Thesis - Teaching The Speaking Skills, in First Grade School

ABSTRACT
The teaching of English as a foreign language is now one of the most important subjects in most
European primary schools. The implementation of English has brought along the need to
establish clear objectives that are different to the ones traditionally assigned to secondary
schools. While in secondary schools we still find, in many cases, a teaching based in the formal
aspects of the language, i.e. grammar; primary school teachers have had to adopt a different
approach as the age of the children make the teaching of formal aspects not advisable. As a result
of this point of view, the different Educational Departments have decided to establish, as the
main purpose of the EFL teaching, the development of the four skills: listening, speaking,
reading and writing. However, the implementation of this approach has not been trouble-free as
many teachers insist on asking their children to understand every single word they listen to or
read, or expect their pupils to write or speak without making the mistakes normally found in the
process of acquiring any language.
The main purpose of this thesis is to provide some guidelines that we hope can be useful to
teachers of English as a foreign language in primary schools.
Oral communication fulfills a number of general and discipline-specific pedagogical functions.

Learning to speak is an important goal in itself, for it equips students with a set of skills they can
use for the rest of their lives.
Speaking is the mode of communication most often used to express opinions, make arguments,
offer explanations, transmit information, and make impressions upon others. Students need to
speak well in their personal lives, future workplaces, social interactions, and political endeavors.
They will have meetings to attend, presentations to make, discussions and arguments to
participate in, and groups to work with. If basic instruction and opportunities to practice speaking
are available, students position themselves to accomplish a wide range of goals and be useful
members of their communities.
Key Words: Oral Communication, Task-based approach, dimensions of oral communication,

academic setting.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT 2
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 3
I INTRODUCTION
I.1. Speaking 6
I.2. Advantages: Why should we teach speaking skills in the classroom? 7
I.2.1. Motivation 7
I.2.2. Speaking is fundamental to human communication 7
II - LITERATURE REVIEW
II.1. Teaching 11
II.1.1. The Definition of Teaching 11
II.1.2. Teaching language 12
II.2. Speaking 13
II.2.1. The Definition of Speaking 13
II.2.2. The Function of Speaking 13
II.2.3. Activities to Promote Speaking Skills 17
II.2.4. Factor Affecting Student Speaking Ability 19
II.3. Teaching Speaking 21
II.3.1. Classroom Speaking Performance 21
II.3.2. Supporting and Managing the Speaking Process 23
II.3.3. Problems with Speaking Activities 25
II.3.4. Characteristics of Successful Speaking Activities 25
III - SPEAKING SKILLS
III.1. Speaking skills 27
III.1.1. Definition of Speaking Skills 27
III.2 The Functions of Speaking 28
2
III.3. Elements of Speaking 39
III.4. Conversational routines 42
III.5. Styles of speaking 43
III.6. The Teaching of Speaking 44
III.6.1. The Notion of Teaching Speaking 45
III.6.2. Goals of Teaching Speaking 46
III.6.3. Principles of Teaching Speaking 47
IV - TEACHING SPEAKING SCILLS OF ENGLISH IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS

IV.1. Current Situation in Oral English Teaching and Learning in Albania 49
IV.2. Teaching Strategies which we can use in primary schools 50
IV.2.1. Strategies Appropriate to Large Groups 51
IV.2.2. Strategies Appropriate to Small Groups 56
CONCLUSION 60
REFERENCES 61
3
I
INTRODUCTION
The teaching of English as a foreign language is now one of the most important subjects in most
European primary schools. The implementation of English has brought along the need to
establish clear objectives that are different to the ones traditionally assigned to secondary
schools. While in secondary schools we still find, in many cases, a teaching based in the formal
aspects of the language, i.e. grammar; primary school teachers have had to adopt a different
approach as the age of the children make the teaching of formal aspects not advisable. As a result
of this point of view, the different Educational Departments have decided to establish, as the
main purpose of the EFL teaching, the development of the four skills: listening, speaking,
reading and writing. However, the implementation of this approach has not been trouble-free as
many teachers insist on asking their children to understand every single word they listen to or
read, or expect their pupils to write or speak without making the mistakes normally found in the
process of acquiring any language.
The main purpose of this paper is to provide some guidelines that we hope can be useful to
teachers of English as a foreign language in primary schools.
I.1. Speaking
First of all, we must take into account that the level of language input (listening) must be higher
than the level of language production expected of the pupils. So we have many speaking
activities used in the first levels that enable pupils to participate with a minimal verbal response.
However in the last levels, pupils are encouraged to begin to manipulate language and express
themselves in a much more personal way.
In primary schools two main types of speaking activities are used. The first type, songs, chants,
and poems, encourages pupils to mimic the model they hear on the cassette. This helps pupils to
4
master the sounds, rhythms, and intonation of the English language through simple reproduction.
The games and pair work activities on the other hand, although always based on a given
model, encourage the pupils to begin to manipulate the language by presenting them with a
certain amount of choice, albeit within a fairly controlled situation.
In order for any speaking activity to be successful children need to acknowledge that there is a
real reason for asking a question or giving a piece of information. Therefore, make sure the
activities you present to the pupils, provide a reason for speaking, whether this is to play a game
or to find out real information about friends in the class.
Once the activity begins, make sure that the children are speaking as much English as possible
without interfering to correct the mistakes that they will probably make. Try to treat errors
casually by praising the utterance and simply repeating it correctly without necessarily
highlighting the errors. And finally, always offer praise for effort regardless of the accuracy of
the English produced.
I.2. Advantages: Why should we teach speaking skills in the classroom?
I.2.1. Motivation
Many students equate being able to speak a language as knowing the language and therefore
view learning the language as learning how to speak the language, or as Nunan (1991) wrote,
success is measured in terms of the ability to carry out a conversation in the (target) language.
Therefore, if students do not learn how to speak or do not get any opportunity to speak in the
language classroom they may soon get de-motivated and lose interest in learning. On the other
hand, if the right activities are taught in the right way, speaking in class can be a lot of fun,
raising general learner motivation and making the English language classroom a fun and
dynamic place to be.
I.2.2. Speaking is fundamental to human communication
Just think of all the different conversations you have in one day and compare that with how much
written communication you do in one day. Which do you do more of? In our daily lives most of
5
us speak more than we write, yet many English teachers still spend the majority of class time on
reading and writing practice almost ignoring speaking and listening skills. Do you think this is a
good balance? If the goal of your language course is truly to enable your students to
communicate in English, then speaking skills should be taught and practised in the language
classroom.
Dealing with common arguments against teaching speaking skills in the classroom
Students won't talk or say anything
One way to tackle this problem is to find the root of the problem and start from there. If the
problem is cultural, that is in your culture it is unusual for students to talk out loud in class, or if
students feel really shy about talking in front of other students then one way to go about breaking
this cultural barrier is to create and establish your own classroom culture where speaking out
loud in English is the norm. One way to do this is to distinguish your classroom from other
classrooms in your school by arranging the classroom desks differently, in groups instead of lines
etc. or by decorating the walls in English language and culture posters. From day one teach your
students classroom language and keep on teaching it and encourage your students to ask for
things and to ask questions in English. Giving positive feedback also helps to encourage and
relax shy students to speak more. Another way to get students motivated to speak more is to
allocate a percentage of their final grade to speaking skills and let the students know they are
being assessed continually on their speaking practice in class throughout the term.
A completely different reason for student silence may simply be that the class activities are
boring or are pitched at the wrong level. Very often our interesting communicative speaking
activities are not quite as interesting or as communicative as we think they are and all the
students are really required to do is answer 'yes' or 'no' which they do quickly and then just sit in
silence or worse talking noisily in their L1. So maybe you need to take a closer look at the type
of speaking activities you are using and see if they really capture student interest and create a
real need for communication.
Another way to encourage your students to speak in English is simply to speak in English
yourself as much as possible in class. If you are shy about speaking in English, how can you
expect your students to overcome their fears about speaking English? Don't worry if you are not
6
completely fluent or don't have that elusive perfect native accent, as Swain (1985) wrote "We
learn to speak by speaking" and that goes for teachers as well as students. The more you practise
the more you will improve your own oral skills as well as help your students improve theirs.
When students work in pairs or groups they just end up chatting in their own language.
Is the activity or task pitched at the right level for the students?
Make sure you give the students all the tools and language they need to be able to complete the
task. If the language is pitched too high they may revert to their L1, likewise if the task is too
easy they may get bored and revert to their L1. Also, be aware of the fact that some students
especially beginners, will often use their L1 as an emotional support at first, translating
everything word for word to check they have understood the task before attempting to speak. In
the case of these students simply be patient as most likely once their confidence grows in using
English their dependence on using their L1 will begin to disappear.
Are all the students actively involved and is the activity interesting? If students do not have
something to say or do, or don't feel the need to speak, you can be sure it won't be long before
they are chatting away in their L1.
Was the timing of the activity good? The timing of a speaking activity in a class can be crucial
sometimes. How many teachers have discovered that their speaking activity ended up as a
continuation of the students break-time gossip conducted in the L1? After break-time, why not
try giving students an activity to calm them down and make them focus before attempting
speaking activities that involve groups or pair work. Another way to discourage students
speaking in their L1 is to walk around the classroom monitoring their participation and giving
support and help to students as they need it. If certain students persist in speaking in the L1 then
perhaps you should ask them to stay behind after class and speak to them individually and
explain to them the importance of speaking English and ask them why they don't feel
comfortable speaking in English in the class. Maybe they just need some extra reassurance or
they don't like working with certain students or there is some other problem that you can help
them to resolve.
When all the students speak together it gets too noisy and out of hand and I lose control of the
classroom
7
First of all separate the two points a noisy classroom and an out-of-control classroom. A
classroom full of students talking and interacting in English, even if it is noisy, is exactly what
you want. Maybe you just feel like you are losing control because the class is suddenly student
centred and not teacher centred. This is an important issue to consider. Learner-centred
classrooms where learners do the talking in groups and learners have to take responsibility for
using communicative resources to complete a task are shown to be more conducive to language
learning than teacher-centred classes (Long & Richards 1987). Nevertheless, many classrooms
all over the world continue to be teacher centred, so the question you have to ask yourself is, how
learner centred is my classroom?
Losing control of the classroom, on the other hand, is a different issue. Once again walking
around and monitoring the students as they are working in groups can help, as you can naturally
move over to the part of the classroom where the noise is coming from and calm the rogue
students down and focus them back on the task without disrupting the rest of the students who
are working well in their groups. If students really get too rowdy then simply change the pace of
the class and type of activity to a more controlled task, for example a focus on form or writing
task where students have to work in silence individually. Once the students have calmed down
you can return to the original or another interactive group activity.
8
II
LITERATURE REVIEW
II.1. Teaching
II.1.1. The Definition of Teaching
Teaching is one of educative activities. It is very important in educational system and it plays
important role in which an interaction between a teacher and student occurs. To define what
teaching is, some statements can be presented in the following. In Webster dictionary, teaching is
(1) the action of a person who teaches, profession of teacher, (2) something taught percept,
doctrine or instruction.1
According to Hasibun and Mujiano, teaching is creating a surrounding system that make possible
a learning process. This system includes component that influences each others. They are
instructional goal, the subject of teaching, teacher and the students.2
Nowadays, teaching is defined from other point of view. Edge states that the teacher is the most
powerful person in the classroom. The teacher has the most important things to use that power,
such as organization, security, motivation, instruction, modeling, guidance, information,
feedback, encouragement, and evaluation. Thus, it can be stated that the teacher must organize,
provide security, motivate, instruct, model, guide, inform, give feedback, encourage, and
evaluate.3
1 Websters New World College Dictionary, Third Edition, (New York: Macmillan Company, 1996), 1372.
2 Wijasih. The Influence of English Remidial Teaching Toward Students English Achievement of The Second Year
at SMPN I Bungkal Ponorogo. (Unpublished Thesis. UNMUH Ponorogo, 2004), 7.
3 Julian Edge, Essentials of English Language Teaching, (UK: Pearson Education Limited, 2001), 11-12.
9
Brown recommends that teaching may be definite as showing or helping someone to learn how
to do something, giving instructions, guiding in the study of something, providing with
knowledge, causing to know or understand.4
Based on the statements above, teaching can be stated as an activity or process to help someone
getting knowledge and learn to do something. And it includes a transmission of sciences, skills,
and attitudes. The transmission is a process of systemizing, conditions, task material and
opportunities in order to help students acquire and construct new knowledge conducted by
organizing and managing someones potential sources.
II.1.2. Teaching language
Every teacher especially language teacher has different way in teaching.
Teacher brings to teach their own personal principles in their class. Therefore, Breen made
principles in teaching language are:5
1) Selectively focus on the form of the language

2) Selectively focus on vocabulary or meaning
3) Enable the learners to use the language
4) Address learners mental processing capacities
5) Make the new language familiar and manageable
6) Make the learners internalize and remember the new language
7) Take account of learners needs or interests
8) Directly learners needs or interest
9) Monitor learners progress and provide feedback
10) Facilitate learner responsibility or autonomy
11) Manage the lesson and the group
II.2. Speaking
II.2.1. The Definition of Speaking

4 H. Douglas Brown, Principle of Language Learning and Teaching, (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall Regent,
1994), 7.
5 Breen, Curriculum Development in Language Teaching, Ed. Jack Richard, , (New York: Cambridge University
Press, 2001), 217.
10
In everyday life speaking has many different reasons. Some of these reasons are to do with
humans desire to relate to each other as people, while others have to do with exchanging
information or seeking a practical outcome.6 And here are the definitions of speaking:
In Webster dictionary, speaking is the act or art of person who speaks.7
In addition, Oxford Dictionary states that speaking is to make use of language in an ordinary,
not singing, to state view, wishes etc. or an act of spokesman.8
According to Kathleen, Speaking is an interactive process of constructing meaning that involves

producing and receiving and processing information. It is often spontaneous, open-ended, and
evolving, but it is not completely unpredictable.9 Meanwhile, Henry G. Tarigan defines that,
speaking is a skill of conveying words or sounds of articulation to express or to deliver ideas,
opinions, or feelings.10
Based on the previous definitions, it can be synthesized that speaking is the process of sharing
with another person, or with other persons, ones knowledge, interests, attitudes, opinions or
ideas. Delivery of ideas, opinions, or feelings is some important aspects of the process of
speaking which a speakers idea become real to him and his listeners.
II.2.2. The Function of Speaking
According to Brown and Yule, as quoted by Jack C. Richards,. The functions of speaking are
classified into three; they are talk as interaction, talk as transaction and talk as performance. Each
6 Burns and Joyce, Focus on Speaking. (NCELTR Publications, 1997). 4.
7 Websters New World College Dictionary, Third Edition, 1287.
8 AS Hornby, Oxford Advance Learner.s Dictionary. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, Sixth Edition, 1987), 827.
9 Kathleen M Bailey and David Nunan. Practical English Language Teaching Speaking. (Singapore: The MC Graw
Hills, 2004), 2
10 Henry G. Tarigan, Berbicara Sebagai Suatu Ketrampilan Berbahasa, (Bandung: Angkasa, 1981), 15
11
of these speech activities is quite distinct in term of form and function and requires different
teaching approaches.11 Below are the explanations of the functions of speaking:
1. Talk as Interaction
Being able to interact in a language is essential. In fact, much of our daily communication
remains interaction. This refers to what we normally mean by conversation. The primary
intention in talk as interaction is to maintain social relationship.
Meanwhile, talk as interaction has several main features as follows:12
A. Has a primarily social function

B. Reflects role relationships
C. Reflects speakers identity
D. May be formal or casual
E. Uses conversational conventions
F. Reflects degrees of politeness
G. Employs many generic words
H. Uses conversational register
I. Is jointly constructed
Some of the skills (involved in using talk as interaction) are:13
A. Opening and closing conversation

B. Choosing topics
C. Making small-talk
D. Recounting personal incidents and experiences
E. Turn-taking
F. Using adjacency pairs
G. Interrupting
H. Reacting to others
I. Using an appropriate style of speaking
11 Jack C. Richards, Teaching Listening and Speaking, From Theory to Practice, (New York: Cambridge
University Press, 2008), 21
12
Mastering the art of talk as interaction is difficult and may not be a priority for all learners. 14 In
talk as interaction, the ability to speak in natural way is required in order to create a good
communication. That is why some students sometimes avoid this kind of situation because they
often lose for words and feel difficulty in presenting a good image of themselves. This can be a
disadvantage for some learners where the ability to use talk as interaction can be important.
2. Talk as Transaction
This type of talk or speaking refers to situations where the focus is on what is said or done. The
message is the central focus here and making oneself understood clearly and accurately, rather
than the participants and how they interact socially with each other.
In such transaction, talk is associated with other activities. For example, student may be engaged
in hand-on activities (e.g., in a science lesson) to explore concepts associated with floating and
sinking. In this type of spoken language students and teachers usually focus on meaning or on
talking their way to understanding.15
Examples of talk as transaction are classroom group discussions and problem-solving activities,
discussing sightseeing plans with a hotel clerk or tour guide, asking someone for directions on
the street, buying something in a shop, ordering food from a menu in a restaurant. Meanwhile,
talk as transaction has several main features as follows:
A. It has a primarily information focus

B. The main focus is the message and not the participants
C. Participants employ communication strategies to make themselves understood
D. There may be frequent questions, repetitions, and comprehension checks
E. There may be negotiation and digression
F. Linguistic accuracy is not always important
Some of the skills involved in using talk for transactions are:
A. Explaining a need or intention
13
B. Describing something
C. Asking questioning
D. Confirming information
E. Justifying an opinion
F. Making suggestions
G. Clarifying understanding
H. Making comparisons
I. Agreeing and disagreeing16
Compared with talk as interaction, talk as transaction is easier for some student because it only
focuses on messages delivered to the others.
Also, talk as interaction is more easily planned since current communicative materials are a rich
resource of group activities, information-gap activities and role plays. It can provide a source for
practicing how to use talk pro sharing and obtaining information as well as for carrying out the
real-world transactions.
3. Talk as Performance
This refers to public talk or public speaking, that is, talk which transmits information before an
audience such as morning talks, public announcements, and speeches. Talk as performance tends
to be in the form of monolog rather than dialog. Often follows a recognizable format and is
closer to written language than conversational language. Similarly it is often evaluated according
to its effectiveness or impact on the listener, something which is unlikely to happen with talk as
interaction or transaction. Examples of talk as performance are giving a class report about a
school trip, conducting a class debate, making a sales presentation, and giving a lecture. 17 The
main features of talk as performance are:
A. A focus on both message and audience

B. Predictable organization and sequencing
C. Importance of both form and accuracy
D. Language is more like written language
E. Often monologic
16 Ibid, 28
17 Hayriye Kayi, Teaching Speaking: Activities to Promote Speaking in a Second Language, 2006.
http://itesjl.org/Articles/Kayi-TeachingSpeaking.html. Accessed on 1 May, 2010.
14
Some of the skills involved in using talk as performance are:
A. Using an appropriate format

B. Presenting information in an appropriate sequence
C. Maintaining audience engagement
D. Using correct pronunciation and grammar
E. Creating an effect on the audience
F. Using appropriate vocabulary
G. Using appropriate opening and closing18
II.2.3. Activities to Promote Speaking Skills
There are some activities to promote speaking as follows:19
1. Discussion
The students may aim to arrive at a conclusion, share ideas about an event, or find solutions in
their discussion groups. Here the teacher can form groups of students and each group works on
their topic for a given time period, and present their opinions to the class. Fauziati states that the
main aim of group discussion is to improve fluency, grammar in probably best allowed
functioning as a naturally communicative context.20
2. Role Play and Simulation
Role play has appeal for students because it allows the students to be creative and to put
themselves in another persons place for a while.21
18 Endang Fauziati, Teaching of English as a Foreign Language, (Surakarta: Muhammadiyah University Press,
2002), 134.
19 Patricia A Richard-Amato, Making It Happen, Third Edition, (United States: Pearson Education, 2003), 222.
20 Penny Ur, A course in Language Teaching, Practice and Theory, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996),
131.
21 Podo and Sulaiman, Bahasa Sebagai Ketrampilan Suatu Bahasa, (Bandung: Angkasa, 1995), 25.
15
Role play is used to refer to all sorts of activities where learners imagine themselves in a
situation outside the classroom, sometimes playing the role of someone other than themselves,
and using language appropriate to this new context.22
While simulation is very similar to role-play but here students can bring items to the class to
create a realistic environment. For instance, if a student is acting as a singer, he or she can bring a
microphone to sing and so on.
3. Dialogue
Dialogue is one of the media in teaching speaking. It helps the students practice in speech,
pronunciation, intonation, stress. Dialogue also increases students vocabulary. The primary
objective of using dialogue is developing students competence (pronunciation, intonation,
stress) in teaching speaking like native speaker. Therefore, in teaching learning uses dialogue
(short and long), the students are motivated by the teachers question to reason rather than to
recollect. Dialogues is two sides communication, it means we just not have to express something
but we should have to understand what another peoples said.23
4. Conversations
One of the recent trends in oral skills pedagogy is the emphasis on having students analyze and
evaluate the language that they or others produce. In other word, it is not adequate to have
students produce lots of language; they must become more aware of many features of language
in order to become competent speakers and interlocutors in English. One speaking activity which
is particularly suited to this kind of analysis is conversation, the most fundamental form of oral
communication24. One way to approach this activity is to assign students to find a native speaker
(or near-native speaker) they know and arrange to tape-record a 20-30 minutes interaction with
22 Marianne Celce-Murcia, Teaching English As A Second or Foreign Language (Boston: Heinly and Heinle, a
Division of Thomson Learning,Inc.2001), 108
23 Jack C. Richards and Willy A. Reynanda, Methodology in Language Teaching, (New York: Cambridge
16
this person. Of course, not all of the discourse that results from this encounter will be truly
.natural conversation-the native may fall into the role of interviewer and ask all questions while
the non-native merely responds; therefore the instructor may want to encourage the learner
beforehand to come up with a few questions to ask native speaker. In any case, the resulting
interaction will provide a sample of spontaneous from (and for) the learner to analyze. In a
variation of the conversation, learners are required to tape-record an interview with native
speaker on a topic of their choices and then repot the result to the class.
II.2.4. Factor Affecting Student Speaking Ability
According to Jack C. Richards and Willy A. Reynanda, there are four factors that affect student
oral communication ability that are age or maturational constraints, aural medium, socio-cultural
factors and affective factors. Here are the explanations of the four factors that affect student
speaking skill.
1. Age or Maturational Constraints
Age is one of the most commonly cited determinant factors of success or failure in foreign
language learning. Several experts such as Krashen and Scarcella argue that acquires who begin
learning a second language in early childhood through natural exposure achieves higher
proficiency than those beginning as adults. Many adults fail to reach native-like proficiency in a
second language. Their progress seems to level off at certain stage. This fact shows that the aging
process itself may affect or limit adult learners ability to pronounce the target language fluently
with native-like pronunciation.25
2. Aural Medium
The central role of listening comprehension in foreign language acquisition process in now
largely accepted. It means that Listening plays an extremely important role in the development of
speaking abilities.
17
Speaking feeds listening, which precede it. So, speaking is closely related to or interwoven with
listening which is the basic mechanism through which the rules of language are internalized.26
3. Socio-cultural Factors
Many cultural characteristics of a language also affect foreign language learning. From a
pragmatic perspective, language is a form of social action because linguistic communication
occurs in the context of structured interpersonal exchange and meaning is thus socially regulated.
Thus, to speak a language, one must know how language is used in a social context. In addition,
oral communication involves a very powerful nonverbal communication system which
sometimes contradicts the messages provided through the verbal listening channel. Because of a
lack of familiarity with nonverbal communication system of target language, EFL learners
usually do not know how to pick up nonverbal cues. So, it is an important point to understand
that socio-cultural factor is another aspect that great affect oral communication.27
4. Affective Factors
The affective side of the learner is probably one of the most important influences on language
learning success or failure. Foreign language learning is a complex task that is supectible to
human anxiety which is associated with feeling of uneasiness, frustration, self-doubt and
apprehension. Speaking a foreign language in public, especially in front of native speakers, is
often anxiety provoking28.
These four factors play an important role in determining the success and the failure of student in
learning speaking. Learning to speak a foreign language requires more that knowing its
grammatical and semantic rules.
27 Burnkart, Grace Stoval. Spoken language: What It Is and How to Teach It. 1998, 2. In
http://www.nclrc.org/essentials/speaking/goalsspeak.htm. Accessed on 1 May 2010.
28 H. Douglas Brown, Teaching by Principles, an Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy, 2nd Edition, (New
York: Addison Wesley Longman Inc, 2001), 271-274.
18
Factors affecting adult EFL learners oral communication are the thing that needs to be
considered by EFL teacher in order to provide guidance in developing competent speaker of
English. Once the EFL teachers are aware of these things, he will teach in more appropriate way
and it will help them to develop student speaking skill.
II.3. Teaching Speaking
The process of speaking skill has happened or proceeded by listening skill. Increasing listening
skill is very beneficial for speaking ability. The goal of teaching speaking skills is to
communicate efficiency. Learners should be able to make themselves understood, using their
current proficiency to the fullest. They should try to avoid confusion in the message due to faulty
pronunciation, grammar, or vocabulary, and to observe the social and cultural rules that apply in
each communication situation.29
II.3.1. Classroom Speaking Performance
Types of classroom speaking performance are:30
1. Imitative
Imitation of this kind is carried out not for the purpose of meaningful interaction, but for
focusing on some particular element of language form. Drills offer students an opportunity to
listen and to orally repeat certain strings of language that may pose some linguistics difficulty-
either phonological or grammatical. Here are some useful guidelines for successful drills; (1)
keep them short (a few minutes of a class hour only), (2) simple (preferably just one point at a
time), and (3) snappy, (4) make sure students know why they are doing the drill, (5) limit them
to the phonology or grammar points, (6) dont overuse them.
29 Burnkart, Grace Stoval. Spoken language: What It Is and How to Teach It. 1998, 2. In
19
2. Intensive
Intensive speaking goes one step beyond imitative to include any speaking performance is
designed to practice some phonological or grammatical aspect of language. Intensive speaking
can be selfimitated or it can even form part of some pair work activity, where learners are going
over certain forms of language.
3. Responsive
A good deal of student speech in the classroom is responsive: short replies to teacher-or student-
initiated questions or comments. These replies are usually sufficient and do not extend into
dialogues such speech can be meaningful and authentic.
4. Transactional (dialogue)
Transactional language, carried out for the purpose of conveying or exchanging specific
information, is an extended form of responsive language. Conversations, for example, may have
more of a negotiative nature to them than does responsive speech.
5. Interpersonal (dialogue)
Thesis conversations are a little trickier for learners because they can involve some or all of the
factors31: (1) a casual register, (2) Colloquial language, (3) Slang, (4) Ellipsis, (5) Sarcasm, (6) A
covert agenda. Learners would need to learn how such features as the relationship between
interlocutors, casual style, and sarcasm are coded linguistically in this conversation.
6. Extensive (monologue)
Finally, students at intermediate to advance levels are called on to give extended monologues in
the form of oral reports, summaries, or perhaps short speeches. Here the register is more formal
and deliberative. These monologues can be planned or impromptu.
II.3.2. Supporting and Managing the Speaking Process
20
Students speaking skills develop best in dynamic interactive learning environments, where
enough time is provided for them to share and listen to a variety of ideas. A safe, comfortable,
and relaxed atmosphere is critical for the development of productive talk in the classroom for all
students and is particularly important for those students who may come from backgrounds that
differ from the classroom norm.
Classrooms should be places where students can ask and answer meaningful questions and in
which the teacher and students are colearners, collaborating with one another to communicate
ideas and information. Different group sizes (pairs, small groups, and large groups) provide
opportunities for students to practice the different thinking and oral skills unique to each
configuration.
The role of the teacher is to:32
A. Give students the opportunities to gather information, question, and interpret

B. Attend to the thought and intent of students responses rather than the surface features of
dialect and grammar
C. Develop or involve students in developing assessment instruments
D. Encourage peer assessment that focuses on strengths and areas for improvement
E. Value questions as much as answers
F. Encourage students to challenge their and others assumptions, prejudices, and
information presented as facts
G. Promote students abilities to develop and participate in reasoned argument during
discussions and debates
H. Develop students sensitivities to others feelings, language, and responses
I. Respect cultural traditions; allow and model wait/think time after questions
J. Encourage and reward effort and improvement as well as competence
K. Assess both processes and products.
The following should be observed in the classroom on a day-to-day basis:33
A. The teacher modeling standard English language usage
32H. Douglas Brown, Teaching by Principles, an Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy, 2nd Edition, (New
York: Addison Wesley Longman Inc, 2001), 274
33 H. Douglas Brown, Teaching by Principles, an Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy, 2nd

Edition, (New York: Addison Wesley Longman Inc, 2001), 274
21
B. The teacher using brief mini-lessons to instruct students about language usage and
formats for a variety of speaking situations (e.g., informal and formal individual, small
group, and large group situations) and purposes (e.g., to inform, to persuade, to share
feelings, to respond, to entertain)
C. The students speaking for a variety of purposes and situations (e.g., small group
discussion, conversation, formal speeches, drama, debates, storytelling)
D. The students developing social skills by interacting in a variety of small group situations
(e.g., reader response groups, collaborative and co-operative groups)
E. The students and the teacher assessing speaking abilities and practices using checklists
and anecdotal notes.
Assessment of speaking should be continuous and take into account both process and product. A
variety of assessment techniques that consider students knowledge, skills, and attitudes should
be used.
Teachers may collect anecdotal notes, use checklists, or use audio or videotapes to collect data
about students speaking abilities. This data can then be used during conferences or interviews
with students about their performance and progress. Specific assessment suggestions are
provided with each of the speaking and listening activities included later in this section of the
curriculum guide.
II.3.3. Problems with Speaking Activities
Classroom activities that develop learners ability to express themselves trough speech would
therefore seem an important component of a language course. Yet it is difficult to design and
administer such activities; more so, in many ways, than do so for listening, reading or writing.
There are some problems with speaking activities such as:34
A. Inhibition. Unlike reading, writing and listening activities, speaking requires some degree
of real-time exposure to an audience. Learners are often inhibited about trying to say
things in a foreign language in the classroom: worried about making mistakes, fearful of
criticism or loosing face, or simply shy of the attention that their speech attracts.
34 Penny Ur, A course in Language Teaching, Practice and Theory, 120.
22
B. Nothing to say. Even if they are not inhibited, you often hear learners complain that they
cannot think of anything to say: they have no motive to express themselves beyond the
guilty feeling that they should be speaking.
C. Low or uneven participation. Only one participant can talk at a time if he or she is to be
heard; and in a large group this means that each one will have only very to dominate.
This problem is compounded by the tendency of some learners to dominate, while others
speak very little or not at all.
D. Mother-tongue use. In classes where all, or a number of, the learners share the same
mother tongue, they may tend to use it, because it is easier, because it feels unnatural to
speak to one another in a foreign language, and because they fell less exposed if they
are speaking their mother tongue. If they are talking in small groups it can be quite
difficult to get some classes - particularly the less disciplined or motivated ones - to keep
to the target language.35
II.3.4. Characteristics of Successful Speaking Activities
Again, sometimes spoken language is easy to perform, but in some cases it is difficult 36. In order
that they can carry out the successful speaking, they have to fulfill some characteristics of
successful speaking activity such as:37
A. Learners talk a lot. As much as possible of the period of time allocated to the activity is in
fact occupied by learners talk. This may be obvious, but often most time is taken up with
teacher talk or pauses.
B. Participant is even. Classroom discussion is not dominated by a minority of talk active
participants. All get a chance to speak and contributions are fairly evenly distributed.
C. Motivation is high. Learners are eager to speak because they are interested in the topic
and have something new to say about it, or they want to contribute to achieve a task
objective.
35 Penny Ur, A course in Language Teaching, Practice and Theory, 121
36 H. Douglas Brown, Principle of Language Learning and Teaching, 270.
37 Penny Ur, A course in Language Teaching, Practice and Theory, 120
23
D. Language is of an acceptable level. Learners express themselves in utterances that are
relevant, easy comprehensible to teach other and of acceptable level of language
accuracy.
24
III
SPEAKING SKILLS
III.1. Speaking skills
The first part aims at discussing the main related points to speaking skills, involves different
areas: definition of speaking skills, functions of speaking, the notion of teaching speaking,
elements of speaking, goals of teaching speaking, principles of teaching speaking, factors
affecting students speaking abillity, teaching speaking in Albania, speaking in English for
Albania, challenges of teaching speaking in Albania, communicative language teaching and
developing speaking activities, characteristics of successful speaking activities, and the
evaluation grading scale of speaking skills.
III.1.1. Definition of Speaking Skills
The researcher has found several resources that explain and clarify speaking as follows:
Speaking is to express or communicate opinions, feelings, ideas, etc, by or as talking and it

involves the activities in the part of the speaker as psychological, 15 physiological (articulator)
and physical (acoustic) stags.38
Channey39 stated that speaking is the process of building and sharing meaning through the use
of verbal and nonverbal symbols in a variety of contexts.
38 Jonathan Crowther A.S. Hornby. - 5th rev. ed. / editor, Oxford Advanced Dictionary, 1995, p. 13
39 Channey, A. L. Teaching Oral Communication in Grades K-8. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. (1998 p. 13).
25
Bryne40 also said that, speaking is a two way process between speaker and listener and involves
the productive skill of speaking and the receptive skill of understanding.
In the same respect, Nunan41 agrees with Bryne that speaking is the productive oral skill and it
consists of producing systematic verbal utterances to convey meaning.
According to Chastain42, speaking is a productive skill and it involves many components.

Speaking is more than making the right sounds, choosing the right words or getting the
constructions.
Based on the previous definitions, the researcher concludes that speaking is the process of
sharing with other persons, one's knowledge, interests, attitudes, opinions or ideas. These are
important aspects of the process of speaking which the speaker's ideas become real to him and
his listener. In general, speaking skill is the ability to say, to address, to make known, to use or be
able to use a given language in the actual communication. So, in the light of these highlighted
definitions, the researcher can compose an operational definition of speaking skill in this study as
Speaking is a skill of comprehending, pronouncing, and being fluent and accurate in using
grammar and vocabulary.
III.2. The Functions of Speaking
40 Byrne, D. Teaching Oral English. New York: Longman. (1998, p. 8)
41 Nunan, D. The Impact of English as a Global Language on Educational Policies and Practices in the Asia
Pacific Region. (2003, p. 48)
42 Chastain, K. Developing Second Language Skills. (nd Ed.). Chicago: Harcourt Brace Publishers. (1998, p. 330-
358)
26
Several language experts have attempted to categorize the functions of speaking in human
interaction. According to Brown and Yule (1991)43, as quoted in Richards (2007, p. 2)44 The
functions of speaking are classified into three; they are talk as interaction, talk as transaction, and
talk as performance. Below are the clarifications of these functions:
1. Talk as Interaction
The ability to speak in a natural way is required in order to create good communication. That is
why some students sometimes avoid this kind of situation because they often lose words and feel
difficulty in presenting a good image of themselves. Therefore, language instructors should
provide learners with opportunities for meaningful communicative behavior about relevant topics
by using learner- learner interaction as the key to teaching language for communication. Since
communication derives essentially from interaction.45 The main features of talk as interaction
can be summarized as follows:
Has a primarily social function

Reflects role relationships
Reflects speakers identity
May be formal or casual
Uses conversational conventions
Reflects degrees of politeness
Employs many generic words
Uses conversational register
Is jointly constructed
43 Brown, G., & Yule, G. (1991). Teaching Spoken Language. Cambridge: Cambridge.
44 Richards, J. C. (2007). Developing Classroom Speaking Activities: From Theory to Practice. Retrieved
November,4 (2010)from http://www.professorjackrichard.com/developing classoom speaking activities.pdf .
45 Rivers, W. (2000). Teaching Foreign Language Skills, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. (2000, p. 543)
27
We can see some of these features illustrated in the following authentic example of a segment of
conversational discourse.46 Two women are asking a third woman about her husband and how
they first met.
Jessie: Right. Right, and so when did you actually meet him?
Brenda: So we didnt actually meet until that night.
Judy: Oh, hysterical. [laughs]
Brenda: Well, I met him that night. We were all, we all went out to dinner. So I had champagne
and strawberries at the airport.
Jessie: And what was it like when you first saw him? Were you really nervous?
Brenda: Well, I was hanging out of a window watching him in his car, and I thought oh God
what about this! [laughs]
Brenda: And hed combed his hair and shaved his eyebrows and
Jessie: Had you seen a photo of him?
Brenda: Oh, yeah, I had photos of him, photos . . . and Id spoken to him on the phone.
Jessie: Did you get on well straight away?
Brenda: Uh, well sort of. Im a sort of nervy person when I first meet people, so it was sort of . . .
you know . . . just nice to him.
Jessie: [laughs]
The conversation is highly interactive and is in a collaborative conversational style. The listeners
give constant feedback, including laughter, to prompt the speaker to continue, and we see the
examples of casual conversational register with nervy and hanging out of the window.
Examples of these kinds of talk are:
Chatting to an adjacent passenger during a plane flight (polite conversation that does not
seek to develop the basis for future social contact)
46 Thornbury, Scott, and Diana Slade (2006). Conversation: From description to Pedagogy. New York: Cambridge
University Press. (2006, p.132133)
28
Chatting to a school friend over coffee (casual conversation that serves to mark an
ongoing friendship)
A student chatting to his or her professor while waiting for an elevator (polite
conversation that reflects unequal power between the two participants)
Telling a friend about an amusing weekend experience, and hearing him or her recount a
similar experience he or she once had (sharing personal recounts)
Some of the skills involved in using talk as interaction involve knowing how to do the following
things:
Opening and closing conversations

Choosing topics
Making small-talk
Joking
Recounting personal incidents and experiences
Turn-taking
Using adjacency pairs
Interrupting
Reacting to others
Using an appropriate style of speaking
Adjacency pairs: A sequence of two related utterances by two different speakers. The second
utterance is always a response to the first. For example, complain apologize, compliment
accept, invite decline.
Mastering the art of talk as interaction is difficult and may not be a priority for all learners.
However, students who do need such skills and find them lacking report that they sometimes feel
awkward and at a loss for words when they find themselves in situations that require talk for
interaction. They feel difficulty in presenting a good image of themselves and sometimes avoid
situations that call for this kind of talk. This can be a disadvantage for some learners where the
ability to use talk for conversation can be important. Hatch 47 emphasizes that second language
learners need a wide range of topics at their disposal in order to manage talk as interaction.
Initially, learners may depend on familiar topics to get by. However, they also need practice in
introducing new topics into conversation to move beyond this stage.
47 Hatch, E. (ed.). Second Language Acquisition. Rowley, MA: Newbury House. (1978, p. 192)
29
They should practice nominating topics about which they are prepared to speak. They should do
lots of listening comprehension for topic nominations of native speakers.
They should practice predicting questions for a large number of topics. . . . They should be taught
elicitation devices . . . to get topic clarification. That is, they should practice saying huh,
pardon me, excuse me, I didnt understand, etc., and echoing parts of sentences they do not
understand in order to get it recycled again. Nothing stops the opportunity to carry on a
conversation quicker than silence or the use of yes and head nodding when the learner does not
understand48.
Consequently, the giving and taking exchanges of information will enable them to create
discourse that conveys their intentions in real- life communication.
2. Talk as Transaction
Talk as transaction refers to situations where the focus is on what is said or done. The message
and making oneself understood clearly and accurately is the central focus, rather than the
participants and how they interact socially with each other. In such transactions, talk is associated
with other activities. For example, students may be engaged in hands-on activities (e.g., in a
science lesson) to explore concepts associated with floating and sinking. In this type of spoken
language students and teachers usually focus on meaning or on talking their way to
understanding.49
The following example from a literature lesson illustrates this kind of talk in a classroom setting
(T = Teacher, S = Student):
T: The other day we were talking about figures of speech.
And we have already in the past talked about three kinds of figures of speech. Does anybody
remember those three types? Mary?
48 Hatch, E. (ed.) Second Language Acquisition. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.( 1978, p.434)
49 Jones, Pauline (1996). Planning an oral language program. In Pauline Jones, Talking to Learn.Melbourne: (Jones
1996, p.14)
30
S: Personification, simile, and metaphor.
T: Good. Let me write those on the board. Now can anybody tell me what personification is all
about again? Juan?
S: Making a nonliving thing act like a person.
T: Yes. OK. Good enough. Now what about simile? . . .OK. Cecelia?
S: Comparing two things by making use of the words like or as.
T: OK. Good. Ill write that on the board. The other one metaphor. Paul?
S: Its when we make a comparison between two things, but we compare them without using the
words like or as.
T: All right. Good. So its more direct than simile. Now we had a poem a few weeks ago about
personification. Do you remember? Can you recall one line from that poem where a nonliving
thing acts like a human person?
S: The moon walks the night.
T: Good. The moon walks the night. Does the moon have feet to walk?
S: No.
T: No. So this is a figure of speech. All right. Now our lesson today has something to do with
metaphor. Now were going to see what they have in common . . . (Richards and Lockhart 1994:
116117)
Examples of talk as transaction are:
Classroom group discussions and problem-solving activities

A class activity during which students design a poster
Discussing needed computer repairs with a technician
Discussing sightseeing plans with a hotel clerk or tour guide
Making a telephone call to obtain flight information
Asking someone for directions on the street
Buying something in a shop
Ordering food from a menu in a restaurant
Burns50 distinguishes between two different types of talk as transaction. The first type involves
situations where the focus is on giving and receiving information and where the participants
focus primarily on what is said or achieved (e.g., asking someone for directions). Accuracy may
not be a priority, as long as information is successfully communicated or understood.
50 Burns , A. "Teaching Speaking". Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, (1998,p. 102-123).
31
The second type is transactions that focus on obtaining goods or services, such as checking into a
hotel or ordering food in a restaurant. For example, the following exchange was observed in a
caf:
Server: Hi, whatll it be today?

Client: Just a cappuccino, please. Low-fat decaf if you have it.
Server: Sure. Nothing to eat today?
Client: No, thanks.
Server: Not a problem.
The main features of talk as transaction are:
It has a primarily information focus.

The main focus is on the message and not the participants.
Participants employ communication strategies to make themselves understood.
There may be frequent questions, repetitions, and comprehension checks, as in the
example from the preceding classroom lesson.
There may be negotiation and digression.
Linguistic accuracy is not always important.
Some of the skills involved in using talk for transactions are:
Explaining a need or intention

Describing something
Asking questions
Asking for clarification
Confirming information
Justifying an opinion
Making suggestions
Clarifying understanding
Making comparisons
Agreeing and disagreeing
Several methods can be used to address the issue of language accuracy when students are
practicing transactional use of language:
1. By pre-teaching certain linguistic forms that can be used while completing a task.
2. By reducing the complexity of the task (e.g., by familiarizing students with the demands
of the activity by showing them a similar activity on video or as a dialog).
3. By giving adequate time to plan the task.
32
4. By repeated performance of the task.
Willis51 suggests using a cycle of activities with task work using a sequence of activities in a
lesson. These activities create interaction mediated by a task and then build language awareness
and language development around task performance. She proposes the following sequence of
activities:
Pre-task activities
Introduction to topic and task
T helps Ss to understand the theme and objectives of the task, for example, brainstorming
ideas with the class, using pictures, mime, or personal experience to introduce the topic.
Ss may do a pre-task, for example, topic-based odd-word-out games. T may highlight
useful words and phrases, but would not pre-teach new structures.
Ss can be given preparation time to think about how to do the task.
Ss can hear a recording of a parallel task being done (so long as this does not give away
the solution to the problem).
If the task is based on a text, Ss read a part of it.
The task cycle
Task
The task is done by Ss (in pairs or groups) and gives Ss a chance to use whatever
language they already have to express themselves and say whatever they want to say.
This may be in response to reading a text or hearing a recording.
T walks around and monitors, encouraging everyones attempt at communication in the
target language.
T helps Ss to formulate what they want to say, but will not intervene to correct errors of
form.
The emphasis is on spontaneous, exploratory talk and confidence building, within the
privacy of the small group.
Success in achieving the goals of the tasks helps Ss motivation.
Planning
51 Willis, Jane. A Flexible Framework for Task-based Learning. In Willis, Jane, and Dave (Ed.).
Challenge and Change in Language Teaching. Heinemann. (1996)
33
Planning prepares Ss for the next stage, where they are asked to briefly report to the
whole class how they did the task and what the outcome was.
Ss draft and rehearse what they want to say or write.
T goes around to advise students on language, suggesting phrases and helping Ss to
polish and correct their language.
If the reports are in writing, T can encourage peer editing and use of dictionaries.
The emphasis is on clarity, organization, and accuracy, as appropriate for a public
presentation.
Individual students often take this chance to ask questions about specific language items.
Report
T asks some pairs to report briefly to the whole class so everyone can compare findings,
or begin a survey. There must be a purpose for others to listen. Sometimes only one or
two groups report in full; others comment and add extra points. The class may take notes.
T chairs, comments on the content of group reports, rephrases perhaps, but gives no overt
public correction.
The language focus
Analysis
T sets some language-focused tasks, based on the texts student read or on the transcripts of the
recordings they heard. Examples include the following:
Find words and phrases related to the topic or text.

Read the transcript, find words ending in s and say what the s means.
Find all the words in the simple past form. Say which refer to past time and which do not.
Underline and classify the questions in the transcript.
T starts Ss off, then students continue, often in pairs.
T goes around to help. Ss can ask individual questions.
In plenary, T then reviews the analysis, possibly listing relevant language on the board. Ss may
take notes.
Practice
T conducts practice activities as needed, based on the language analysis work already on the
board, or using examples from the text or transcript. Practice activities can include:
34
Choral repetition of the phrases identified and classified
Memory challenge games based on partially erased examples or using lists already on
blackboard for progressive deletion
Sentence completion (base sentence set by one team for another)
Matching the past-tense verbs (jumbled) with the subject or objects they had in the text
Dictionary reference with words from text or transcript
3. Talk as Performance
The third type of talk that can usefully be distinguished has been called talk as performance. This
refers to public talk, that is, talk that transmits information before an audience, such as classroom
presentations, public announcements, and speeches. For example, here is the opening of a fall
welcome speech given by a university president:
Good morning. Its not my intention to deliver the customary state of the university address.
Theres good reason for that. It would seem to me to be presumptuous for someone who has been
here not quite seven weeks to tell you what he thinks the state of the university is. You would all
be better prepared for that kind of address than I am. However, I would like to offer you, based
on my experience which has been pretty intensive these almost seven weeks some impressions
that I have of this institution, strengths, or some of them, and the challenges and opportunities
that we face here. . . . I also want to talk about how I see my role during the short time that I will
be with you . . .
Spoken texts of this kind, according to Jones52, often have identifiable generic structures and the
language used is more predictable. Because of less contextual support, the speaker must include
all necessary information in the text hence the importance of topic as well as textual
knowledge. And while meaning is still important, there will be more emphasis on form and
accuracy.
Talk as performance tends to be in the form of monolog rather than dialog, often follows a
recognizable format (e.g., a speech of welcome), and is closer to written language than
conversational language. Similarly, it is often evalu-ated according to its effectiveness or impact
52Jones, Pauline. Planning an oral language program. In Pauline Jones, Talking to Learn. Melbourne: (1996,p. 14)
35
on the listener, something that is unlikely to happen with talk as interaction or transaction.
Examples of talk as performance are:
Giving a class report about a school trip

Conducting a class debate
Giving a speech of welcome
Making a sales presentation
Giving a lecture
The main features of talk as performance are:
A focus on both message and audience

Predictable organization and sequencing
Importance of both form and accuracy
Language is more like written language
Often monologic
Some of the skills involved in using talk as performance are:
Using an appropriate format

Presenting information in an appropriate sequence
Maintaining audience engagement
Using correct pronunciation and grammar
Creating an effect on the audience
Using appropriate vocabulary
Using an appropriate opening and closing
Teachers sometimes describe interesting differences between how learners man-age these three
different kinds of talk, as the following anecdotes illustrate.
I sometimes find with my students at a university in Canada that they are good at talk as
transaction and performance but not with talk as interaction. For example, the other day one of
my students did an excellent class presentation in a course for computer science majors, and
described very effectively a new piece of computer software. However, a few days later when I
met the same student going home on the subway and tried to engage her in social chat, she was
at a complete loss for words.
Another teacher describes a second language user with just the opposite difficulties. He is more
comfortable with talk as interaction than with talk as performance.
36
One of my colleagues in my university in England is quite comfortable using talk socially. If we
have lunch together with other native speakers, he is quite comfortable joking and chatting in
English. However, recently we did a presentation together at a conference and his performance
was very different. His pronunciation became much more British and he made quite a few
grammatical and other errors that I hadnt heard him make before.
III.3. Elements of Speaking
In learning speaking, it is very important for students to acquire the ability to express their
thoughts and opinions. Consequently, this competency should be mastered by the students of
language. Following are the elements of speaking ability as Thordores 53 named it language
features:
1. The connected speech
The effective speakers of English need to be able not only to produce individual phonemes of
English, but also to use fluent connected speech. So, the teachers should involve students in oral
activities designed specifically to improve their connected speech.
2. An expressive devise
Is the alteration of speech, volume, and stress of utterances to show the feeling. The use of this
devise contributes the ability to convey meaning. Students should be able to organize at least
some of such supra- segmental features and devices in the same way if they want to be fully
effective communicators.
3. The lexis and grammar
Spontaneous speech is marked by the use of a number of common lexical phrases, especially in
the performance of certain language functions. Therefore, it is necessary for the teacher to give
supply of certain words and language function, such as agreeing and disagreeing, surprise, and so
forth.
53 Thordores, S. Approach and Methods in Language Teaching , New York: Mc Graw Hill Higher Education
University Press. (2001, p.23-26)
37
4. Negotiation language
It is a way of getting students to practice the language by giving pairs of students different cards,
which each has one of these phrases written on them. Students then have to use the language
forms written on their cards to interrupt and ask some questions. Therefore, those elements are
completely significant for mastering a speaking ability and giving students opportunities to be
good communicators.
Furthermore, Harmer54 states that the other element for the speaking is mental/social processing
except the language skill for the speaker, but the rapid processing skill is necessary for effective
speakers, such as language processing, interaction, and information processing.
5. The language processing
It is important for the speakers to convey their intention to someone else and they process the
words or phrases from memory to communicate with people. It helps the students to develop
habits of rapid language processing.
6. Interaction
Most speaking involves interaction with one or more participant. This means the effective oral
communication also involves a good deal of listening, and understanding of how the other
participants are feeling and a knowledge of how they take turns.
7. Information Processing
It is related to the perception of someone else concerning the responses to others' feelings in
using the language. Students also need to be able to process the information.
Both Thordores and Harmer agree that for a speaker, in order to be able to wage a successful
fluent oral production, it is necessary to possess knowledge of the language and skill in using this
knowledge.
Thordores (2001) makes a distinction between knowledge of language features (skills). While
Harmer (2001) distinguishes between the ability to possess information and language on the spot
54 Harmer, J. (2001). How to Teach English. London: Longman Press. (2001, p. 104)
38
via mental/social processing. Thus, Thordores (2001) includes under the term language features
connected speech, expressive devices, knowledge of lexis and grammar, and negotiation
language. So, the learners are involved in actual interaction in the classroom. This interaction
must be meaningful and involve an authentic use of language.
III.4. Conversational routines
A marked feature of conversational discourse is the use of fixed expressions, or routines, that
often have specific functions in conversation and give con-versational discourse the quality of
naturalness. Wardhaugh55 observes:
There are routines to help people establish themselves in certain positions: routines for taking off
and hanging up coats; arrangements concerning where one is to sit or stand at a party or in a
meeting; offers of hospitality; and so on. There are routines for beginnings and endings of
conversations, for leading into topics, and for moving away from one topic to another. And there
are routines for breaking up conversations, for leaving a party, and for dissolving a gathering. It
is difficult to imagine how life could be lived without some routines.
Consider the following routines. Where might they occur? What might their function be within
these situations?
This ones on me.

I dont believe a word of it.
I dont get the point.
You look great today.
As I was saying, . . .
Nearly time. Got everything.
Ill be making a move then.
I see what you mean.
Let me think about it.
Just looking, thanks.
Ill be with you in a minute.
It doesnt matter.
55 Richards, Jack C. (1990). Conversationally speaking: Approaches to the teaching of conversation. In Jack C.
Richards, The Language Teaching Matrix.New York: Cambridge University Press (1990,p. 74)
39
Pawley and Syder (1983) suggest that native speakers have a repertoire of thousands of routines
like these, that their use in appropriate situations creates conversational discourse that sounds
natural and native-like, and that they have to be learned and used as fixed expressions.
In designing speaking activities or instructional materials for second-language or foreign-

language teaching, it is also necessary to recognize the very different functions speaking
performs in daily communication and the different purposes for which our students need
speaking skills.
III.5. Styles of speaking
An important dimension of conversation is using a style of speaking that is appropriate to the

particular circumstances. Different styles of speaking reflect the roles, age, sex, and status of
participants in interactions and also reflect the expression of politeness. Consider the various
ways in which it is possible to ask someone the time, and the different social meanings that are
communicated by these differences.
Got the time?

I guess it must be quite late now?
Whats the time?
Do you have the time?
Can I bother you for the time?
You wouldnt have the time, would you?
Lexical, phonological, and grammatical changes may be involved in producing a suitable style of
speaking, as the following alternatives illustrate:
Have you seen the boss? / Have you seen the manager? (lexical)
Whachadoin? / What are you doing? (phonological)
Seen Joe lately? / Have you seen Joe lately?
Different speech styles reflect perceptions of the social roles of the participants in a speech event.
If the speaker and hearer are judged to be of more or less equal status, a casual speech style that
stresses affiliation and solidarity is appropriate. If the participants are perceived as being of
uneven power or status, a more formal speech style is appropriate, one that marks the dominance
40
of one speaker over the other. Successful management of speech styles creates the sense of
politeness that is essential for harmonious social relations (Brown and Levinson, 1978).
III.6. The Teaching of Speaking
The mastery of speaking skills in English is a priority for many second-language or foreign-
language learners. Consequently, learners often evaluate their success in language learning as
well as the effectiveness of their English course on the basis of how much they feel they have
improved in their spoken language proficiency. Oral skills have hardly been neglected in
EFL/ESL courses (witness the huge number of conversation and other speaking course books in
the market), though how best to approach the teaching of oral skills has long been the focus of
methodological debate. Teachers and textbooks make use of a variety of approaches, ranging
from direct approaches focusing on specific features of oral interaction (e.g., turn-taking, topic
management, and questioning strategies) to indirect approaches that create conditions for oral
interaction through group work, task work, and other strategies (Richards, 1990).
Advances in discourse analysis, conversational analysis, and corpus analysis in recent years have
revealed a great deal about the nature of spoken discourse and how it differs from written
discourse (McCarthy and Carter, 1997). These differences reflect the different purposes for
which spoken and written language are used. Jones56 comments:
In speaking and listening we tend to be getting something done, exploring ideas, working out
some aspect of the world, or simply being together. In writing, we may be creating a record,
committing events or moments to paper.
Research has also thrown considerable light on the complexity of spoken inter-action in either a
first or second language. For example, Luoma (2004) cites some of the following features of
spoken discourse:
Composed of idea units (conjoined short phrases and clauses)

May be planned (e.g., a lecture) or unplanned (e.g., a conversation)
56 Jones, Pauline. Planning an oral language program. In Pauline Jones , Talking to Learn. Melbourne: (1996,p. 12)
41
Employs more vague or generic words than written language
Employs fixed phrases, fillers, and hesitation markers
Contains slips and errors reflecting online processing
Involves reciprocity (i.e., interactions are jointly constructed)
Shows variation (e.g., between formal and casual speech), reflecting speaker roles,
speaking purpose, and the context.
III.6.1. The Notion of Teaching Speaking
Speaking skill should be taught and practiced in the language classroom. Because the language
course truly enables the students to communicate in English, so speaking skill needs the special
treatment. In reality, in daily life most of time people speak more than write; yet many English
teachers still spend the majority of class time on reading and writing practice almost ignoring
speaking and listening skills. Based on the statement above, there should be a good balance to
practice in classroom. Therefore, some researchers and experts have tried to assign the notion of
teaching speaking like Nunan57 who has clarified it as to teach English language learners to:
produce the English speech sounds and sound patterns;

use words and sentence stress, intonation patterns and the rhythm of the second language;
select appropriate words and sentences according to the proper social settings situation
and subject matter;
organize their thoughts in a meaningful and logical sequence;
use language as a means of expressing values and judgments, and
use the language quickly and confidently.
Teaching speaking, in the researcher's opinion, is the way for students to express their emotions,
communicative needs, interact with other persons in any situation, and influence the others. For
this reason, in teaching speaking skill it is necessary to have clear understanding involved in
speech and also encourage the potential of the learners to develop their speaking skill naturally.
Overall, teaching speaking skill emphasizes on the activities to make the students active and
creative.
57 Nunan, D. The Impact of English as a Global Language on Educational Policies and Practices in the AsiaPacific
Region. (2003, p. 48)
42
III.6.2. Goals of Teaching Speaking
As regards speaking is a crucial part of foreign language learning and teaching. Despite its
importance, for many years, teaching speaking has been undervalued and English language
teachers have continued to teach speaking just as a repetition of drills or memorization of
dialogues. However, today's world requires that the goal of teaching speaking should improve
students' communicative skills. Because only in that way, students can express themselves and
learn how to follow the social and cultural rules appropriately in each communicative
circumstances. Nunan58 sees mastering the art of speaking as the most important aspect of
learning a language. While, Ur59 said that the most important reason for teaching speaking is to
develop oral fluency that is the ability to express oneself intelligibly, reasonably, accurately and
without undue hesitation. According to Harmer (1990) the aim of teaching speaking is to train
students for communication. Add to, Mabrouk60 supported that by saying, students should be
able to make themselves understood, using their current proficiency to the fullest. Furthermore,
Lawtie61 asserted that the success of learning language is measured in terms of the ability to
carry out a conversation in the target language. While, Al Mashharawi 62 noted that speaking is
fundamental to human communication. If the goal of teaching language is to enable students to
communicate in English, then speaking skills should be taught and practiced in the language
classroom.
58 Nunan, D. Language Teaching Methodology. London: Prentice Hall. (1998, p. 39)
59 Nunan, D & Lamb C. (1996). The Self-Directed Teacher: Managing the Learning Process. Cambridge, New
York: Cambridge University Press. (1996, p. 56)
60 Mabrouk, W. (2003). "Vocabulary Teaching Techniques of EFL Palestinian Teachers at the Basic Stage in
Nablus District". Unpublished M.A Study , Education College, An Najah National University, Nablus, Palestine.
(2003, p. 23)
61 Lawtie, F.(2004). Teaching speaking skills to Overcoming Classroom Problems. Retrieved March 10, 2010 from
http://www. Teachingenglish.org.uk/think. (2004, p. 35)
62 Al Mashharawi, B. (2006). "Evaluating Teachers' Performance in Teaching Speaking Communicatively in

Preparatory Stage in Jabalia Area". Unpublished MA study. The Islamic University. (2006, p. 4)
43
Abu Sharbain63 added that the communicative approach calls for increasing the students talking
time (STT) and decreasing the teachers talking time (TTT). This comes as a result of providing
the learners with opportunities to speak through cooperative independent activities.
Based on the previous explanation, the researcher concludes that the goal of teaching speaking
skill is a communicative efficiency i.e. students should try to avoid confusion in the message due
to faulty of pronounciation, grammar or vocabulary, and to observe the social and cultural rules
that apply in each communicative situation.
III.6.3. Principles of Teaching Speaking
To achieve the previous goals, teachers should follow certain principles for teaching speaking,
which may help them in designing the classroom activities and management. Nunan (2003) and
Kayi (2006) suggest some principles that help in teaching speaking:
1. The teachers should be aware of the difference between second and foreign language.
2. The teachers should give students chance to practice with fluency and accuracy.
3. The teachers should provide opportunity for students to talk by using group-work and
pairwork and limit the teachers' talk.
4. The teachers should plan speaking task to involve negotiation of meaning.
5. The teachers should design classroom activities that involve guidance and practice in
both transactional and interactional speaking.
6. The teachers should ask eliciting questions such as What do you mean? How did you
reach that conclusion? in order to prompt students to speak more.
7. The teachers should provide written feedback like Your presentation was really great. It
was a good job. I really appreciated your efforts in preparing the materials and efficient
use of your voice.
8. The teachers should not correct students' pronunciation mistakes very often while they
are speaking. Correction should not distract student from his or her speech.
9. The teachers should involve speaking activities not only in class but also out of class;
contact parents and other people who can help.
63 Abu Sharbain, I. ( 2009). "Difficulties Encounterin g UNRWA Ninth Grade Teachers in Performing their Roles
in Light of the Communicative Approach to Teaching Speaking in the Gaza Strip". MA Thesis, Faculty of
Education: The Islamic University. Gaza: Palestine. (2009, p. 23)
44
10. The teachers should circulate around classroom to ensure that students are on the right
track and see whether they need a help while they work in groups or pairs.
11. The teachers should reduce teacher speaking time in class while increasing student
speaking time. Step back and observe students.
In the light of the principles of teaching speaking as mentioned above, it could be concluded that
English teachers, when teaching young learners, have constantly to keep in mind the fact that
they deal with a mixed class with varied
45
IV
TEACHING SPEAKING SCILLS OF ENGLISH IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS
IV.1. Current Situation in Oral English Teaching and Learning in Albania
In foreign language teaching, the four basic skills---listening, speaking, reading and writing---
have greatly improved on the part of Albanian students in the past decades.
However, these skills have not developed at the same rate. Many students can understand others
English but they cannot express themselves effectively in English. For the majority of students,
speaking still remains the most difficult skill to master, which can be reflected in the weak ability
to communicate orally in English even after years of study at universities.
According to the renowned linguists, Rivers and Temperley (1978), 45% of communication is
carried out through listening, 30% through speaking, 16% through reading and 9% through
writing. It can be concluded that communication by mouth and ear is the basic communication of
human beings. Thus, speaking is one of the most important skills in language learning.
Learning to speak English is considered to be one of the most difficult aspects of English
learning for teachers to help the students. So, how to improve and develop oral English teaching
in Albanian schools has drawn the attention of both teachers and educators, and it has become
one of the most important issues in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teaching field today.
Although many researchers and educators have tried to put various teaching theories and
methods into practice to improve the teaching of oral English, there has not been much progress
to date.
Thus, it is urgent for teachers of English to conduct research on this aspect, and to find more
effective ways to improve it.
46
IV.2. Teaching Strategies which we can use in primary schools
Talking about teaching strategies, there are many teaching strategies can be used by teacher in
classroom when teaching strategies process, which are suitable for large groups, small groups,
and for individual of course. As a teacher can use most of these strategies in all three situations.
According to Reece teaching strategies is important that you familiar with each and know where
they might be used.64 We can see the table shown teaching strategies related to group size as
follows:
Group size Appropriate Strategy

Lecture
Demonstration
Team Teaching
Large Group
Discussion
(N = > 20)
Debate
Question and Answer
Video
Seminar
Laboratory / workshop
Gaming / quiz
Brainstorming
Small Group Buzz Group
(N = 5 20) Field Trip
Role Play
Ice Breaker
Simulation
Case Study
Project / Assignment
Individual Tutorial
(N = < 5) Open / Distance Learning
64 Jan Reece and Stephen Walker, Teaching, Training, and Learning, (British Library: Bussiness Education,
1997),p 136
47
IV.2.1. Strategies Appropriate to Large Groups
The strategies that are appropriate to large groups (Groups of greater than 20 students) are
lecture, demonstration, discussion / debate. Question and answer video. Large group teaching
strategies then are suitable when:
A. The basic purpose is to dissemininate information

B. The material is not available else where
C. The material must be presented and organized in a particular way for a specific group.
D. It necessary to arise interest in the subject
E. The material need only be remembered for short time
F. It is necessary to provide an introduction to an area or direction for learning tasks to
be pursued through some other teaching strategy.
The writer explain each strategies appropriate to large groups as below:
A. Lecture
A lecture involves the teacher talking to the students about the subject. There is little, if any
chance of any two-way communication. In other words, the lecture has an introduction to the
content, the detail is then presented, and lecture comes from the Latin word letcare meaning to
read aloud. When is it used?
Either in the classroom or workshop to pass information to the class in cost-effective manners (to
a group of the students in a short time by one person). Thus, it is used to pass knowledge only it
understanding is required a subsequent different strategy will be used.
Advantages of lecture are:
A teacher can reach a large number of students

Convoy a large amount of material in short time
Teacher has complete control.
Disadvantages of lecture are:
Little opportunity to question teacher (often one way communication)

Little or even no feedback regarding the effectiveness of the learning
Need for a large, comfortable, perhaps purpose built room
Need to be communication be expert
Large group could be of putting to teacher
48
Student are often passive
Little use of teaching skills.
B. Demonstration
Demonstrasion is the technique is usually associated with demonstrating a practical skill. It often
introduces the skill; its point and importance. The skill is demonstrated after which the students
practice the skill. When is it used?
In the practical situation to introduce a new skill to a group of students to rectify laults
with individual.
Advantages of demonstration is:
When performed well, the demonstration can be highly motivating better than a verbal
description.
Theory and practice can be linked
Pace of demonstration can be varied : slowly, at normal speed, and in stage.
Students usually enjoy actively doing things.
Expert demonstrations may be available via the video
Key points can be stressed and repeated
May allow students to ask question.
Disadvantages of demonstration are :
A poor demonstration can be frustrating for the students

Can be too fast or too slow for the learners
No permanent record
May be difficult to see
May be too long leading to loss of concentration
Students may learn bad habits / techniques
Can be expensive in terms of material costs
Teacher needs to rehearse
Students can be passive.
C. Discussion
Discussion is the students are actively involved in talking to each other about an issue of mutual
concern. Your job is to manage the situation so that learning takes place. When it is used?
Discussion is often used to help solved problems, or to explore issues and take decisions.
It is a useful way of exploring attitudes and to help change unhelpful or antisocial
attitudes.
49
Advantages of discussion they are:
Can be used following a video or lecture in order to reinforce the learning.

Very useful for changing attitudes.
Involves the students and quiet members of the group can emerge as leaders.
Can be very creative.
Needs a summary.
Can encourage students to become more articulate.
Students can critics each others views and not the person.
Broadens views
Does not feel like hard work.
Provides interesting feedback on students knowledge of the topic and their social skills.
Encourage deep learning.
Disadvantages of discussion they are:
Students and teachers need to develop discussion skills

Can be risky
May take a relatively long time
You must not dominate
Have something else prepared in case discussion is ineffective
May be difficult to keep to the point
May be noisy
Can degenerate into an informal chat.
D. Debate
Debate is very familiar to a discussion but tends to have more rules regarding procedure. When is
it used?
Where there is no right answer and where both sides of the argument would benefit from
exploration to enhance formal communication skills in the presentation of an argument.
For example, the use of nuclear power to generate electricity: bring back corporal
punishment; the National Lottery.
Advantages of debate are:
Has a clear structure and an element of completion

All students can participate
Students can take the leading roles
Good for contentious issues
Students can enhance their presentation skills
Increase teamwork
Both sides of the argument are exposed
50
Students can enjoy the process
Disadvantages of debate they are:
Students may find the rules and procedures difficult to understand

A minority of the students may do most of the work
Students must prepare thoroughly which may take some time
E. Question and answer
Question and answer is posing a series of question to students in order to promote thinking and
understanding. When is it used?
It is an informal assessment technique which is used with groups of up to 30 students. It

is a way of ascertaining the existing level of learning or entry behavior in the introduction
to a lesson and/or, assessing the learning that has taken places at the end of a lesson (or
during it).
Advantages of strategies question and answer are:
Students are involved and feel they are contributing to learning

Misconception may be identified an early stage can build from simple to complex
Key question can be pre planned
Feedback on quality of learning is gained
Maintains concentration
Can stimulating students
Gives feedback on quality of teaching
Disadvantages of strategies question answer are:
You need to be able to respond quickly to the students answer

Careful planning may be needed
A minority of students may participate.
F. Video
Video is a method bringing realism into the classroom or workshop. When is it used? Can be
linked to a range of other teaching strategies as a means of providing variety and realism.
Advantages of this strategies are:
Can bring a well known expert into the classroom

Students can see dangerous on one off situation
51
A permanent record
Can be taken home by (some) students
Help the students to visualize
Can choose to view small extracts
Disadvantages of question and answer are:
May disrupt class

Class handed over to another
Can be seen as an easy option for the teacher
Technical problems
Availability of resources
Video from an authoritative source may be biased and bias the students.
G. Team Teaching
Two or more teachers co-operating in the planning, presentation, assessment, and evaluation of a
course, but mainly in the presentation. When is it used, where there are large groups of the
students and the teachers can take responsibility for parts of the course or where special expertise
is needed.
Advantages of these strategies are:
Reduces preparation time for each teacher

Teachers work to their strengths
Teamwork produces a better course
Curriculum development enhanced
Disadvantages of these strategies are:
Communication breakdown
Talking to large number of the students can be daunting
Large teaching room(s) needed
Can be seen by the students as disjoined
Variation in teaching quality
IV.2.2. Strategies Appropriate to Small Groups
Faced with the increasing need to produce students who command communicative skill as well
as grammatical competence, and the realization that classroom activities tend to be rather
monotonous. Many teachers and course writers have been looking for language teaching
52
activities for small group in the classroom. Many are also convinced that beyond the specific
advantages for language teaching there are more general education benefits, such as social
learning and learning how to negotiate.
Strategies appropriate to small group is important to known by the teachers because students are
likely to work in small groups in commerce; in consequence, we have a moral obligation to use
such approaches in our controlled environments.65
There are many strategies appropriate to small group and the writer can give explain in this thesis
they are:
A. Seminar
Seminar is a strategies appropriate where a students researches a topic, presents the findings to
other students and leads the ensuing discussion. When is it used? Widely used with mature
students to explore specified topics.
Students involved in the preparation

Students know what is to be discussed and that they will have the opportunity to
participate
Seminars are students led
Ideal for very specialized topics
Responsibility given to students
Students may be reluctant to participate at first

Need to summaries the main issues at the end of the seminar
Students may not respect their peers
May be difficult to assess
Can be dull
B. Gaming/quiz
65 Jan Reece and Stephen Walker, Teaching, Training, and Learning, (British Library: Bussiness Education,
1997),p 115
53
Gaming/quiz is a learning situation with an element of competition and/or cooperation. When is
it used? Can stimulate and involve learners when they interact with other students and/or the
game.
Can be fun
Compete against a machine or situation rather than another students
Immediate feedback
Teacher has time to observe students
May have to make your own game

Game may not work
Immediate feed back
May not be taken seriously
May be difficult to control
C. Role Play
Students acting a part or a role in events before a situation, during the situation and after the
situation. When is it used? Helping the students to feel the influences and pressures in their role.
It is suggested that role is particularly effective with attitudinal issues.
Advantages of strategies Role Play are:
A good way to address attitudinal issues

High degree of students participation
Brings learning to life
Realistic
Emotions can be felt
Students can teach their peers about their feeling in their role rather than the teacher
telling them.
Disadvantages of Role Play are:
Can be threatening especially for the shy participant

Need careful managing
Essential to debrief the students
Can take some time
May be difficult to manage
54
Some students hate Role Play
Many of Role Play exercise referred to above are designed for, or can be adapted for, small group
work, with groups performing the roles worked cut to the whole class at the end, for comparison
or evaluation.
D. Workshop
Workshop is an opportunity to develop practical skills a simulated situation and link the theory
with practice. When is it used? In the development of skill.
The advantages of these strategies are:
Can take place before or after theoretical aspects

Can be good basis for problem solving
Teacher can talk with the learners on a one-to-one basis
Reinforces learning in realistic and meaningful way
Students work at own pace
Students can work using a variety of skills;
Students can work in group;
A non threatening environment
can be seen as tedious or boring

expensive in terms of time, equipment and rooms
implications for health and safety
Teachers may lose control of learning.
55
CONCLUSION
Speaking is key to communication. By considering what good speakers do, what speaking tasks
can be used in class, and what specific needs learners report, teachers can help learners improve
their speaking and overall oral competency.
Teaching speaking is a very important part of second language learning. The ability to
communicate in a second language clearly and efficiently contributes to the success of the
learner in school and success later in every phase of life. Therefore, it is essential that language
teachers pay great attention to teaching speaking. Rather than leading students to pure
memorization, providing a rich environment where meaningful communication takes place is
desired. With this aim, various speaking activities such as those listed above can contribute a
great deal to students in developing basic interactive skills necessary for life. These activities
make students more active in the learning process and at the same time make their learning more
meaningful and fun for them.
56
REFERENCES
1. Austin, J., 1962. How to do things with words. , Oxford University Press, Oxford.
2. Breen, Curriculum Development in Language Teaching, Ed. Jack Richard. New York:
Cambridge University Press, 2001.
3. Brown, H. Douglas et al. Readings on Second Language Acquisition. United States:
Prentice Hall Regents, 1995.
4. Brown, H. Douglas. Principle of Language Learning and Teaching. (Englewood Cliffs::
Prentice Hall Regent, 1994.
5. Burnkart, Grace Stoval. Spoken language: What It Is and How to Teach It. 1998,. In
6. Burns and Joyce, Focus on Speaking. NCELTR Publications, 1997.
7. Bizzell, P., 1989. Review of the book The Social Construction of Written
Communication. College Composition and Communication 40, pp. 483486.
8. Breen, M. 1987. Learner contributions to task design. In C. Candlin and D. Murphy
(eds.), Language Learning Tasks. Englewood Cliffs NJ: Prentice-Hall.
9. Bygate, M., Skehan, P. and Swain, M., editors, 2000a: Researching pedagogic tasks:
second language learning, teaching and testing. Harlow, Essex: Longman.
10. Bygate, M., Skehan, P. and Swain, M., editors, 2000b: Introduction. In Bygate, M. et al.
(editors).
11. Celce-Murcia, Marianne. Teaching English As A Second or Foreign Language. Boston:
Heinly and Heinle, a Division of Thomson Learning, Inc., 2001.
12. Clyne, M., 1994. Inter-cultural communication at work. , Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge.
13. Corder, S.P. 1980: Second language acquisition research and the teaching of grammar.
BAAL Newsletter 10.
14. Long M.H & Richards, J.C. (1987). Methodology in TESOL. USA: Heinle&Heinle.
15. Nunan. D. (1991) Language Teaching Methodology. UK: Prentice Hall International
(Chapter two & three)
16. Tanner. R. & Green.C.(1998) Tasks for teacher education. UK. Addisson Wesley
Longman. Ltd.
17. Goodwyn, Andrew. English Teaching and Media Education. Philadelphia: Open
University Press, 1992.
18. Harmer, Jeremy. How to Teach English. New York: Longman, 1990.
19. Hornby. Oxford Advance Learners Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford University Press, Sixth
Edition, 1987.
57
20. Kayi, Hayriye. Teaching Speaking: Activities to Promote Speaking in a Second
Language, 2006. http://itesjl.org/Articles/Kayi-TeachingSpeaking.html.
21. M Bahgley, Kathleen and David Nunan. Practical English Language Teaching Speaking.
Singapore: The MC Graw Hills, 2004.
22. Mc Donough, Jo and Christopher Shaw. Material and methods in ELT; a Teachers Guide.
Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd, 1993.
23. Noah Webster, Websters New Twentieth Century Dictionary, 2nd Edition. New York:
William Collins Publishers, 1980.
24. Peter Salim, the Contemporary English-Indonesian Dictionary, Fourth Edition. Jakarta:
Modern English Press, 1989.
25. Richards, Jack C. Developing Classroom Speaking Activities: from Theory to
Practice,http://www.professorjackrichard.com/developing-classoom-speaking -activities.
pdf, 1.
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ABSTRACT

Oral communication fulfills a number of general and discipline-specific pedagogical functions.

Key Words: Oral Communication, Task-based approach, dimensions of oral communication,

III.1. Speaking skills 27

III.1.1. Definition of Speaking Skills 27

III.2 The Functions of Speaking 28

III.4. Conversational routines 42

III.5. Styles of speaking 43

III.6. The Teaching of Speaking 44

III.6.1. The Notion of Teaching Speaking 45

III.6.2. Goals of Teaching Speaking 46

III.6.3. Principles of Teaching Speaking 47

IV - TEACHING SPEAKING SCILLS OF ENGLISH IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS

IV.2. Teaching Strategies which we can use in primary schools 50

IV.2.1. Strategies Appropriate to Large Groups 51

IV.2.2. Strategies Appropriate to Small Groups 56

I.2. Advantages: Why should we teach speaking skills in the classroom?

I.2.2. Speaking is fundamental to human communication

II.1.1. The Definition of Teaching

II.1.2. Teaching language

Every teacher especially language teacher has different way in teaching.

1) Selectively focus on the form of the language

II.2.1. The Definition of Speaking

In Webster dictionary, speaking is the act or art of person who speaks.7

According to Kathleen, Speaking is an interactive process of constructing meaning that involves

II.2.2. The Function of Speaking

6 Burns and Joyce, Focus on Speaking. (NCELTR Publications, 1997). 4.

7 Websters New World College Dictionary, Third Edition, 1287.

Meanwhile, talk as interaction has several main features as follows:12

A. Has a primarily social function

Some of the skills (involved in using talk as interaction) are:13

A. Opening and closing conversation

A. It has a primarily information focus

Some of the skills involved in using talk for transactions are:

A. Explaining a need or intention

A. A focus on both message and audience

A. Using an appropriate format

II.2.3. Activities to Promote Speaking Skills

There are some activities to promote speaking as follows:19

2. Role Play and Simulation

II.2.4. Factor Affecting Student Speaking Ability

1. Age or Maturational Constraints

II.3. Teaching Speaking

II.3.1. Classroom Speaking Performance

Types of classroom speaking performance are:30

II.3.2. Supporting and Managing the Speaking Process

The role of the teacher is to:32

A. Give students the opportunities to gather information, question, and interpret

The following should be observed in the classroom on a day-to-day basis:33

A. The teacher modeling standard English language usage

33 H. Douglas Brown, Teaching by Principles, an Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy, 2nd

II.3.3. Problems with Speaking Activities

34 Penny Ur, A course in Language Teaching, Practice and Theory, 120.

II.3.4. Characteristics of Successful Speaking Activities

35 Penny Ur, A course in Language Teaching, Practice and Theory, 121

36 H. Douglas Brown, Principle of Language Learning and Teaching, 270.

37 Penny Ur, A course in Language Teaching, Practice and Theory, 120

III.1. Speaking skills

III.1.1. Definition of Speaking Skills

Speaking is to express or communicate opinions, feelings, ideas, etc, by or as talking and it

According to Chastain42, speaking is a productive skill and it involves many components.

III.2. The Functions of Speaking

40 Byrne, D. Teaching Oral English. New York: Longman. (1998, p. 8)

Has a primarily social function

Jessie: Did you get on well straight away?

Examples of these kinds of talk are: