has formally defined thinking as any mental activity that helps formulate or
solve a problem, make a decision or fulfill a desire to understand. Further to compile
and structure the analysis, we also must have problem-solving strategies. It is

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important to know strategies that can be employed to a certain advantage across

domains. We will further explore on two problem-solving strategies namely mean-
ends analysis and forward chaining strategy.

2.0 Five major factors that have contribute to the problem of child abuse using the
means-end analysis strategy.

Means-ends analysis is a problem solving strategy that arose from the work on
problem solving of Newell and Simon (1972). In means-ends analysis, one solves a
problem solving by consideration the obstacles that stand between the initial problem
state and the goal state. Means-ends analysis is a version of divide and conquer.
Search for a problem solution can be proceed in either two direction: forward from
initial state to the goal state or backward from goal state to the initial state. Newell
and Simon (1972) suggested a small number of general heuristic search methods. One
of the most important of these, means-ends analysis involves a mixture of forward and
backward search. The key idea underlying means-ends analysis is that search is
guided by detection of differences between the current state and goal state. Means-
ends analysis involves these steps:

1. Compare the current state to the goal state and identify the differences between
the two. If there are none, the problem is solved, otherwise, proceed.

2. Select an operator that would reduce the differences.

3. If an operator can be applied, do so; if not set new set of subgoal of reaching a
state at which the operator could be applied. Means-ends analysis is then applied
to this new subgoal until the operator can be applied or the attempt to use it is
abandoned.

4. Return to step no 1.

Child abuse and neglect is a social and public health problem, as well as a childrens
rights issue. Child abuse is a global problem that is deeply rooted in cultural,

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economic and social practices. According to World Health Organization (2002), the
extent of the problem are as follows;

1. An estimated 57000 children were victims of homicide in the year 2000. Many
child deaths, however are not routinely investigated or autopsied making it
difficult to know the true extent of the problem.

2. The highest rates of fatal child abuse are found among children aged 0-4 years.
The most common cause of death is head injury, followed by abdominal injuries
and intentional suffocation.

3. Available data also suggests that about 20% of women and 5-10% of men
suffered sexual abuse as children.

What is child maltreatment?

Definitions:

CHILD all those aged below 18 years

- Child Act 2001

CHILD ABUSE or NEGLECT

Constitutes all forms of physical abuse and/or emotional ill-treatment, sexual abuse,
neglect or negligent treatment or commercial or other exploitation, resulting in actual
or potential harm, to the childs health, survival, development or dignity in the context
of a relationship of responsibility, trust or power. - WHO Violence Injury and
Prevention Team, 1999.

Child abuse and neglect consists of any acts of commission or omission by a parent or
other caregiver that results in harm, potential for harm, or the threat of harm to a child
(0-18 years of age) even if the harm is unintentional (Gilbert et al., 2009).

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BREAKDOWN: CHILD ABUSE AND INCEST IN MALAYSIA

(As reported to the Malaysia Royal Police)
Years Child Abuse Incest
Total Average Total Average Month
Month
2001 150 12.5 246 21
2002 123 10 306 26
2003 119 10 254 21
2004 148 12 335 28
2005 189 16 295 25
2006# 108 18 209 35
Total 837 1,645
2006# as at August 2006.
Source: Ministry of Women, Family & Community Development, Malaysia.

There are four commonly recognized of child abuse or maltreatment:

Physical

Sexual

Neglect

Psychological

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Generally, physical abuse is characterized by physical injury, such as bruises and

fractures that result from; for examples, punching, beating, kicking, bitting, shaking,
throwing, stabbing, choking, burning and others. Although an injury resulting from
physical abuse is not accidental, the parent or caregiver may not have intended to hurt
the child. The injury may have resulted from severe discipline, including injurious
spanking, or physical punishment that is inappropriate to the childs age or condition.
The injury may be the result of a single episode or of repeated episodes and can range
in severity from minor marks and bruising to death. Some cultural practices may
result in physically hurting children, for example, coining or cao gio which practice
to treat illness by rubbing the body forcefully with a coin or other hard object.

Child sexual abuse generally refers to sexual acts, sexually motivated behaviors
involving children, or sexual exploitation of children. Sexual abuse includes both
touching offenses (fondling or sexual intercourse) and non-touching offenses
(exposing a child to pornographic materials) and can involve varying degrees of
violence and emotional trauma. The most commonly reported cases involve incest
that sexual abuse occurring among family members, including those biological

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families, adoptive families, and step families. Sexual abuse is also sometimes
committed by other relatives or caretakers, such as aunts, uncles, grandparents,
cousins, or the boyfriend of a parent.

Child neglect, the most common form of child maltreatment, is generally

characterized by omissions in care resulting in significant harm or risk of significant
harm. Neglect is frequently defined in terms of failure to provide for the childs basic
needs such as adequate food, clothing, shelter, supervision, or medical care.
Neglection can be formed as physical neglect, education neglect and emotional
neglect.

Psychological maltreatment also known as emotional abuse and neglect which refers
to a repeated pattern of caregiver behavior or extreme incidents that convey to
children that they are worthless, flawed, unloved, unwanted, endangered, or only of
value in meeting anothers needs. Summarizing research and expert opinion, Stuart
N. Hart, Ph,D., and Marla R. Brassard, Ph.D., present six categories of psychological
maltreatment:

1. Spurning (for example, hostile rejection, ridiculing).

2. Terrorizing (for example, threating violence against a child)

3. Isolation (for example, confining the child)

4. Exploiting or corrupting (modeling antisocial behavior such as criminal

activities)

5. Denying emotional responsiveness (for example, ignoring the childs

attempts to interact)

6. Mental health, medical, and educational neglect (refusing to allow or failing

to provide treatment for serious mental health or medical problem)

Psychological maltreatment is the most difficult form of child maltreatment to

identify. . Additionally, the effects of psychological maltreatment may only become
evident in later development stages of the childs life.

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3.0 What factors contribute to child abuse and neglect?

There is generally not a single factor that results in the abuse or neglect of a child; it is
usually a combination of various factors. Child maltreatment occurs across social-
economic, religious, cultural, racial, and ethnic groups. When trying to understand
child abuse and neglect, we often look at possible factors in the adult, factors based on
something in society, and factors based on something about the child. Risk factors
associated with child maltreatment can be grouped in five domains:

Parent or caregiver factors.

Family factors.

Child factors.

Environmental factors.

Protective factors.

1) Parent or Caregiver Factors.

Parent or caregiver factors potentially contributing to maltreatment relate to:

Personality characteristics and psychological well-being

History of maltreatment

Substance abuse

Attitudes and knowledge

Age

i) Personality Characteristics and Psychological, Well-being.

No consistent set of characteristics or personality traits has been associated with

maltreatment parents or caregivers. However, some characteristics frequently
identified in those who are physically abusive or neglectful include low self-esteem,

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an external locus of control (for example, belief that events are determined by change
or outside forces beyond ones personal control), poor impulse control, depression,
anxiety, and antisocial behavior.

ii) History of Maltreatment.

A parents childhood history plays a large part in how he or she may behave as a
parent. One review of the relevant research suggested that about one-third of all
individuals who were maltreated will subject their children to maltreatment. Children
who either experienced maltreatment or witnessed violent behavior and may also
learn to justify violent behavior as appropriate.

iii) Substance Abuse

Parental substance abuse is reported to be a contributing factor for between one-and

two-thirds of maltreated children in the welfare system. Substance abuse can interfere
with parents mental functioning, judgment, inhibitions, and protective capacity.
Parents significantly affected by the use of drugs and alcohol may neglect the needs of
household expenses, or get involved in criminal activities that jeopardize their
childrens health or safety.

iv) Age

Caregiver age may be a risk factor for some forms of maltreatment. Some studies of
physical abuse, in particular, have found that mothers who were younger at the birth
of their child exhibited higher rates of child abuse than did older mothers. Other
contributing factors, such as lower economic status, lack of social support, and high
stress levels may influence the link between younger childbirth, particularly teenage
parenthood.

2) Family Factors.

Specific life situations of some families such as marital conflict, domestic violent,
single parenthood, unemployment, and social isolation may increase the likelihood of
maltreatment.

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Family structure

Children living with single parents may be at higher risk of experiencing

physical and sexual abuse and neglect than children living with two biological
parents. Single parent households are substantially more likely to have incomes
below the poverty line. Lower income, the increased stress associated with the
sole burden of family responsibilities, and fewer supports are thought to
contribute to the risk of single parents maltreatment their children.

Marital Conflict and Domestic Violence.

According to published studies, in 30 to 60 percent of families where spouse

abuse takes place, child maltreatment also occurs. Children in violent homes may
witness parental violence, may be victims of physical abuse themselves, and may
be neglected by parents who are focused on their partners or unresponsive to their
children due to their own fears.

Stress

Physical abuse has been associated with stressful life events, parenting stress,
and emotional distress in various studies. It is not clear, however, whether
maltreating parents actually experience more life stress or, rather perceive more
events, and life experiences as being stressful.

3) Child Factors.

Children are not responsible for being victims of maltreatment. Certain factors,
however, can make some children more vulnerable to maltreating behavior. The
childs age and development, physical, mental, emotional, and social may increase the
childs vulnerability to maltreatment, depending on the interactions of these
characteristics with the parental factors previously discussed.

Age

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In 2000, for example, the rate of documented maltreatment was higher for
children between birth and 3 years of age and declined as age increased. Infants
and young children, due to their small physical size, early development status,
and need for constant care, can be particularly vulnerable to child maltreatment.
Very young children are more likely to experience certain forms of maltreatment
such as shaken baby syndrome, and nonorganic failure to thrive. Teenagers, on
the other hand, are at greater risk for sexual abuse.

Disabilities

Children with physical, cognitive, and emotional disabilities appear to

experience higher rates of maltreatment than do other children. In general,
children who are perceived by their parents as different or who have special
needs including children with disabilities as well as children with chronic illness
may be at greater risk of maltreatment. The demands of caring for these children
may overwhelm their parents. Children with disabilities also may be vulnerable to
repeated maltreatment because they may not understand that he abuse behaviors
are inappropriate, and they may be unable to escape or depend themselves in
abusive situation.

Other Child Characteristics.

Child factors such as aggression, attention, deficits, difficult temperaments,

and behavior problems or the parental perceptions of such problems have been
associated with increased risk for all types of child maltreatment.

4) Environmental Factors.

Environmental factors are often found in combination with parent, family, and child
factors, as highlighted in previous sections. Environmental factors include poverty
and unemployment, social isolation, and community characteristics. It is important to
reiterate that most parents or caregivers who live in these types of environments are
not abusive.

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Poverty and Unemployment.

Poverty and unemployment show strong associations with child maltreatment,

particularly neglect. Rod Plotnik, emeritus professor, Department of Psychology,
San Diego States University, describes several theories related to the association
between poverty and maltreatment. One theory is that low income creates greater
family stress, which, in turn, leads to higher chances of maltreatment. A second
theory is that parents with low income, despite good intentions, may be unable to
provide adequate care while raising children in high-risk neighborhoods with
unsafe or crowded housing and inadequate daycare. A third theory is that some
other characteristics may make parents more likely to be poor and abusive. For
example, a parent may have a substance abuse problem that impedes the parents
ability to obtain and maintain a job, which also may contribute to abusive
behavior.

Social Isolation and Social Support.

Some studies indicate that compared to other parents, parents who maltreated
their children report experiencing greater isolation, more loneliness, and less
social support. Social isolation may contribute to maltreatment because parents
have less material and emotional support, do not have positive parenting role
models, and feel less pressure to conform to conventional standards of parenting
behavior.

5) Protective Factors.

Just as there are factors that place families at risk for maltreatment their children,
there are other factors that may protect them from vulnerabilities, factors that promote
resilience. In general research has found that supportive, emotionally satisfying
relationships with a network of relatives or friends can help minimize the risk of
parents maltreating children, especially during stressful events. For example, parents
who were abused as children are less likely to abuse their own children if they have
resolved internal conflicts and paint related to their history of abuse and if they have

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an intact, stable, supportive, and nonabusive relationship with their partner.

Additionally, programs on marriage education and enhancement may provide a
roadmap of expected challenges such as the birth of the first child, parenting
adolescents, and commo gender differences which may act as a protective factor by
strengthening families.

3.0 Three forward chaining strategies techniques that can be implemented to

overcome child maltreatment.

Forward chaining strategies is one of the strategy in problem solving. Forward

chaining is one of the two main method of reasoning when using an inference engine
and can be described logically as repeated application of modus ponens. Forward
chaining is chaining breaks a task into small steps and then teaches each step within
the sequence by itself. For instance, you may first teach a child to measure the right
amount of laundry detergent on his own before proceeding to teach the next steps in
order. In forward chaining, the teacher then usually guides the child through the
remaining not-yet learned steps in the task analysis. In utilizing chaining, the teacher
must (i) analysis the desired behavior, (ii) break it into steps, and (iii) plan for the
teaching. The steps in forward chaining:

1) The teacher teaches the child the first step in the chain.

2) When the first step is learned, the teacher adds the second step. The child is
learning the second step in the routine and attaching it to the first step.

3) The third step is taught in conjunction with the first two steps once the child
is able to demonstrate the first two steps.

The inference engine applied logical rules to the knowledge base and deduced new
knowledge. This process would iterate as each new fact in the knowledge base could
trigger additional rules in the inference engine. Forward chaining starts with known
facts and asserts new facts. The logic that an inference engine uses is typically
represented as IF-THEN rules.

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As we discussed earlier, the fact of the case is child abuse has become a hot issue and
factors that have contributed to the problem of child abuse. The goal is how to
eliminate or resolve this problem.

2 2 Laws and
Policies
1 Types of guides
prevention public
Factors that
activities: interventio
have contributed
to the problem n in child
Primary.
of child maltreatme
Conclusion.
maltreatment as Secondary nt
discussed on
Tertiary
earlier topic.
Known fact/ Assert new facts IF<Logical expression>THEN<Logical expression>

3. GOAL - Minimize or resolve or eliminate the problem

of Child Maltreatment.

Child abuse and neglect prevention generally occur at three basic levels:

Primary, or universal, prevention activities are directed at general population with

the goal of stopping the occurrence of maltreatment before it starts.

Secondary, or selective, prevention activities focus on families at high of

maltreatment to alleviate conditions associated with the problem.

Tertiary, indicated, prevention activities direct services to families where

maltreatment has occurred to reduce the negative consequences of the
maltreatment and to prevent its recurrence.

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1) Primary or Universal Prevention.

Primary prevention includes activities or services available to the general public.

Frequently such activities aim to raise awareness among community members, the
public, service providers, and decision-makers about the scope and problems
associated with child maltreatment. For example:

Public awareness campaigns informing citizens how and where to report

suspected child abuse and neglect;

Public service announcements on the radio or television encouraging parents

to use nonviolent forms of discipline.

2.) Secondary or Selective Prevention.

Secondary prevention activities focus efforts and resources on children and families
known to be at higher risk for maltreatment. Several risk factors such as substance
abuse,young maternal age, development disabilities, and poverty are associated with
child maltreatment. Programs may direct services to communities or neighborhoods
that have a high incidence of one or several risk factors. Examples of secondary
prevention programs include the following:

Parent education programs such at rumah pengasih, NGOs that running

protection house to teen mothers;

Respite care for families who have children with special needs such under
programs of Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat.

Family support activities that are available to individuals identified as at risk or

community members in a high risk neighborhood also are considered secondary
prevention. For example, local hospital or pusat kesihatan may offer prenatal care
and parenting classes to new or expectant parents. Jabatan Kebajikan may provide
home visitation services, and many other programs.

3) Tertiary or Indicated Prevention.

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Tertiary prevention activities focus on families in which maltreatment has already

occurred. The goal of this programs is to prevent maltreatment from recurring and to
reduce the negative consequences associated with maltreatment (for example, social-
emotional problems in children, lower academic achievement). The prevention
programs may include services such as:

Intensive family preservation services with trained mental health counselors

available to families.

Mental health services for children and families affected by maltreatment to

improve family communication and functioning.

A combination of primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention services are necessary

for any community to provide a full continuum of services to deter the devastating
effects of child maltreatment.

Although most parents are usually capable of meeting children needs, the authority
has to intervene in the parent-child relationships if a parent is unable or fails to protect
his or her child from preventable and significant harm. Therefore we have Child Act
2001, The Child Protection Act 1991, The Children and Young Persons Employment
Act 1996, and many more Acts which relevant to children.

4. Conclusion.

A greater understanding of risk factors can help professional working with children
and families both to identify maltreatment and high risk situations and to intervene
appropriately. Assessment of the specific risk factors that affect a family may
influence the prioritization of intervention services for that family (for example,
substance abuse treatment). Moreover, addressing risk and protective factors can help
to prevent child abuse and neglect. It is increasingly recognized that child
maltreatment arises from the interaction of multiple factors. Available research
suggests that different factors may play varying roles in accounting for different forms
of child maltreatment as we discussed earlier.

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There is no single known cause of child maltreatment. Nor is there any single
description that captures all families in which children are victims of abuse and
neglect. It is must be emphasized, however, that while certain factors often are present
among families where maltreatment occurs, this does not mean that the presence of
these factors will always result in child maltreatment. Professionals who intervene in
cases of child maltreatment, must recognize the multiple, complex causes of the
problem.

(3631 words)

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Anwarul Yaqin. (1996). Law and society in Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: International
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Freeman, G. L. (1931). Mental activity and the muscular process. Psychological

Review, 38: 428-447.

Gilbert, R., Spatz Widom, C., Browne, K., Fergusson, D., Webb, E., & Janson, J.
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Harrison, P.., Fulkerson, J., & Beebe, T. (1997). Multiple substance use among
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Harris, R. (1998). Introduction to problem solving. Retrieved from

http://www.virtualsalt.com/crebook3.htm

Jaudes, P. K., Ekwo, E., & Van Voorhis, J. (1995). Association of drug abuse and child
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Newell, A., & Simon, H. A. (1972). Human problem solving. Eaglewood Cliffs, NJ:
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Plotnik, R. (2000). Economic security for families with children. In P. J. Pecora, J. K.

Whittaker, A. N. Maluccio, &R. P. Barth (Eds.) The child welfare challenge: Policy,
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Simon, D. P., & Simon, H. A. (1978). Individual differences in solving problems. In R.

S. Siegler (Ed.), Childrens thinking: What develop? Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Steinberg, M. A., & Hylton, J. R., & Wheeler, C. E. (Ed.). (1988). Responding to
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Woods, D. R. (1975). Teaching problem-solving skills. Engineering Education, 66(3),

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