07 HMEF5083 - Topic01

Topic A History of
1 Educational
Technology
(Pre-Internet)
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Define educational technology;
2. Define instructional technology;
3. Explain any differences between educational technology and
instructional technology;
4. Compare and contrast between traditional and new learning
environments;
5. Describe what educational technologists and instructional
technologists do; and
6. Describe some of the latest developments of educational technology
in Malaysia.
I do not think we are ever going to be able to, for a long time, get the kind
of quality of school personnel that we need in our schools, especially in
the areas of science and math. One of the answers to that problem is to use
more educational technology.
(Major Owens)
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

2 TOPIC 1 A HISTORY OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY (PRE-INTERNET)
INTRODUCTION
Think back to your first day in school. Did the teacher use a blackboard? Did it
help you understand better? Why? Recently, teachers have been using white
boards, overhead projectors, computers and electronic smart boards. Teachers
use computers to demonstrate concepts, simulate experiments and events and
teach using resources from the Internet. What do you think of the role of the
computer and its usefulness in teaching and learning? Imagine if all the teacher
did was in front of the classroom, presenting information or a lecture without
using any form of visual aid or technology. Would it be easy to understand the
lesson?
Interestingly, the use of technology or more specifically, the effective use of

technology has become an important issue that is part of a bigger field within the
realm of educational technology.

TOPIC 1 A HISTORY OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY (PRE-INTERNET) 3
Apart from slates and chalkboards in the early 1900s, the media commonly used
in the earlier days were pictures, models, charts, maps, graphs, motion pictures
and lantern slides. Between the late 1920s and 1940s, advances in media included
sound recordings, radio broadcasts and motion pictures with sound. This was
followed by television, teaching machines and programmed learning in the
1950s and 1960s. Before the 1970s, educational technology was synonymous with
audiovisual communication and instruction.
It was around the Second World War when mass training of thousands of
military personnel became a major requirement. The primary question then was
how these war personnel could be quickly and effectively trained. The primary
media at that time were film, slides, photographs, audio tapes and printed
materials.
At around this time, research was focused on the learning process and following
this, a new profession, Educational Technologist, was born (Jones, 1999). Among
others, the use of audiovisual aids before and information communication
technologies (ICT) today as a means to enhance the teaching and learning process
is what educational technology is all about.
However, you may have also heard the term instructional technology. Sometimes
these two terms are used interchangeably. At other times, you will see a
discussion of what one is and what the other is not. Search for the definition of
both educational technology and instructional technology on the Internet. What
did you find?
1.1 WHAT IS EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY?

According to Saettler (1990), the first person to introduce educational technology
was radio instruction pioneer, W. W. Charters in 1948. A search by Google (in
October 2005) listed more than, believe it or not, 17.6 million listings for the
definition of educational technology. The listing was a result of entering
educational technology definition in the search engine. In addition, a search
using the keywords instructional technology definition brought more than
2.1 million documents.

If you look at the definitions given for educational or instructional technology,

you will find that they vary from one another. According to Roblyer (2006), while
some definitions refer to equipment, others refer to the process of applying
equipment or tools and materials for educational purposes. Look at some of these
definitions (see Table 1.1).
Table 1.1: Definitions of Educational Technology
Definition Source
Audiovisual communication is that branch of educational theory Ely (1963)
and practice primarily concerned with the design and use of
messages, which control the learning process.
Educational technology is a field involved in the facilitation AECT (1972)
of human learning through the systematic identification,
development, organisation, and utilisation of learning resources
and through the management of these processes.
Essentially, it is a rational, problem-solving approach to Rowntree (1982)
education, a way of thinking skeptically and systematically
about learning and teaching.
Educational technology is: Shafritz, Koeppe,
1. The media that are products of the application of sciences to and Soper (1988)
educational problems
2. A systematic approach to solving the problems of
instruction that includes the development of instructional
systems, identification of resources, and the delivery of
those resources to students
Educational technology is the application of research, learning University of North
theory, emergent technologies, and child and adult psychology Carolina Media
to solving instructional and performance problems. Services, (1997)

ACTIVITY 1.1
Based on your Internet search, add at least one more definition of
educational technology to Table 1.1 in the space below.
What is your overall perception of educational technology? Write this

as your own definition in the following space provided.
Before I go any further, let me share one of my favourite quotations.
Any technology which increases the rate of learning would enable (as
Comenius put it centuries ago) the teacher to teach less and the learner to
learn more.
(Sir Eric Ashby)
What do you think? Do you believe that use of technology in teaching and
learning is effective? Why? Next, look at Figure 1.1. It illustrates the overall
concept of educational technology by Seels and Richey (1994), which provides an
overview of educational technology, both in theory and practice. There are five
domains in educational technology:
(a) Design,
(b) Development,
(c) Evaluation,
(d) Utilisation, and
(e) Management

Each domain represents a major activity and each activity includes items
to consider or activities to be carried out as part of the main activity. Study
Figure 1.1 and try to understand the various elements involved in each of the five
domains.
Figure 1.1: The domains in Educational Technology (Seels & Richey, 1994)
Although the definitions for educational technology are simple, they

comprehensively describe the tasks of a qualified professional educational
technologist.
Let us now compare these with McGriffs more comprehensive conceptual model
of instructional technology presented in Figure 1.2. Seels & Richeys domains are
only part of McGriffs model. It is interesting to see how much the field has
progressed in less than a decade.

Figure 1.2: Concept of the Instructional Technology Field
SELF-CHECK 1.1
What are the five domains in educational technology, as proposed by

Seels & Richley? What does each domain entail?
1.2 WHAT IS INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY?

Instructional technology is said to have first come into the picture when James
Finn used the term in 1963. It seeks to:
(a) Teach how to plan, design, develop, implement, evaluate and manage
instructional processes effectively to ensure improved performance by
learners
(b) Understand how people learn and how to best design instructional delivery
systems and materials

A question that may now come to your mind is, how different is instructional
technology from educational technology? Let us look at the definitions presented
in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2: Definitions of Instructional Technology
Definition Source
[Instructional technology] is a systematic way Presidents Commission on
of designing, carrying out and evaluating the Instructional Technology
total process of learning and teaching in terms of (1970)
specific objectives, based on research.
Instructional technology is the theory and practice Association for Educational
of design, development, utilisation, management, Communications and
and evaluation of processes and resources for Technology (AECT) (1994).
learning. Original definition by Seels &
Richey, 1994, p. 1.
[Instructional technology] is the art and science Molenda (2003)
of designing, producing, and using with economy
and elegance solutions to institutional problems;
these solutions may combine verbal or audiovisual
media and may be experienced with or without
human mediation and may take the form of
learners, courses or whole systems that facilitate
learning efficiently, effectively and humanely.
Instructional technology is the use of a variety of Illinois School District U-46.
teaching tools to improve student learning. We Retrieved December 20, 2005
usually think of computers and computer software
when we think of instructional technology, but
instructional technologies are not limited to
computers in the classroom. Instructional technology
describes all tools that are used for teaching and
learning such as cameras, CD players, PDAs, GPS
devices, computer-based probes, calculators and
electronic tools we have yet to discover.
Now that you have gone through the definitions in Tables 1.1 and 1.2, how do
you think educational or instructional technology can be best defined? Do you
see any similarities or differences in the definitions provided? Do you think we
could use the terms educational technology and instructional technology
interchangeably?

If we look closely at how each of the two terms have been defined, we will realise
that perhaps it depends on when it was defined or who defined it. Could it be, at
its simplest, the effective application of technology (hardware, software and
courseware) in teaching or education?
Based on a paper on the role of educational technologists, the Association for

Educational Communication and Technology (AECT) seems to suggest that more
professionals now use educational technology in a general sense to describe any
use of technology in an educational endeavour while instructional technology
has more to do with direct application of technology in the acts of teaching
and learning. In other words, instructional technology is a sub-category of
educational technology. In business and industry, as well as the military the term
performance technology has come into recent use as a synonym for instructional
technology. (Source: http://www.usask.ca/education/ coursework /802 papers
/caplan/invisible2.html).
However, based on a personal observation, it has been found that instructional

technology is more popularly used in the United States while educational
technology is a more common term in other countries such as the United
Kingdom, Australia and the other Commonwealth countries. Perhaps after
reading more, you will be able to decide whether to agree or disagree.
ACTIVITY 1.2
The field of instructional technology is well-conceptualised in a position

paper by McGriff (2001). Make some time to read it. It is available
on the Internet at http://www.personal.psu.edu/faculty/s/j/sjm256/
portfolio/professional/ Candidacy/ISDposition.pdf
Next, please read the paper by Browser-Brown (2003) in which she

provides an interesting account of how the definition of instructional
technology has evolved. You will find this at http://www.public.
iastate.edu/~abowser/pdf/IT % 20Paper.pdf.
What is more important, however, are the roles or contributions of professionals

from these two fields play in todays learning as well as in the training
environment. Let us discuss this next. The roles include but are not limited to:
(a) Designing instruction
(b) Developing instructional materials
(c) Implementing delivery of instruction to learners
(d) Building teams and managing projects
Since the early 1980s, especially since microcomputers were born, the field has
changed tremendously. The International Society of Technology in Education
(ISTE) is one organisation that has helped advance the use of technology in
classrooms in the United States. Its New Learning Environments model, in
response to recent research, shows that student-centred, constructivist and
collaborative learning is more effective than the traditional top-down,
lecture-based, text-driven model (see Table 1.3).
Table 1.3: ISTEs New Learning Environments
Traditional Learning Environments New Learning Environments

Teacher-centred instruction Student-centred learning
Single-sense stimulation Multisensory stimulation
Single-path progression Multipath progression
Single media Multimedia
Isolated work Collaborative work
Information delivery Information exchange
Active/exploratory/inquiry-based
Passive learning
learning
Critical thinking and informed decision-
Factual, knowledge-based learning
making
Reactive response Proactive/planned action
Isolated, artificial context Authentic, real-world context
Source: http://pt3.altec.org/technology/tech_learning.html
ACTIVITY 1.3
Analyse Table 1.3 to see the transformation from traditional to new
learning environments as proposed by ISTE. How much of these have
you seen or experienced for yourself? What are your thoughts on each
of them? Of all the above, which do you think is the most relevant for
adult learners like yourself?

It appears that the field of educational or instructional technology was not

as exciting as we are experiencing it now as a result of the fast-paced
developments in information and communication technology. The field started
out comprising visual aids, audiovisual education, educational communications
media, instructional materials and educational communications before moving
on to resource-based learning, technology-based instruction and multimedia.
Indeed, the field of educational or instructional technology has continued to

evolve. Perhaps McGriff (2001) appropriately summed it up as seen in Figure 1.2.
He addressed the various components included in ones preparation to become
an instructional technologist. Study the figure and discuss McGriffs conceptual
model in class.
SELF-CHECK 1.2
Study McGriffs conceptual model for instructional technology. What

are the various components and how do they relate to each other?
1.3 WHAT DO EDUCATIONAL AND

INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGISTS DO?
Figure 1.3: Instructional designers ensure the development

of effective materials

Educational and instructional technologists are employed in both the private and
public sector as well as in the education and training industry. One of the more
common jobs is instructional design. What is instructional design?
Very simply, instructional design is the process of designing learning

experiences to maximise learning effectiveness.
You will learn more about instructional design in Topic 7 but for now, let us
focus on the above definition. The person who carries out the responsibility is
called an instructional designer. The job looks simple and straightforward. After
all, how difficult can the process of designing learning experiences to maximise
learning effectiveness be? To find out more about what an instructional designer
does, read the sample advertisements taken from the newspapers and the
Internet (see Figures 1.4 through 1.7).
Figure 1.4: Advertisement for an Instructional Designer (Sample 1)




In addition, there are other jobs that qualified educational or instructional

technologists are hired to do. The range of jobs include instructor, media
specialist, distance educational specialist and multimedia producer. To find out
more, look at the table in http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/
802papers/caplan/invisibile2.html to see the jobs available.
ACTIVITY 1.4
Look for more recent job advertisements for qualified educational or

instructional technologists. You should now have a better idea of what
they do. Now think of how these qualified professionals can contribute
to your situation at work. Bring the sample advertisement to class and
discuss.
1.4 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

DEVELOPMENTS IN MALAYSIA
Some of us (if youre old enough that is) may remember the time in primary
school when we had singing lessons in the school hall with the class teacher
turning on the radio. I thought these were interesting moments. Most, if not all,
of us enjoyed the lessons. If I were born later, I would have thought this as being
a bit odd, listening to the teacher on the radio who taught us how to sing line
by line before finally singing the whole song together. I also vaguely remember
doing PE lessons while listening to the exercise instructor on the radio. At home,
I recall listening attentively to Malay lessons on the radio. I was attracted to
listening to them and found them entertaining as well. I think these lessons were
also effective as I grew to be interested in the Malay language and became the
best student in the subject in school. These were during after school hours when I
turned on the radio for company. There were no television broadcasts until 6pm
or so then and the radio was one of the few items that brought the world into the
home.

In secondary school, I can recall the few times when the teacher ushered us to the
television room next to the library to watch some educational TV programmes. It
was not too often, but what I remember was how dull these viewing sessions
were, watching the teacher on television conduct science experiments. Imagine
being in a classroom of 40 students trying to watch one small screen in front in
black and white. Today, I believe teachers use ETV to babysit their students. It
was not effective. Alas, TV production skills were lacking then. The ETV lesson
was simply a taping of the teacher who conducted the experiment well but failed
to captivate the audiences attention.
In 1988, I commented that Malaysia was lagging far behind the United States
where instructional technology development was concerned. To quote:
Malaysia has been hampered by lack of finance, lack of personnel resources

and by lack of a professional association committed to the field of instructional
technology. Activities in this field are not as aggressive as in the United States
where, with the formation of AECT (Association for Educational
Communications and Technology), activities and programmes are dedicated to
the improvement of instruction through media and technology.
(Abas in Kandiah, 1988, p. 157)
Ibrahim Bajunid (2001), a prominent educator and keen observer, commented

that between 1967 and 1976, teaching and learning materials in Malaysia were
primarily print-based with various kinds of teaching aids such as charts, models,
educational radio and educational television. This was followed by a period
(1976-1986) that saw the overlapping of traditional and new technology in the
form of microcomputers. Computer clubs were established in schools and higher
education institutions started using computers for teaching and learning. There
were Computers-in-Education programmes, Computer Aided Instruction (CAI),
Computer Aided Language Learning (CALL) and Computer Managed
Instruction (CMI). Since the mid-1980s, computers begin playing a major role in
higher education. When the Internet gained popularity in the mid-1990s, Web-
based instruction, education portals and electronic discussions became a clich
among academic circles.

As we moved into the 21st century, the Malaysian government was very
concerned about the countrys readiness for e-learning that a study on the
readiness of policy-makers, providers, enablers (teachers) and learners to utilise
e-learning was conducted in 2004. You will read more about the countrys
progress in educational technology after the proliferation of Internet usage in
Topic 2.
To appreciate the local scene, perhaps knowing some of the milestones relating to
the development of educational technology in Malaysia will be of interest to you.
(See Table 1.4).
Table 1.4: Educational Technology Related Developments in Malaysia
Event Date
Establishment of Radio Malaya 1st April 1946
Setting up of the Audio-Visual Aids Section, Ministry of
1949
Education
Radio Malaya renamed Radio Malaysia 16th September
1963
Setting up of the Division of Educational Media Services (EMS),
1972
later renamed Division of Educational Technology
Launch of Educational TV (ETV) 1972
Formation of the Malaysian Council for Computers-in-
1986
Education
Formation of Malaysian Educational Technology Association
1987
(Persatuan Teknologi Pendidikan dan Media)
Launch of the Smart School Flagship as part of the Multimedia
1997
Super Corridor
Formation of the Malaysian Association for Distance Education 2000
National E-Learning Readiness Study 2004
Launch of Malaysian Online Journal of Educational Technology August 2004

Of special note is the Educational Technology Division of the Ministry of

Education. It sits on a hill in Bukit Kiara, right next to the National Science
Centre. It plays a very crucial role in ensuring that technology is appropriately
used and is effective. Its main role is to publish teaching and learning materials
of various media such as print, audio (radio), video (TV) and multimedia
courseware. They were among the key players who prepared the Smart School
blueprint and in the implementation of the Smart School pilot project launched
in 1997. Visit the divisions website for more details of its activities at
http://www.pnpmoe .edu.my/.
Hedberg (1990) made the following remark in his observation of the educational
technology scene in Malaysia:
My first contact with Malaysia was a professional education conference

held in Kuala Lumpur in January 1970, where the language of
communication was English but the methods of presentation were largely
talk with little presentation technology. At that time, I had only just
arrived in Asia and the sounds and smells were so exciting and different,
that I hardly noticed the lack of resources. Recently, I was invited to return
to present the Keynote paper to the Second Malaysian Educational
Technology Society Convention. After twenty years, I noticed a definite
maturity about the way in which people were approaching educational
technology. The sophistication was not only in the technology employed
but in the concepts held about its appropriate use.
Today, more than 15 years after Hedbergs comment, learning technologies in

various forms of hardware and software have been widely supplied to schools,
colleges and universities. Teachers are also sent for training by the ministry (read
the newspaper article originally published in Berita Harian on 2nd November,
2005). Refer to Figure 1.8.

Figure 1.8: Newspaper article published in Berita Harian on 2nd November 2005

However, their level of usage is far from desirable. While all Science,
Mathematics and English Language teachers are equipped with notebooks and
computer projectors, not everyone uses them regularly. Why? I have been made
to understand that in some schools, principals have them under lock and key for
fear that they will be spoilt. Do you know of any other concerns or issues related
to technology use in school? Topic 3 will cover more on technology supplied and
their use in Smart Schools.
Starting in the mid 1990s, all Malaysian universities embraced the use of
technology in instruction. Lecturers are usually equipped with either a desktop
or notebook computer as part of the enculturation of technology. Every lecturer
has an e-mail address and many have created personal web pages or use
resources from the Internet to teach. Some upload their course materials on to the
Web to enable students access to learning materials and some lecturers include
the use of web-based discussion forums as part of their learning activities.
Open distance learning institutions such as UNITAR and Open University

Malaysia offer part of the learning activities via their Learning Management
Systems (LMS). At Open University Malaysia, discussions online contribute up to
five per cent of the course grade in the undergraduate programmes. Some of the
recent developments in universities will be highlighted in Topic 4.
Two of Malaysias largest establishments of educational technology facilities

are in two of the countrys premier universities. See Figures 1.9 & 1.10. The first
is the Centre for Instructional Technology and Multimedia at Universiti Sains
Malaysia in Penang (http://www.usm.my/ptpm/). The other is the Centre for
Instructional Design and Technology (http://cidt.oum.edu.my/) located at the
main campus of Open University Malaysia in Kuala Lumpur. While the former
awards degrees as well as acts as a service centre, the latter develops both print
and non-print materials for its learners. I believe you will enjoy visiting both
websites to see what each centre does. There is so much left unsaid about the
growth of educational technology in Malaysia. It has grown by leaps and bounds,
particularly after the launch of the Multimedia Super Corridor.

Figure 1.9: Webpage for the Centre for Instructional Technology and Multimedia at
Universiti Sains Malaysia
Figure 1.10: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology at Open University Malaysia

Educational technology has had a rather long history, evolving from audio-
visual communications
Educational technology has been defined differently at different times
Educational technology has been used interchangeably with instructional

technology
Instructional technology is a subset of educational technology
Originally comprising five domains (educational technology), the field has

grown to incorporate several elements as outlined by McGriff
Education has evolved, moving from traditional learning environments to

new learning environments that could best leverage on technology
Educational and instructional technologists play an important role in

ensuring that learning is more effective by designing, developing,
implementing, evaluating and managing the learning environments
Educational technology developments in Malaysia can be traced back to 1946

when Radio Malaya transmitted educational programmes
Educational technology has advanced to incorporate e-learning in Malaysias

smart schools and in its higher education institutions
Educational technology Educational technologist

Instructional technology Instructional technologists

If we were to visit some of the schools today, we are bound to hear that
there is so much ICT equipment but are, unfortunately, under-utilised
by the teachers. Why? We seem to have gone from the lack of
technology to an over-abundance of technology, yet both have
presented a unique set of challenges! Perhaps, this is worth a discussion
in your next class meeting. What do you think can be done to change so
that technology is not wasted? Discuss the challenges and how these
can be overcome with your course mates.
OUM Digital Library

Carbonara, D. (2005). Technology literacy applications in learning environments.
Hershey, PA: Information Sciences Publishing.
Section II Higher Education Instructional Technology Literacy. [available at
eBrary].
Seel, N. M. (2004). Curriculum, plans and progresses in instructional design:

International perspectives. Lawrence Erbaum Associates, Incorporated.
Chapter 1: Introduction: Instructional design and curriculum development
Part I: Theoretical Foundations of Learning and Instruction and
Innovations of Instructional Design and Technology
Part II: Curriculum Development, Instructional Design, and Information
Technology [available at eBrary]

Books
Lever-Duffy J., McDonald, J. B., & Mizell, A. P. (2005). Teaching and learning
with technology. NY: Pearson Education.
Roblyer, M. D. (2003). Integrating educational technology into teaching

(3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NY: Pearson Education.
Internet Resources
Carter, E. L. (October 2004). Timelines: Usability and instructional theory.
Retrieved December 20, 2005, from http://immersion.gmu.edu/portfolios/
lcarter3/timelines.html
Luppicini, R. (2005). A system definition of educational technology in society.

Journal of Educational Technology and Society. Retrieved December 20, 2005,
from http://www.ifets.info/journals/8_3/10.pdf

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Topic A History of

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Interestingly, the use of technology or more specifically, the effective use of

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

1.1 WHAT IS EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY?

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

If you look at the definitions given for educational or instructional technology,

Table 1.1: Definitions of Educational Technology

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

What is your overall perception of educational technology? Write this

Before I go any further, let me share one of my favourite quotations.

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Although the definitions for educational technology are simple, they

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Figure 1.2: Concept of the Instructional Technology Field

What are the five domains in educational technology, as proposed by

1.2 WHAT IS INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY?

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Table 1.2: Definitions of Instructional Technology

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Based on a paper on the role of educational technologists, the Association for

However, based on a personal observation, it has been found that instructional

The field of instructional technology is well-conceptualised in a position

Next, please read the paper by Browser-Brown (2003) in which she

What is more important, however, are the roles or contributions of professionals

Table 1.3: ISTEs New Learning Environments

Traditional Learning Environments New Learning Environments

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

It appears that the field of educational or instructional technology was not

Indeed, the field of educational or instructional technology has continued to

Study McGriffs conceptual model for instructional technology. What

1.3 WHAT DO EDUCATIONAL AND

Figure 1.3: Instructional designers ensure the development

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Very simply, instructional design is the process of designing learning

Figure 1.4: Advertisement for an Instructional Designer (Sample 1)

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Figure 1.5: Advertisement for an Instructional Designer (Sample 2)

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Figure 1.6: Advertisement for an Instructional Designer (Sample 3)

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Figure 1.7: Advertisement for an Instructional Designer (Sample 4)

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

In addition, there are other jobs that qualified educational or instructional

Look for more recent job advertisements for qualified educational or

1.4 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Malaysia has been hampered by lack of finance, lack of personnel resources

Ibrahim Bajunid (2001), a prominent educator and keen observer, commented

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Table 1.4: Educational Technology Related Developments in Malaysia

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Of special note is the Educational Technology Division of the Ministry of

My first contact with Malaysia was a professional education conference

Today, more than 15 years after Hedbergs comment, learning technologies in

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Open distance learning institutions such as UNITAR and Open University

Two of Malaysias largest establishments of educational technology facilities

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Educational technology has been defined differently at different times

Educational technology has been used interchangeably with instructional