Knocking on Heavens Door

Lisa Randall

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hindawi@hindawi.org :
http://www.hindawi.org :

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Arabic Language Translation Copyright 2015 Hindawi Foundation for
Education and Culture.
Knocking on Heavens Door
Copyright 2011 by Lisa Randall.
All rights reserved.


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463


(1) I will often approximate this as 27 kilometers.

(2) The Large Hadron Collider is quite big, but it is used to study
infinitesimal distances. The reasons for its large size are described later
on when we discuss the LHC in detail.
(3) Unlike in the movie, Herman Hupfields famous song As Time
Goes By written in 1931 began with an unmistakable reference to peo-
ples familiarity with the latest physics developments:

This day and age were living in

Gives cause for apprehension,
With speed and new invention,
And things like fourth dimension,
Yet we get a little weary
From Mr. Einsteins theory


:
(1) Fielding, Henry. Tom Jones. (Oxford: Oxford World Classics, 1986).
(2) Quantum mechanics can have macroscopic effects in carefully
prepared systems or when measurements apply to high statistics situa-
tions, or very precise devices so that small effects can emerge. However,
that does not invalidate using an approximate classical theory for most
ordinary phenomena. It depends on precision as Chapter 12 will further
address. The effective theory approach allows for the approximation and
makes precise when it is inadequate.
(3) I will sometimes employ exponential notation, which I will use here
to explain what I mean in the middle in terms of powers of ten. The size of
the universe is 1027 meters. This number is a one followed by 27 zeroes,
or one thousand trillion trillion. The smallest imaginable scale is 1035
meters. This number is a decimal point followed by thirty-four zeroes
followed by a one, or one hundredth of one billionth of one trillionth of
one trillionth. (You can see why exponential notation is easier.) Our size is
about 101 . The exponent here is 1, which is reasonably close to the middle
between 27 and 35.

:
(1) Levenson, Tom. Measure for Measure: A Musical History of Science
(Simon & Schuster, 1994).
(2) During the Inquisition, the Romans didnt include Tychos books
in their Index, as would have been expected based on his Lutheran faith,
because they wanted his framework to keep the Earth stationary yet con-
sistent with Galileos observations.
(3) Hooke, Robert. An Attempt to Prove the Motion of the Earth from
Observations (1674), quoted in Owen Gingerich, Truth in Science: Proof,

466


Persuasion, and the Galileo Affair, Perspectives on Science and Christian

Faith, vol. 55.

(1) Rilke, Rainer Maria. Duino Elegies (1922).

(2) Doyle, Arthur Conan. The Sign of the Four (originally published
in 1890 in Lippincotts Monthly Magazine, chapter 1), in which Sherlock
Holmes comments on Watsons pamphlet, A Study in Scarlet.
(3) Browne, Sir Thomas. Religio Medici (1643, pt. 1, section 9).
(4) Augustine. The Literal Meaning of Genesis, vol. 1, books 16, trans.
and ed. by John Hammond Taylor, S. J. (New York: Newman Press, 1982).
Book 1, chapter 19, 38, pp. 42-43.
(5) Augustine. On Christian Doctrine, trans. by D. W. Robertson (Bas-
ingstoke: Macmillan, 1958).
(6) Augustine. Confessions, trans. by R. S. Pine-Coffin (Har-
mondsworth: Penguin, 1961).
(7) Stillman, Drake. Discoveries and Opinions of Galileo (Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1957) p. 181.
(8) Ibid., pp. 179-180.
(9) Ibid., p. 186.
(10) Galileo, 1632. Science & Religion: Opposing Viewpoints, ed. Janelle
Rohr (Greenhaven Press, 1988), p. 21.
(11) See, for example, Gopnik, Alison. The Philosophical Baby (Picador,
2010).

467


(1) Matthew 7:7-8.

(2) Blackwell, Richard J. Galileo, Bellarmine, and the Bible (University
of Notre Dame Press, 1991).
(3) Quoted in Gerald Holton, Johannes Keplers Universe: Its Physics
and Metaphysics, American Journal of Physics 24 (May 1956): 340351.
(4) Calvin, John. Institutes of Christian Religion, trans. by F. L. Battles
in A Reformation Reader, Denis R. Janz, ed. (Minneapolis: Fortress Press,
1999).

(1) For example, in ancient Greece, stadia didnt have a fixed length
since they were based on different body part lengths in different regions
and in different times.
(2) There is, of course, an electromagnetic field, but there is virtually
no actual matter.
(3) Momentum is a quantity that is approximated by the product of
mass and velocity at small speeds but is equal to the energy divided by
the speed of light for objects moving at relativistic velocities.
(4) Gamow, George. One, Two, Three Infinity: Facts and Speculations
of Science (Viking Adult, September 1947).
(5) Note that this figure corresponds to a more precise version of uni-
fication than was true for the original Georgi-Glashow theory, in which
the lines almost converged, but didnt quite meet. This imperfect unifi-
cation was demonstrated only later on, with better measurements of the
forces interaction strengths.

468


(6) Although it comes close, we now know that unification wont occur
within the Standard Model. However, unification can happen in modifi-
cations of the Standard Model, such as the supersymmetric models con-
sidered in Chapter 17.

:
(1) Feynman, Richard. The QED Lecture at University of Auckland
(New Zealand, 1979). See also: Richard Feynman Lectures, Proving the
Obviously Untrue.
(2) Quoted, for example, in Richard Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic
Bomb (Simon & Schuster, 1986).
(3) Particle physicists measure energy in units of electronvolts and
those are the units I will use throughout. An electronvolt (eV) is the energy
acquired by a free electron when accelerated through an electric potential
difference of one volt. More commonly, I will refer to the units GeV, which
is a billion electron-volts, and a TeV, which is a trillion electronvolts.
(4) Ironically, the plot of Dan Browns Angels and Demons centers on
antimatter, whereas the LHC is the first CERN collider for which the initial
states are purely matter.

:
(1) Overbye, Dennis. Collider Sets Record and Europe Takes U. S.
Lead. New York Times, December 9, 2009.
(2) In 1997, the European Physical Society recognized Robert Brout,
Franois Englert, and Peter Higgs for their achievement, and the three
were once again awarded in 2004 with the Wolf Prize in Physics. Franois
Englert, Robert Brout, Peter Higgs, Gerald Guralnik, C. R. Hagen, and Tom
Kibble all received the J. J. Sakurai Prize for Theoretical Particle Physics

469


from the American Physical Society in 2010. I will refer only to Higgs and
Peter Higgs throughout the text, as my focus is the physical mechanism
and not the personalities. Of course if the Higgs is discovered, only three
at most will receive a Nobel Prize and priority issues will be important.
For an overview of the situation, see, for example, Luis lvarez-Gaum
and John Ellis, Eyes on a Prize Particle, Nature Physics 7 (January 2011).
(3) It is ambiguous whether the Standard Model should also include
the very heavy right-handed neutrinos that are likely to exist and play
a role in neutrino masses.

:
(1) Its original purpose was to accelerate protons and antiprotons,
but currently only protons, in its current use as the SPS accelerator at the
LHC.

:
(1) Physical Review D, 035009 (2008).
(2) http://lsag.web.cern.ch/lsag/LSAG-Report.pdf.

:
(1) See, for example, Taibbi, Matt. The Big Takeover: How Wall Street
Insiders are Using the Bailout to Stage a Revolution, Rolling Stone, March
2009.
(2) This point is also addressed, for example, in J. D. Graham and
J. B. Wiener, Risk vs. Risk: Tradeoffs in Protecting Health and Environment
(Harvard University Press, 1995), especially Chapter 11.
(3) See also, for example, Slovic, Paul. Perception of Risk, Science
236, 280285, no. 4799 (1987). Tversky, Amos, and Daniel Kahneman,

470


Availability: A heuristic for judging frequency and probability, Cognitive

Psychology 5 (1973): 207232. Sunstein, Cass R., and Timur Kuran. Avail-
ability Cascades and Risk Regulation, Stanford Law Review 51 (1999):
683768. Slovic, Paul If I Look at the Mass I Will Never Act: Psychic
Numbing and Genocide, Judgment and Decision Making 2, no. 2 (2007):
7995.
(4) See also, for example, Kousky, Carolyn, and Roger Cooke. The
Unholy Trinity: Fat Tails, Tail Dependence, and Micro-Correlations, RFF
Discussion Paper 0936REV (November 2009). Kunreuther, Howard,
and M. Useem. Learning from Catastrophes: Strategies for Reaction and
Response (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Wharton School Publishing). Kun-
reuther, Howard. Reflections and Guiding Principles for Dealing with
Societal Risks, in The Irrational Economist: Overcoming Irrational Decisions
in a Dangerous World, E. Michel-Kerjan and P. Slovic, eds., New York Pub-
lic Affairs Books 2010. Weitzman, Martin L., On Modeling and Interpreting
the Economics of Catastrophic Climate Change, Review of Economics and
Statistics, 2009.
(5) See, for example, Joe Noceras cover story on Risk Mismanage-
ment in the New York Times Sunday Magazine, January 4, 2009.
(6) The problem of irreversibility has been addressed by some
economists, including Arrow, Kenneth J., and Anthony C. Fisher, En-
vironmental Preservation, Uncertainty, and Irreversibility, Quarterly
Journal of Economics, 88 (1974): 312319. Gollier, Christian, and Nicolas
Treich, Decision Making under Uncertainty: The Economics of the Pre-
cautionary Principle, Journal of Risk and Uncertainty 27 no. 7 (2003).
Wiener, Jonathan B. Global Environmental Regulation, Yale Law Journal
108 (1999): 677800.
(7) E.g., Richard Posner, Catastrophe: Risk and Response (Oxford Uni-
versity Press 2004).

471


(8) Leonhardt, David. The Fed Missed This Bubble: Will It See a New
One? New York Times, January 5, 2010.

:
(1) In this book, I use the term systematic uncertainty, rather than
the more commonly used term systematic error. Errors are often asso-
ciated with mistakes, whereas uncertainty refers to the inevitable level of
imprecision, given your apparatus.
(2) Again, people commonly use the term statistical error to refer to
an uncertain measurement due to finite statistics.
(3) Kristof, Nicholas. New Alarm Bells About Chemicals and Cancer,
New York Times, May 6, 2010.

:
(1) This quote has also been attributed to Robert Storm Peterson and
Niels Bohr.

:
(1) This table includes separate entries for left- and right-handed
particles. These particles are distinguished by their chirality, which for
massless particles tells the spin along the direction of motion. Masses mix
the twosuch as a left- and right-handed electron. The precise distin-
guishing feature is less important for this table than the difference in their
interactions. If all particles were massless, the weak force that changed
up-type into down-type quarks and charged into neutral leptons would
act only on left-handed particles. The strong and electromagnetic forces,
on the other hand, act on both, with only the quarks charged under the
strong force.

472


(2) The three types of neutrinos get paired via the weak force with
the three charged leptons. However, once they are produced, neutrinos
can oscillate into each other, no longer remaining identified solely by the
charged lepton with which they are paired. The neutrinos will sometimes
be labeled simply with numbers to refer to their relative mass and some-
times with labels referring to the charged lepton according to the context.
(3) If the initial b meson is neutral, you instead see a track that orig-
inates from the decay point, with no precursor track from the neutral
initial state.
(4) The interaction among the W, the top quark, and the bottom quark
is however the reason the top can decay into a bottom and a W.
(5) One can also define a relativistic mass that depends on momentum
and energy, but the implication is the same.
(6) Notice that this spread distinguishes bosons and fermions, classes
of particles distinguished by quantum mechanics. Force carriers and the
hypothetical Higgs particles are bosons. All other Standard Model parti-
cles are fermions.

(1) Quoted in Stewart, Ian. Why Beauty Is Truth (Basic Books, 2007).

(1) On WNYCs The Takeaway, March 31, 2007.

(2) Sometimes people also debate whether right-handed neutrinos
belong in the Standard Model. Even if present, they are likely to be ex-
tremely heavy and not very important for lower-energy processes.

473


(1) http://xxx.lanl.gov/PS_cache/arxiv/pdf/l101/1101.1628vl.pdf.
(2) This is discussed in much greater detail in Warped Passages.
(3) Again, this is discussed at length in Warped Passages. The original
paper is Lisa Randall and Raman Sundrum, Physical Review Letters 83
(1999): 46904693.
(4) Arkani-Hamed, Nima, Savas Dimopoulos, Gia Dvali, Physics Letters
B429 (1998): 263272; Arkani-Hamed, Nima Savas Dimopoulos, Gia Dvali,
Physical Review D59: 086004, 1999.
(5) Randall, Lisa, and Raman Sundrum, Physical Review Letters 83
(1999): 33703373.

(1) Original short film Powers of Ten by Ray Eames and Charles Eames,
1968; Powers of Ten: A Flip Book by Charles and Ray Eames (W. H. Free-
man Publishers, 1998); also Philip Morrison and Phylis Morrison and the
office of Charles and Ray Eames, Powers of Ten: About the Relative Sizes
of Things in the Universe (W. H. Freeman Publishers, 1982).

(1) See e.g., Alan Guths The Inflationary Universe (Perseus Books,
1997) for a more extensive discussion of this point.

(1) Some dark matter particles are their own antiparticles, in which
case they need to find other similar particles.

474


(1) Dr. Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi pioneered the concept of flow to

describe this phenomenon in his book Flow: The Psychology of Optimal
Experience (Random House, 2002).
(2) Brooks, David. Genius: The Modern View, New York Times, April
30, 2009.
(3) Gladwell, Malcolm. Outliers: The Story of Success (Little Brown &
Co., 2008).
(4) Gell-Mann, Murray. The Quark and the Jaguar: Adventures in the
Simple and the Complex (W.H. Freeman & Company, 1994).
(5) Teachers Edition of Current Science 49, no. 14 (January 610,
1964).

(1) Verborgene Universen in German.

(2) In German, rand means edge and all means universe.
(3) See, too, for example, Susan Jacoby, The Age of American
Unreason (Pantheon, 2008).

475