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UNIT- 1

CONCEPTS OF AGRICULTURAL OPERATIONS


Introduction-
Agriculture is an activity of man primarily aimed at the production of food, fibre, fuel etc.
by optimum utilization of terrestrial resources.
It is the art of the cultivation of crops and rearing of useful livestock. The agricultural
produce include cereals, pulses, oilseeds, fibers, fodders, fruits, flowers, vegetables,
medicinal and aromatics plants and sugar crops etc.
Agricultural sciences cover crop production (Agronomy), Horticulture (fruits and vegetables),
Floriculture (Flower), Arboriculture (trees), Soil Sciences, Plant Pathology, Entomology
(insects), Animal Husbandry (Veterinary), Dairying, Fisheries, Nematology (small insects),
Biochemistry, Agricultural Engineering, Agricultural Economics, Microbiology,
Biotechnology, Agro forestry, Genetics and Plant Breading, Extension, Meteorology, Seed
Technology etc.

Importance of Agriculture:

India is mainly an agrarian country. Over 75% of its population depends for their livelihood
directly or indirectly, upon agriculture.
1. It helps in solving the food problem of the country.
2. It provides maximum opportunity for employment.
3. It supplements raw materials for other industries like, textiles, sugar, pharmaceuticals,
oil mills, tyre, etc.
4. It increases the national income.
5. It supports various enterprises like Dairy, Poultry, etc.
6. It springs to feed urban areas of the country.
7. It is a source of foreign currency to the country.
8. It contributes towards national progress.
9. It is helpful in raising social status.
10. It reduces social disparity.
11. It increases the feeling of cooperation.
12. The agricultural produces are used as barter system in villages for exchange of
commodities in place of money.

Objectives of studying Agricultural Operation

1. To provide the basic and fundamental knowledge about agriculture to those students
who are likely to return to their family profession of farming.
2. To help in providing knowledge to friends, neighbours and relatives of agriculturists.
3. To help the students to appreciate the dignity of labour. Thus, it will reduce the
exploitation of human labour.
4. To help the students in their personality development.
5. To encourage the students to learn by doing.
6. To help in the development of six Hs in the personality traits of the students i.e.
better Head, better Hand, better Heart, better Health, better Home, and feeling of
Humility.
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7. To develop love for plants which can be developed in kitchen gardens and for
beautification of fields, offices, homes etc.
8. There is closer contact with nature in agriculture.
9. Agriculture brings pleasure in future life.
Thus, study of agricultural operations enriches the education by making it practical and utility
oriented.
Salient Features of Modern Agriculture:-

1. Farming is an industry of small and permanent nature.


2. It is an integration of home and business.
3. Farming is nature lovers job.
4. Farming is a healthy activity.
5. The working hours are variable.
6. Lack of farmers control over production.
7. Difficulty in finance.
8. Hazardous nature of farming. It is prone to the vagaries of nature.
9. Dual function of management and ownership with farmer.
10. Lack of proper marketing facilities and standardization of farm produce.
11. Irregular income (Once or twice in a year).
12. Professional training of many farm operations is limited.
13. Fluctuation of prices of farm produce.
14. Farm duties are variable.
15. Perishable products.

Some Problems Associated with Indian Agriculture:-

Smaller and fragmented land holding by the farmers.


Traditional practice of agriculture.
Scarcity of chemical fertilizers.
Poor condition of cattle.
Lack of good quality seeds.
Lack of irrigational facilities.
Natural calamities.
Shrinking of agriculture land due to urbanization and industrialization.
Use of land for purpose other than agriculture.
Indebtedness, illiteracy, skeptics of farmers.
Lack of modern agricultural instruments.
Defective practices.
Lack of plant protection chemicals, viz., fungicides, insecticides and herbicides etc.
Dependence on monsoon.
Difficulties in marketing of the farm produce.

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Farming Systems:-
System of farming implies the method of agriculture and the type of land ownership. These
are as follows:-
Peasant Farming: Farmer is master of his land. He cultivates his land himself with the help
of his family members.
State Farming: In this system, the land and other assets are owned by the Government and
workers work as government employees and get all benefits as government servants.
Capitalistic Farming: In this system, the land, livestock, and all other assets are owned by
landlords or factories. The workers work as paid employees of the landlords and get their
wages.
Collective Farming: In this system, the member farmers collectively give their land,
livestock and dead stock to the society. They work together at the direction of an elected
managing committee. The payment is made on the basis of work day units and the property,
land and animals etc. of individual members. An unskilled labour has to do works for more
than the skilled labour to complete workday unit.
Cooperative Farming:- In cooperative farming the members of the society collect their lands
voluntarily and manage it jointly under a democratic constitution.
Types: Cooperative Better Farming
Cooperative Joint Farming
Cooperative Tenant Farming
Cooperative Collective Farming
Crop Rotation: It is the process of growing different crops on the same land in a pre-
planned succession. It may be a one year, two years, or even three years rotation, depending
upon the crops and climatic conditions of the region, where these crops are to be grown e.g.
Rice Wheat
Rice Chickpea
Maize Chickpea
Rice Wheat Green manure
Maize Potato Wheat.
Principles of Crop Rotation:

1. A crop of tap roots plants should be followed by a crop with adventitious root plants.
2. Leguminous crops should be grown after non-leguminous crops.
3 More exhaustive crops should be followed by less exhaustive crops.
4 Selection of crops should be based on demand.
5 Crop of the same family should not be grown in succession because they act like
alternate host for many insects, pests and diseases.
6 An ideal crop rotation provides maximum employment to the farm labour and his
family, the machines and equipments are efficiently used and all agricultural
operations are conducted timely. It helps to maintain the productivity of the soil.

Rotational Crop Intensity (RCI) = Number of crops grown in a rotation x 100

Duration of rotation
Example: Maize Wheat Potato Moong (First year)
Moong Potato Maize (Second year)
RCI = 7/2x100 = 350%
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Cropping Scheme: It is a plan according to which various crops are grown on particular
plots of a farm, within a given period of time with the object of obtaining

Principles of Cropping Scheme:


1. Lay-out of Farm A proportionate area of land should be allocated in a building for a
lay- out e.g. Farm up to 50 hectares : 8-10% ; more than 50 hectares.: 4.5%;
2. Area of plots: - The area of individual plots should be equal.
3. Number of plots The number of plots should be equal to the duration of rotation, or
a multiple of that e. g .if the total duration of rotation in a cropping scheme is 4 years,
the number of plots must be 4, 8, 12, or 16 etc.
4. Selection of crops Should be on the basis of the situation and location of the farm.
e.g.
Near City - Vegetables on more than 50% of the area.
Sugar Industry - Sugarcane on 60% of the area .
Dairy farm - Fodders, Oilseeds & Pulses on 10% of the area.
5. Facilities available Crop should be selected on the basis of availability of electricity
irrigation facility, input, labour, markets etc.
6. Main crop Assemblage of cultivated plants, especially cereals in the fields. One
which is planted at it optimum. Sole crop is used to refer to either of the individual
crops
7. Companion crop- Subsidiary crops grown in association with the main crop.
Cropping Sequence Growing of two or more crops in a sequence on the same field in a
year. The succeeding crop is planted after the preceding crop has been harvested.
Ratoon Cropping The cultivation of crops re-growth after its harvest (e.g. Sugarcane).
Allelopathy Allelopathy refers to any direct or indirect harmful effect of one plant on
another through the production of chemicals. (allelochemicals), that escapes into the
environment.
Or
Release of chemicals by a plant that inhibits the growth of nearby plants, thereby reducing the
competition.
Dry farming: The practice of growing crops in dry areas having low rainfall and no
irrigational facilities. It is the system of tillage practices in dry region.
The surface soil is always kept loose so as to reduce evaporation and return the scanty rain
water present therein.
Rain fed farming Growing of full crops solely with the rain water received during the crop
season. Usually rainfall is about 800 mm. under humid and sub- humid climate and the crops
may experience little or no moisture stress during their life cycle.
Organic Farming- Organic Farming is a system, in which the use of chemicals such as
synthetic fertilizers, insecticides, herbicides, fungicides is reduced to a minimum and
the biological potential of the soil and under ground water resources are conserved and
protected from natural and human induced degradation or depletion. It adopts suitable
cropping models like agro-forestry and methods of organic replenishment.
Objectives:
1. To produce food of high quality in sufficient quantity.
2. To work in harmony with the natural systems.
3. To maintain the genetic bio-diversity of the production system.
4. To promote sustainable use of natural resources.

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A. Nutrient Management:- It is done by applying the FYM (Farm Yard Manure), poultry
manure, vermi-compost, green manure, crop residue and bio fertilizers such as Rhizobium
Cyanobacteria, Azotobacter, Azospirillum etc. into the crop fields.

B. Weeds Control: It is achieved by-


(a) Soil cultivation using mechanical hoes and harrows.
b (b) Flushing out germinating weed seeds.
(c) Preparation of seed beds in dark.
c (d) Mulching.
d (e) Solarization.
C. Pest Control: - prevention is better than cure.
(a) Crop species, variety in choice and temporal and spatial pattern of
crop rotation.
(b) Inter cropping of white dove with cereals to reduce attack of
aphids.
(c) Planting a strip of alfalfa in cotton field to control cotton pest.
(d) Biological control agents like Bacillus thuringiensis as
biopesticides against lepidopteron pest.
D. Disease control Cultural techniques like use of insect/disease resistant varieties
produced by conventional breeding methods or genetic engineering helps in reducing the
use of chemical pesticides and fungicides.

CLASSIFICATION OF CROPS:
1. Based on season.
2. Economic classification.
3. Botanical classification.
4. Based to life period or age.
5. Based on nature of the soil and plants.
6. Based on their specific use.

1. BASED ON SEASON :
(i) Kharif (July - October) - Paddy, Maize, Jowar, Bajra, Arhar, Urd.
(ii) Rabi (November - February) - Wheat, Barley, Gram, Pea, Masoor, Mustard,
Sunflower, Berseem.
(iii) Zaid (March - June) - Muskmelon, Bottle-gourd, Pumpkin, Bitter-gourd, Water-
melon, Ridge gourd.
2. ECONOMIC CLASSIFICATION :
(i) Cereals :Grains used for bread making purpose in diets, e g. Wheat, Barley,
Paddy, Oats, Bajra , Maize, etc .
(ii) Oilseeds: Provide oil when extracted, e.g., Linseed, Groundnut, Castor,
Coconut, Sesame, Mustard, Taramira, Oil palm.

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(iii) Pulses: Seeds are a good source of protein. Produce is found in the form of
pods e.g., Gram, Pea, Arhar, Tur, Masoor, Moong, Urd, Lobia, Soyabean.
(iv) Fibre crops: It bears to long fibres e.g. Cotton, Jute, Sunhemp, Brown hemp.
(v) Fodder crops: Food material for cattle e.g. Jowar, Bajra, Maize, Lucern,
Berseem, Elephant grass, Napier grass, M.P. Chari etc.
(vi) Cash crops: Provides more return to farmers e.g. Sugarcane, Potato, Tobacco,
Sugar beet.
(vii) Catch crop : To catch, dodge and divert the insects and protect the main crop
e.g. Bhindi in Cotton.
(viii) Cover crops: It covers the field to check erosion from water e.g. Moong.
(ix) Plantation crops: e.g. Coffee, Cocoa, Rubber, Coconut.
(x) Vegetables:
Root vegetables: Radish, Turnip, Carrot.
Bulb crops: Onion, Garlic.
Legumes: Pea, Beans.
Salad: Lettuce, Celery, Parsley.
Cole crops: Cauliflower, Cabbage, Knolkhol.
Fruit vegetables: Tomato, Brinjal.
Tuber: Potato.
Leafy vegetables: Spinach, Fenugreek, Palak, Chaulai, etc.
(xi) Fruit crops: e.g.Banana, Mango, Citrus, Grape, Guava, Papaya, Pineapple,
Apple, Apricot, Peach, Pear.
(xii) Medicinal and Aromatic: e.g. Isabgol, Opium, Poppy, Belladonna, Lemon
grass, Cinomella, Palma rosa oil grass, Peppermint, Khus.
(xiii) Ornamentals and beautiful flowers: e.g., Rose, Jasmine, Chrysanthamum,
Orchids, Marigold, Cycas, Croton, Bougainvillea, Dahelia.
(xiv) Condiments and spices: e.g., Ginger, Turmeric, Chillies, Pepper.

3. BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION:
Brassicaceae- Mustard, Rapeseed, Taramira.
Malvaceae Cotton, Lady's finger (Bhindi).
Fabaceae - Pea, Moong, Gram, Lobia, Beans, Lentils, Ground nut.
Cucurbitaceae - Pumpkin, Bottle gourd, Ridge gourd, Bitter gourd, Tinda.
Solanaceae - Potato, Chillies, Tobacco.
Poaceae- Rice, Maize, Wheat, Barley, Oats, Sugarcane.
Apiaceae- Carrot, Coriander, Jeera.
Asteraceae Sunflower, Marigold.
Convolvualaceae - Sweet potato.

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Liliaceae - Onion, Garlic.
Zingiberaceae - Ginger, Turmeric.
4. BASED TO LIFE PERIOD or AGE-
Seasonal - Plants of one season only (short duration) e.g., Paddy, Wheat.
Annual - Plants of one year life cycle e.g. Sugarcane, Arhar.
Biennial - Plants of two years life cycle e.g. Sugarbeet.
Perennial - More than two years life cycle, e.g., fruit trees, fodders (Napier-
grass, etc.)
5. ACCORDING TO NATURE OF THE SOIL AND PLANTS:
1. Size of seeds Small - Mustard, Tomato, Chillies.
. Medium - Wheat, Paddy, Barley.
Large - Maize, Pea, Gram.
2. Depth of root - Shallow rooted - Paddy, Wheat.
Deep rooted - Kans, Carrot, Mustard.
3. Nodules on roots- Leguminous - Pea, Arhar, Moong, Urd.
Non- leguminous- Khus, Carrot, Mustard.
4. Soil texture and soil pH-
Crops of heavy soil - Cotton, Tobacco.
Loamy soil - All important crops .
Sandy soil- Ccucurbits, Tarbooj, Kharbooj, Kakri .
Usar soil - Sunflower.
Acidic soil - Rai, Paddy.
5. Soil erosion Moong.
6. Water requirement - Water logged Paddy.
More water requiring crops -Vegetables, Sugarcane.
Average water requiring crops-Wheat.
Less water requiring crops-: Mustard, Rapeseed, Bajra.
Draught resistant- Bajra.

6. BASED ON SPECIFIC USE :


i. Green manure crops grown for organic manuring to the fields by using green parts
Moong, Sunhemp, Dhaincha etc.
ii. Cover crop crops grown for conserving the soil from rain water e.g. Moong.
iii. Inter crops - crops grown to minimize the loss due to failure of main crop e.g. Moong.
iv. Trap crops crops grown to protect the main crop from the attack of insects by attracting
and dodging the insects e.g. Bhindi grown around the Cotton crop.

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INDIA (SOME FACTS) :

1. Agricultural production accounts for 40% of total production.


2. 50 % of national income is obtained from agricultural production.
3. About 70 % population rely directly or indirectly on agriculture.
4. 56.7 % employment is provided by agriculture.
5. 32.88 crore hectares land is under agricultural purposes.
6. 46 % of the land is under agricultural operations whereas, 22.6 % of the land is under
forest.
7. Agricultural produce accounts for 35 % of the total national export.
8 Workable holding area is 7.05 crore hectares.
9. Availability of per capita grain is only 416.2 grams per day and 151.9 kg. per year
10. 35.7% of total income of the country is obtained from agricultural produce; where as
64.3 % of this income is from non-agricultural produce.
11. India has 16%of world population and 2.5% of land resources.
12. India has 4% of worlds fresh water resources.
13. Agriculture sector in India uses 85% of countrys available fresh water.
14. Irrigation efficiency is only 20 to 50%.
15. Agriculture contributes 29.1% towards Gross Domestic Products (GDP).
16. In countries like USA, Australia, Brazil etc. each farmer on an average holds 1000
hectares of cultivated land against an average holding of 1.41 hectares in India.
17. India has a geographic area of 328.73 million hectares.
18. There was a record production of foodgrains of 220 million tonne during 2003-04.
19. By 2006, the population of the country is expected to rise to 1094.1 millionswith a
growth rate of 1.55% ( IASRI-IARI,1998 )

Important Features of Xth Plan (Agriculture)-


1. Reduction in poverty ratio from the present 26% to 21% by the year 2007.
2. Increase in forest trees from 19% in 2000 to 25% in 2007. India has only 2%forest land
of the world but it supports 16% of the worlds population.
3. Providing drinking water for all by cleaning and linking of major rivers.

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Agra District Agricultural Data at a Glance
1. Geographical Area- 402759
2. Community Development Blocks - 15
3. Tehsils - 6
4 Gram Panchayats 637
5. Villages- 940
6. Area- (in Hectares)
i. Net area sown 287000
ii. Area sown more than once 131000
iii Net irrigated area 236000
iv. Gross irrigated area 251000
7. Agricultural Production (Metric Tons)
i. Food grains 584
ii Sugarcane 17
iii Oilseeds 106
iv. Potato 848
8. Sources of Irrigation-
Source Area (hectare) Percent
Tube well 213067 90.14
Canal 19323 8.18
Wells 3296 1.39
Ponds, lakes etc. 419 0.18
Others 271 0.11
Total 236376 100.00
9. Land Utilization- Area (Ha.) Percent of the Total Agricultural
Land (%)
Net area sown 287294 72.10
Area used other than agriculture 37659 9.46
Forest 45437 11.40
Cultural Barren land 2809 0.80
Saline not suitable for agriculture 5557 1.40
Present fallow land 11984 3.01
Other fallow land 6371 1.60
Pasture and grazing land 919 0.23
Total Agricultural Land 398460 100.00

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10. Production of Major Crops in the District (2001-02)-
Name of the Crop Production (Metric Tons)
i Cereals:
Rice 2476
Wheat 407041
Barley 30727
Jowar 823
Bajra 120855
Maize 383
----------------
Total 562305
ii Pulses:
Urad 212
Moong 52
Masur 758
Gram 11703
Pea 912
Arhar 7615
Moth 3
---------------
Total 21255

iii Oilseeds:
Mustard/Rapeseed 105039
Til 477
Ground- nut 5
Sunflower 11
--------------------
Total 105532

D. Other Crops:
Sugar cane 17142
Potato 848426
Cotton 16
---------------
Total 865584

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11. Area of Major Crops-
Crop Area (Ha.) Percent of the Total Area (%)
Wheat 133214 33.00
Bajra 107560 27.00
Barley 10264 3.00
Total Pulses 16768 4.00
Total Oilseeds 81293 20.00
Other Major Crops 28677 7.00
Potato 24047 6.00
Total 401833 100.00

Source: District Statistical Bulletin- 2003

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UNIT- II SOIL
SOIL, TYPES, CLASSIFICATION AND REMEDY OF PROBLEM SOILS

Definition:
1. Soils are very complex natural formations which make up on the surface of the earth.
They provide suitable environment in which plants may obtain water, nutrients and
oxygen for root respiration. It also provides substrate for the anchorage of the plants.
2. It is a natural body of the surface of earth crust, composed of organic and mineral, in
which plants grow.
Constituents: - Minerals, Organic matter, Water and Air.
Soil Profile: It is cross- section taken through the soil down to the parent rock. In some
cases, this may consist of only a shallow surface 10-15 cm above the bed rock. In well
developed soils, there are usually three or more definite layers or horizons which vary in
colour texture and compaction.

Fig. 1 Cross section of a soil Profile

Soil Types: The major soil types are sandy, loamy and clay

Sandy: Sandy soil is composed of large, rounded particles that pack together as well as
marbles, allowing free passage of water and air. Water enters into sand quickly and
percolates through it rapidly, taking dissolved nutrients with it consequently. A plant
in sandy soil needs supplemental water and nutrients more often than it would if
grown in another soil. If tried to squeeze a handful of moist sandy soil into a ball, it
will form a cast but it barely holds together.
Loamy Soil: It represents a balance between sand and clay. Loamy soils contain large,
medium size and small particles plus some amount of organic matter. Water and air move
through the soil slowly, keeping the plant roots moist and nutrients available to it. There are
no sluggish as in clay soil. A handful of loam will form a pliable ball that breaks apart with a
gentle prod.

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Clay Soil: It is made up of very fine, flattened particles that pack very closely together,
leaving little space for air and water movement. This dense soil absorbs water slowly and
retains it well. The dissolved nutrients also remain in clay soil for a long period than in other
soils. Due to this reason the clay soils are quite fertile. To test clay soil you pick up a
handful of wet soil and shape it into a ball. The clay soil is slippery, when you let it go, it
wont crumble, if you squeeze it, it will ooze through your fingers in the form of a ribbon.
When clay soil dries, it becomes crusty and often cracks.
Five important problems of soil and their solutions:
(1) Acidity (2) Alkalinity (3) Salinity (4) Shallow compacted Soil (5) Nutrient deficiency
1. Acidity: This problem is most common in the areas of heavy rainfall and is often
associated with sandy soil (sea beaches are rarely or never acidic). Soils high in organic
matter tend to be acid. Mildly acid soils cause little trouble. When the test indicates that soil
is acidic, if you add liming materials in it, it will help to neutralize it. Since all acid soils are
low in Calcium, fertilizers can be another very important factor in controlling acidity.
2. Alkalinity: Alkaline soil, common in light rainfall areas, is high in Calcium- Carbonate
(Lime) and certain other minerals. Many plants will grow well in moderately alkaline soil.
Addition of Gypsum may be useful in some alkaline soil. Iron and Sulphur benefit
moderately alkaline soil.
3. Salinity: An excess of salts in the soil is widely spread problem in arid and semi arid
regions. It can prevent germination, or if plants are already growing then it starts and in
advanced stage burns their foliage and finally kills them. Its presence can usually be detected
by white deposits of salts on the surface of the soil.
Frequent and shallow watering (with soft water) as well as use of certain fertilizers can cause
salts to build up. Periodic slow, deep watering will help to wash away the salts beyond roots,
if there is no compacted soil.
4. Shallow Compacted Soil: A tight layer of soil can give trouble if it lies at or near the
surface. Such a layer (hardpan) can be a natural formation or it can be man made. Roots can
not penetrate the hard layer and water can not drain through it.
If the hard pan layer is thin and if it is accessible through heavy equipment; by plashing 12
inches deep or more and drilling can eliminate this problem.
5. Nutrient Deficiency: Most of the soils, left alone, yield the three major plant nutrients
Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium very slowly.
Fertilizers either chemical or organic supply the essential nutrients (NPK) quickly and
easily. Organic amendments and soil conditioners are also beneficial in varying degrees.

Properties of soil:-
(A) Percent Pores in different soils-
Sandy soil 30% pore space
Sandy Loam Soil 40%
Loam Soil 45%
Clay Loam 50%
(B) Hygroscopic Coefficient-
Soil Type Hygroscopic Coefficient
Fine sand 3.4
Sandy Loam 6.9
Loam 7.8
Silt Loam 10.4
Silt Clay 16.1
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(C) Wilting Point Coefficient-
Soil Type Hygroscopic Coefficient
Fine sand 3.7
Sandy Loam 7.2
Loam 10.3
Silt Loam 12.7
Silt Clay 20.6

(D) Soil Particles


Soil Type Diameter Number of Surface Area in one
(mm) particles/grams of gram cm2
soil
Very Coarse Sand 2.00 1.00 90 11
Coarse Sand 1.00 0.50 720 23
Medium Sand 0.50 0.25 5700 45
Fine Sand 0.25 0.10 46000 91
Very Fine Sand 0.10 0.05 722000 227
Silt 0.05 0.002 57776000 454
Clay Below 0.002 90260853000 8000000

Soil pH It is the logarithm of the reciprocal of H+ ion concentration


pH = Log 10 --1----= LOG10[H+] -1= -Log10(H+)
[H+]
Importance: It influences the absorption of nutrients and plants in two ways
(i) Through direct effect of H+ ions
(ii) Thorough indirect its effect upon availability of nutrients and presence of
toxic ions, e g. Fe, Zn, Mn, etc. availability decreases as the pH value is in
creased form 5 to 7.5 .
Potential acidity = Exchange acidity.
Active acidity = H+ ions in the solution phase

(E) Major Soil Groups of India


Alluvial - 78 mha, alkaline with adequate P&K, deficient in N&OM.
Black Soil - 51.8 mha, abundant in Ca, Mg CO3, Poor in P.
Red Soil - 51.8 mha, generally poor in N, P, K and Humus.
Laterite Soil - 12.6 mha, rich in humus, hydroxides of Al, Fe. Poor in lime,
Mg & Ca. High P content, deficient in K.
Desert / Arid Soil - 37 mha, Poor due to arid climate, often saline or alkaline.

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Source: www.mapsofindia.com
Fig 2 Major Soil Groups of India

Indias Land use Classification


Total Geographical Area 328.73 (Million hectares)
Forest 67.76
Area put to non agricultural use 21.24
Barren and uncultivable land 19.80
Permanent pasture and other grazing land 11.60
Land under miscellaneous trees/groves 3.57
Cultivable waste 15.04
Old Fallow 10.62
Current Fallow 15.72
Net Area Sown 139.52
Reporting Area 304.87
Grossed Cropped Area 181.14
Area Sown more than once 41.62
Cropping Intensity 129.8
Gross Irrigated Area 59.64

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Relative Tolerance of Crops to Saline Soil

High Tolerance Medium Tolerance Low Tolerance


(8 12 m.mhos/cm) (6 8 m.mhos/cm) (Less than 6 m.mhos/cm)
Cotton Barley Cabbage
Garden Pea Carrot Apple
Sugar beet Alfalfa Lemon
Rapeseed Lettuce Pear
Coconut Orange Peach
Tillage-
Tillage is the physical manipulation of soil with tools and implements to result in good tilth
for better germination and subsequent growth of crops. Tilth is a physical condition of the soil
resulting from tillage.
Types of tillage
1. Preparatory tillage which is conducted before sowing the crop.
2. Inter- cultivation practices- which are conducted in standing crops after sowing.
.Preparatory Tillage-
Tillage operations that are carried out from the time of harvest of a crop to the sowing of the
next crop are known as preparatory tillage. These tillage operations are carried out in any
cultivated land to prepare seed bed for sowing the crop.
A Primary tillage or ploughing: Ploughing is opening of the compacted soil, with the help
of different ploughs. Ploughing is done mainly to open the hard layer of the soil. It should
ensure inversion of soil, uprooting of weeds and stubbles and less cloddy soil surface.
Types: 1. Deep Ploughing. 2. Sub soiling. 3. Year round Tillage.
1. Deep Ploughing: Ploughing at the depth of 25-30 cm.
Medium Deep Ploughing: Ploughing at the depth of 15-20 cm.
Shallow Ploughing: Ploughing at the depth of 5-6 cm.
Merits: 1. It turns out large sized clods in summer.
2. It improves the soil structure by turning the soil.
3. It destroys the rhizomes and tubers of perineal weeds by exposing it to sun.
4. Summer deep ploughing kills pests due to exposure of pupae to hot sun.
5. It improves soil moisture content.
Equipments: Tractor drawn cultivator, Harrow, Disc harrow, Blade harrow, Plank and
Rollers, Country Plough etc.

2. Sub Soiling: Hard pan may be present under the soil which checks growth of the roots of
crops. Root growth of crops is confined to top few cm. of soil, where deep penetration of
roots is inhibited by hard pans. Sub soiling is breaking the hard pans without inversion and
with less disturbance of top soil.
Tools: chisel plough, sub soiler, cultivator.

3. Year Round Tillage: Tillage operation carried out through- out the year is known as year
round tillage. Repeated tillage operations are done until sowing of the crop. Even after the
harvest of the crop, the field is repeatedly ploughed or harrowed to avoid weed growth in the
off season.

16
Fig. 4 Disk Harrow

Fig. 3 Cultivator
B. Secondary Tillage:
Lighter or finer operations performed on the soil after primary tillage is known as secondary
tillage.
Equipments: Tractor driven cultivator, Country Plough, Earther, Weeder, Bullock drawn-
cultivators (spring Tyne, without spring),
Hand tools- Spade, Khurpi, Hand cultivators, Hand hoes, Rakes etc.

Leveler

Spade

Singh Patella

Roller

Khurpi

Rake Scraper

Fig.5 Tillage equipments and hand tools

17
Planting of Crops
Seed is the most common natural propagation unit of plants. Large volume agronomic
crops are raised from seeds either by directly planting them in the field or by transplanting the
seedlings raised in seed beds. The later is a common practice with Paddy and several
vegetables and ornamental crops.
A true Seed may be defined as a fertilized ovule consisting of plants embryo, stored
food reserves enclosed by a seed coat. On germination a seed develops into a new plant of the
parental type. In some plants such as certain varieties of Mango and Citrus, a seed may
develop more than one embryo (poly embryony). In a popular sense the term seed is also
applied to a single seeded dry fruits and the vegetative propagules (bulbils, pieces of tuber
rhizomes.

Characteristics of Good seeds:


1. It must be pure.
2. It must be uniform, identical in texture and structure.
3. It should be fully developed and produce healthy seedlings.
4. It must have germination capacity, and viability.
5 It must be free form seed borne diseases and insects.
Types of Seeds:
1. Breeder Seeds: It is a seed lot or vegetative propagating material which is produced
directly under the control of the sponsoring breeder or institution and provides for
initial and recurring increase of foundation seeds.
2. Foundation Seeds: Seeds so handled as to most nearly maintain specific genetic
identity and purity that may be designated by experimental station. Production must
be carefully supervised and approved by authorities of the Research station.
3. Registered Seeds: Progeny of foundation seeds that is handled carefully to maintain
satisfactory genetic identity and purity and has been approved and certified by a
certifying agency.
4. Certified Seed: Progeny of foundation seeds, so handled as to maintain satisfactory
genetic purity and has been approved and certified by state certifying agency.

Seed Treatment:
Prior to sowing, seeds are given various treatments to promote seed germination and
seedling growth and protect them from pest and diseases causing organisms (fungi and
bacteria).Treatment of seed with different substances e.g. fungicides, growth regulators,
nutrient solutions is necessary.
Treatment Effect
1. Scarcification Promotes germination
2. Vernalization Breaks dormancy
3. Fungicide application Protects from fungal attack
4. Nutrient solution Promotes seedling growth
5. Growth regulators Promotes germination
6. Water Necessary for germination
7. Nitrogen fixing organisms Promotes seedling growth

18
Aims of Seed Treatment:
1. To break seed dormancy.
2. To improve seeding vigor and initial plant growth.
3. To supplement nutrient reserve.
4. To serve as disease resistance to provide protection against soil fungi.
5. To provide protection against insects and pests.
6. To improve germination.

Methods of Seed Treatment:

1. Solid dust Treatment: Treatment of seeds with powder of fungicide.


2. Wet Treatment: Treatment of seed with aqueous solution of fungicides, nutrients etc.
3. Slurry Treatment: Dipping of seeds / seedlings in slurry.

Seed Palleting: It is the technique used as a protectant against soil borne diseases, insects,
pests and as a repellant against birds and rodents.

Seed Rate: It refers to the amount of seed required to sow a unit of area e.g. one hectare. It
would depend upon seed size, its weight, population, germination percentage and purity of
seed, percentage of the seeds, and growth habit of the plant.

Seed rate (kg/ha) = Area to be sown X Test Weight of Seed X 10,000


1000 x 1000 x Germination % x Purity % x Spacing

Spacing: The seeds should be sown at proper spacing for which line to line and plant to plant
distance should be optimally maintained. It varies with the habit of the crop plant.

Methods of Sowing: (By seeds of crop plants)


i. Broadcasting.
ii. Furrow planting.
iii. Dibbling.
iv. Transplanting / Nursery.
v. Seed drilling with ferti- seed drill.

i. Broadcasting- The seeds are scattered uniformly as far as possible, over the field, by hands
or by any other mechanical device.

ii. Furrow planting- It is the method of planting wherein the seeds or sets are placed at the
bottom of the furrow. e.g. Sugarcane .

iii. Dibbling- It is a method of sowing where the seeds are placed in the holes made
manually with a dibbler for this purpose , maintaining specific spacing between the rows and
between the plants within the rows.

19
iv. Transplanting/Nursery- The process of moving the seedlings from the seedbeds to the
main fields e.g. paddy, seasonal flowers, or sapling and grafts to an orchard (fruit trees, and
rose garden).

v. Drilling- Process to sow the seeds in rows with the help of seed drill an equipment or
contrivance for sowing.

Dibler Seeding Device

Line Sowing Pora Potato Planter


)

Seed Drill

Fig. 6 Seeding Devices

20
Methods of Propagation- The plant propagation is the multiplication of plants by both
sexual and asexual means (by vegetative parts other than seeds)

Sexual- i Seeds

. Asexual- i. Stem cutting


ii. Grafting
iii. Rooted slips
iv. Budding
v. Tubers
vi. Layering
vii. Tuberous roots
viii. Corns
ix. Rhizomes
Vegetative Propagation: is production of complex plants by asexual methods.
In a more popular sense, the term seed is also applied to vegetative propagules such as
tubers (e.g. Potato), rhizomes (e.g. Zinger), and bulbs (e.g. Onion)

Tuber

Rhizomes

Bulbs

. Fig. 7 Plant parts used as Vegetative Propagation


High value horticultural crops and forest trees are propagated vegetatively by cutting,
layering, grafting, and tissue culture, whereas seed raised crops show variation among the
population. The progeny derived meditatively is identical to the parent plant and refers to a
clone and this method of propagation is termed as Clonal Propagation. Clonal Propagation in
tissue culture is called Micro Propagation.
1 Grafting- It is an artificial method in which a shoot of desired plant variety (scion) bearing
a bud is inserted into the stem of another rooted plant(stock) of the same or allied species in
such a way that vascular tissues combine and allow the growth and development of grafted
shoot.
Types - Inarching
Budding
Tongue grafting
Wedge grafting
Crown grafting

21
2. Layering- It involves pegging down of runners and stolons to the soil surface. Adventitious
roots develop where a node touches. Shoot develops from lateral meristem, a new daughter
plant is eventually established e.g. Carnation, Dianthus, Caryophyllus etc.
3. Gootee- A healthy somewhat woody branch of the tree is selected, a 40-50 mm long ring
of bark is sliced off and the cut portion is covered with a thick plaster of grafting clay or
moss, then wrapped up with straw or polythene and tied securely. It is generally done during
early rains and may have to be watered to keep it alive. After some weeks it is cut and
transplanted as an independent plant, e.g. Citrus fruits, Guava, Litchi etc.

Layering
Inarching

Tongue Grafting
Budding

Crow n
Grafting

Gooti

Fig. 8 Methods of Vegetative Propagation

Classification of seeds-
22
(A) Based on the number of cotyledons in the embryo-
Monocot- Embryo with only one cotyledon (e.g. Rice, Wheat, Onion,
Coconut).

Dicot- Embryo with two cotyledons (e.g. Mustard, Sunflower, Gram,


Pulses, Cotton).

(B) Endospermous / Ex-albuminous The seed lacks endosperm. Reserved food


is stored in the cotyledons (Gram, Mustard, Cotton, and Sunflower).

UNIT-III

23
NUTRITIONAL MANAGEMENT, MANURES AND FERTILIZERS

Green plants obtain their nutrition from the soil and air in the form of inorganic ions
synthesized carbohydrates through the unique biological process of photosynthesis. These
photosynthetic through numerous biochemical reactions catalyzed by enzymes at ambient
temperature produce a range of organic compounds required by the plants. Whereas most of
the C and O ions are obtained from the air, the other elements are absorbed from soil by the
roots.

Inorganic Nutrients

Sixteen elements are essential for all the plants to grow and complete their life cycle.
These are Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium, Calcium,
Magnesium, Sulphur, Iron, Zinc, Copper, Boron, Molybdenum. Chlorine and Manganese. Of
these, the first nine elements are required in comparatively large quantities and therefore
called as Macro nutrients and the other seven are required in small quantities and classified as
micro nutrients.

Classification of Essential Elements:

Basic
Nutrients Macro Nutrients Micro Nutrients
Primary Secondary

Carbon(C) Nitrogen(N) Calcium(Ca) Iron (Fe)


Hydrogen(H) Phosphorus(P) Magnesium(Mg) Zinc(Zn)
Oxygen(O) Potassium(K) Sulphur(S) Copper(Cu)
Boron(B)
Molybdenum(Mo)
Chlorine(C1)
Manganese(Mn)

Role of Inorganic nutrients:

1. These nutrients act as basic constituents of plant body- C, H, O.


2. These are useful in energy storage, transfer and bonding N, S, P.
3. These are necessary for charge balance K, Ca, Mg, ( act as regulator and carrier).
4. These nutrients act as catalyzer and activator in enzyme activation, and electron
transport - Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, B, Mo, Mn, and Cl.

Deficiency symptoms of nutrients-


24
Deficiency of inorganic ions in the soil can be to some extent identified by symptoms
exhibited by the plant.
Identification of deficiency symptoms of nutrients:
The deficiency symptoms are distinguished on the basis of (i ) Region of occurrence
(ii) Presence or absence of dead tissues (iii) Chlorosis of entire leaf or interveinal-
chlorosis.

The symptoms of deficiency three primary elements are as follows-

Nitrogen- Plants have stunted growth, the stem is erect but lateral buds do not develop.
Leaves become pale green in colour. Leaves make an acute angle with the main stem.

Phosphorus- Growth of plants is severely restricted. They are thin, erect and spindly. The
bluish green older leaves become bronzed or develop reddish brown or purple tints. Leaves
may be shed prematurely. Flowering and fruiting may be delayed.

Potassium- Plants have a stunted and bushy growth. Pale green older leaves develop
chlorosis between veins and light grey to bronze reddish brown or brown colouration along
the leaf apex and the apical margin. The leaf tip and apical margin of leaf become scorched
and necrotic.

Toxicity symptoms: when a nutrient is present in the soil in excess of plants requirement
the nutrient is absorbed in higher amounts which causes imbalance of nutrients or disorder in
physiological processes. Toxicity symptoms are less common.
Nitrogen: Excess nitrogen causes delay in maturity and increases the succulancy. The
adverse effects of excess nitrogen are lodging and abortion of flowers. Crops become
susceptible to pest and diseases.
Phosphorus: Excess phosphorus causes deficiency of Fe and Zn. In some crops like maize,
leaves develop purple coloration and plant growth is stunted. In Cotton, leaves become dark
green in color, maturity of bolls is delayed and stems turn red.
Iron: Tiny brown spots appear on the lower leaves of rice starting from tips and spreading to
lowered bases. Leaves usually remain green, in extreme case , the entire leaf turns purplish
brown in color.
Manganese: The plant is stunted and tillering is often limited. Brown spots develop on the
veins of the leaf blade and leaf sheeth especially on lower leaves. Manganese toxicity occurs
in low land rice.
Boron: Chlorosis occurs at the tips of the older leaves, especially along the margins. Large,
dark brown, elliptical spots appear subsequently. The leaves ultimately turn brown and dry
up.

NUTRITIONAL MANAGEMENT

Organic Manures-
It has been a regular practice to add chemical fertilizers into the soil to enrich it with
essential nutrients, more particularly NPK. Of late it has been realized that application of
inorganic fertilizers causes soil infertility due to accumulation of salts. Therefore, the use of

25
organic fertilizers such as manure, compost, green manure, vermi-compost and bio-fertilizers
is now preferred. This practice is also a part of organic farming.
1.Farm Yard Manure: Decomposed mixture of dung and urine of farm animals along with
the litter and leftover materials from roughages or fodder fed to the cattle. FYM contains
0.5% N, 0.2% P and 0.5% K respectively.

2.Compost: A mass of rotted organic matter made from waste is called compost. The
compost is made from farm waste like sugarcane trash, paddy straw, weeds and other plants.
Compost contains 0.5% N, 0.15% P and 0.5% K respectively.

3.Green Manure: Green un-decomposed plant materials used as manure is called green
manure. It is formed in two ways: (1) by growing green manure crops, and (2) by collecting
green leaves from plants grown in waste lands. Green manure crops mostly belonging to Pea
family such as Dhaincha ,Clusterbean and Sesbania, are grown in the field and incorporated
in the field after sufficient growth. Sesbania rostrata is a stem nodulating green manure
plant. Green manure contains 2-3%N, 0.5%P and 2%K respectively..

4.Vermi-composting:Vermi-composting is the use of earthworms for composting organic


residue. It is estimated that 1000 tons of waste organic matter can be converted by
earthworms into300tons of vermi-compost. Earthworms weighing about 0.5-.06Kg consume
large quantities of organic matter and excrete soil as casts. The weight of the material passing
through the body each day is almost equal to the weight of the earthworm. The casts of
earthworms have several enzymes and is rich in nitrogen, phosphorus, potash, calcium and
magnesium and also in bacterial and Actinomycetes population and Mycorrhiza.
Vermi-composting is made in small pits of suitable size. 2 M x 1M x 0.5 M in a shady area
in farm. The different waste materials available in the farm like cow dung, plant residues
weeds etc. are placed in the pit layer wise and soil is added for each layer. Earthworms are
released for each layer and water is applied. Compost is ready within 35-40 days.

Advantages of Vermi- composting :


1. Vermi-compost is a rich mixture of major , micro nutrients containing 3%N,
1%P and 1.5% K.
2. It is excellent base for the establishment of beneficial free living and symbiotic
microbes, as it increases total microbial population of nitrogen fixing bacteria
and Actinomycetes.
3. The symbiotic Mycorrhiza on plant root system increases the VAM propagules
survival up to 11 months on earthworm casts.
4. Increased microbial activity also improves the availability of soil phosphorus
and nitrogen.
5. A number of plant growth promoters are observed in earthworms casts.
6. Quick response can be obtained.
7. Helps in aerating the soil.

Role of Earth Worms in Vermi- Composting:


Earth worms help in the preparation of compost and maintaining soil health as follows:
1. Improvement in soil fertility
2. Amelioration of physical condition of soil
3. Mixing of sub soil and top soil
4. Correction of undetermined deficiencies in plants

26
5. In re-cycling of city and rural wastes, sewage waste, waste water, sludge, and
industrial waste e.g. paper, food and wood industry.
6. Supplementing traditional feed
7. Used in Unani system of medicine for treatment of certain diseases.
Bio-fertilizers
The atmosphere contains 78% nitrogen that can not be utilized by most of the plants.
However, some free-living, saprophytic and symbiotic microorganisms in the soil can fix
atmospheric nitrogen and make it available to the plants. Some soil-borne fungi and bacteria
can also enhance the availability of phosphorus to the plants by solubalizing the insoluble
phosphates in the soil. Some of these micro-organisms are being used as biofertilizers which
are cost effective and considered eco-friendly. Some of the nitrogen fixing microorganisms in
use as biofertilizers are: Rhizobium (symbiotic bacteria), Azotobacter (free-living soil
bacteria) and Anabaena and Nostoc (nitrogen fixing blue green algae). The fungi that
colonize the roots of plants are called Mycorrhiza. VAM(Vasicular-Arbuscular mycorrhiza)
fungi provide significant benefits to the plants. Their hyphae extend into the soil away from
roots and greatly increase the potential for the absorption of water and uptake of phosphorus
and other nutrients by the plants. Example Gigaspora rosea.

Advantages and disadvantages of Organic and Inorganic/ Chemical Fertilizers

Organic Manures Chemical Fertilizers


1. Provide all three Primary essential Provide only one or two primary essential
elements i. e. N, P and K. elements i. e. N, P, K or N+P, N+K etc.
2. Suitable for all types of land . Not suitable for all types of land .
3. Improve the physical condition of the Do not improve physical condition of soils.
soils.
4. Checks soil erosion. Do not check soil erosion.
5. Improve water holding capacity of soil. Do not improve water holding capacity of
soil.
6. Reduce the evaporation of soil water. Do not reduce evaporation of soil water.
7. Provide micro elements also. Do not provide micro elements.
8. Amount of essential elements available Comparably large amount of available
in very little quantity. essential elements.
9. Should be applied well before 2 Can be applied before sowing, at the time
months, at least a fortnight before sowing of sowing and after sowing activity.
activity.
10. Can not be applied in standing crops. Can be applied in standing crops specially
N2 in installments.
11. Can not be applied in the form of Can be applied as foliar application, in
liquid/solution. liquid form.
12. Required to be thoroughly mixed into Can be applied as localized placement top
the soil after broadcasting it. dressing or basal dressing.
13. Do not require any king of technical Require technical know how of the
knowledge. fertilizers and their application effects etc.
14. Farmers can prepare into their own. Can be synthesized in fertilizer factories
Fields. Only.
15. Economical. Costly.
16. Transportation cost is more. Transportation cost is very less.
17. Its impact in the fields remain up to 2-3 Repeatedly application after each crop
years. even after 4 months.
18. By its continuous application the By its continuous application soils become
27
conditions are improved. either acidic or alkaline.
19. Provide organic matter to the soil. Do not provide organic matter to the soil.

Average Nutrient Contents of Organic Manures-

Organic manures Percentage


N P2O5 K20
A. Bulky Organic Manures
Farm Yard Manure (dry) 0.4-1.5 0.3-0.9 0.3-1.9
Urban Compost (dry) 0.7-2.0 0.9-3.0 1.0-2.0
Sewage Sludge (dry) 2.0-3.5 1.0-5.0 0.5-0.7
B.Green Manures:
Dhaincha (Sesbania aculeate) 0.62 - -
Moong (Phaseolus acureas) 0.72 0.18 0.53
Sunhemp (Crotaleria juncea) 0.75 0.12 0.51
C. Concentrated Organic Manure
Oil Cakes:
Neem
Mustard 5.2 1.8 1.2
Mahua Cake 2.5 0.8 1.2
Ground Nut Cake 7.3 1.5 1.3
Cotton seed cake (Decorticated) 6.4 2.9 2.2
Cotton seed cake (Un Decorticated) 3.9 1.8 1.6

Comparison between F.Y.M, Compost and Vermi Compost:


Particulars F.Y.M. Compost Vermi-
Compost
1. Time required for preparation 6 Months 4 Months 2 Months
2. Amount of available nutrients
Nitrogen 0.3 0.5% 0.5 - 1% 1.2 1.6%
Phosphorus 0.4 0.6% 0.5 0.9% 1.5 1.8%
Potash 0.4 0.5% 10% 1.2 2%
3. Number of beneficial Micro Very few Lesser Very Much
organism

4. Requirement /Acre
i) General Crop 4 tons 4 tons 1.5 tons
ii) Medical Crops 8 tons 8 tons 3.0 tons
5. Expenditure for weed control Too Much Relatively Nil.
low

Fertilizers:-

28
Fertilizers are industrially manufactured chemicals containing plant nutrients. Nutrient
content is higher in fertilizers than inorganic manures and nutrients are released almost
immediately.

Classification of Fertilizers:

A.On the basis of nutrients

1.Straight Fertilizers: Straight Fertilizers are those which supply only one primary plant
nutrient namely nitrogen or phosphorus or potassium. e.g.Urea, Ammonium Chloride,
Potassium Chloride, Potassium Sulphate.
i. Nitrogenous Fertilizers: The fertilizers containing nitrogen are called nitrogenous
fertilizers e.g. Urea, Ammonium Sulphate , Calcium Ammonium Nitrate etc.

ii Phosphatic Fertilizers:- The fertilizers containing phosphorus content (P) are called
Phosphatic fertilizers e.g. Super Phosphate, Basic Slag, Rock Phosphate, Bone Meal etc.

iii.. Potassic Fertilizers: The fertilizers containing potassium (K) are called Potassic-
fertilizers e.g.Potassium Chloride or Muriate of Potash, Potassium Sulphate.

2 Compound or Complex Fertilizers:- These fertilizers contain two primary nutrients


in fixed proportion. Di -Ammonium Phosphate, Nitro phosphate, Potassium Nitrate.
3.Mixed Fertilizers:- These are the physical mixtures of two or more straight fertilizers
in desired proportion and contain two or three primary plant nutrients.

B. On the basis of Physical Form of the fertilizers:

i) Solid Fertilizers :- Fertilizers found in solid e.g. powder, granule, crystal pill.
ii) Liquid Fertilizers :- Fertilizers in liquid form for applying with irrigation water.

C. On the basis of Concentration of Primary nutrients:

i) Low Grade Fertilizers: which contain less then 25% of primary nutrients e.g. Super
Phosphate, Sodium nitrate.
ii) High Grade Fertilizers:- which contain more than 25% of Primary nutrients e.g.Urea,Di-
Ammonium Phosphates.

D. On the basis of Acidity and Basicity of Fertilizers:-

i) Acid forming Fertilizers:- Fertilizers leaving acid residues in the soil eg. Urea,
Ammonium Sulphate, Ammonium Chloride

ii) Alkaline forming Fertilizers / Basic Fertilizers:- Fertilizers leaving basic residues in
the soil e.g. Calcium Cyanide, Di- calcium Phosphate.

Percentage Nutrient Contents in commonly used Chemical Fertilizers


Particulars Nitrogen Phosphorus Potash

29
(N2) (P205) (K2O)
A. Straight Fertilizers
i) Nitrogenous Fertilizers-
Urea 46.4 - -
Ammonium Sulphate 20.5 - -
Calcium Ammonium Nitrate 25.0 - -
Ammonium Nitrate 33.0 - -
Calcium Cyanide 21.0 - -
Ammonium Chloride 25.0 - -
ii) Phosphatic Fertilizers-
Single Super Phosphate - 16.1 -
Double Super Phosphate - 32.0 -
Triple Super phosphate - 48.0 -
Ammonium Phosphate 20.0 20.0 -
Rock Phosphate - 20-40 -
Basic Slag - 14-18 -
Di Calcium Phosphate - 34-39 -
iii) Potassic Fertilizers-
Potassium Chloride or Muriate of Potash - - 58-60
Potassium Sulphate - - 48-50
B Compound Fertilizers
Mono ammonium Phosphate 11 - 48
Di Ammonium Phosphate 21 - 54
Nitro Phosphate (Suphala) 20 20 2
Potassium Nitrate 11 - 60
C. Mixed Fertilizers
NPK Mixture 4 8 4
NPK Mixture 5 5 5
NPK Mixture 10 10 10

Method of Fertilizers Applications:

1. Broadcasting: Application of fertilizers uniformly on the soil surface is known as


broadcasting.
2. Band Placement: Application of fertilizers in narrow bands beneath and by side of the
crop row is known as band placement.
3. Sub-soil Placement: Placement of fertilizers in the sub-soil with the help of high
power machinery.
4. Fertigation: Application of fertilizers with irrigation water. It is generally followed
with drip irrigation.
5. Foliar Spray: Application of fertilizers to foliage of the crop as spray solution.
6. Basal Application: Application of fertilizers before or at the time of sowing is known
as basal application. Partial dose of nitrogen, full doses of phosphorus and potassium
are provided into the soil along with sowing of the seeds.
7. Top Dressing: Application of fertilizers in the standing crops is known as top dressing
e.g. spreading of nitrogenous fertilizer ( Urea) in standing crops in two installments at
the interval of three weeks of sowing .

30
Balanced fertilization: It refers to application of N, P, K nutrients to the soil in quantities to
bring the balance in nutrients in the soil to meet the requirement of any specific crop. e. g.
for Wheat and Paddy crops recommended dose of N,P,K is 120Kg: 60Kg: 60Kg. per hectare.

31
UNIT IV

IRRIGATION AND PLANT PROTECTION

Water is an essential requirement for proper growth and development of plants and their yield.
Water is a major constituent of plant body (>90% of the protoplasm is water) and the
translocation of nutrients absorbed from the soil, the photosynthetic and other metabolic product
in the plant body occurs in the form of aqueous solution. Water is essential for all the
biochemical reaction including photosynthesis, for which water is also an essential raw material.
It is, therefore, important that adequate water supply is ensured for good crop. The poor
farmers grow their crops under rain fed conditions, which means that they are dependent on rain
water only for the cultivation. However, due to uncertainty of rains often adequate water is not
available at the critical periods of plant growth leading to often sub-optimal yields or crop
failure. Therefore, where ever possible, water is artificially supplied from rivers, bore wells or
lakes to supplement the rain fall to weed out the requirement of soil. This is known as irrigation.
Excess of water causing water logging conditions which affect the crop yield adversely. In such
conditions drainage of excess water becomes necessary.

Quality of irrigation water :

The quality of water used for irrigation is important .The suitability of water for irrigation
depends upon the amount and types of salts. Irrigation water always contains some soluble salts.
Salt content of water is checked by its electrical conductivity (EC). Water with EC value higher
than 1.5 mhoms /sec. is regarded as saline or brackish depending on excess presence of sodium
salts or other salts, respectively. For most of the crops saline and brackish waters are harmful.
Excess level of some ions such as fluorine, selenium and molybdenum are toxic for the animal
feed, if plant grows in such water.

Improving the quality of Water:

The supply of water can be improved by adding certain substances as Sulphur to reduce the pH
to the desired level. Gypsum can be applied to the soil or mixed with water, where poor quality
water containing a high concentration of sodium salts in used for irrigation. The permeability of
the soils can be improved by incorporating organic matter into them to facilitate the leaching
down of the salts beyond the root zones.
Loss of Soil Water :
(1) Through Surface Run off (2) Evaporation (3) Transpiration (4) Percolation & Drainage.
Time of irrigation: An ideal irrigation schedule must indicate when and in how much quantity
of irrigation water is to be applied The time of irrigation depends on the depletion of soil
moisture at the root zone depth, which is different for different crops .For crops like Wheat,
Maize etc. scheduling irrigation at 25% depletion of available soil moisture is adequate. For
drought resistant crops like Sorghum, Pearl millet, Finger millet, Cotton etc., it is sufficient to
irrigate at 50 per cent depletion of available soil moisture.

- 32 -
Soil moisture content is approximately estimated by farmers-
1. By seeing the plants and soil- . In practice farmers check soil moisture content by the feel and
appearance of soil (i) Plants become of darker colour (ii) Leaves wilt at noon (iii) In the scarcity
of water, leaves become shrunken.
2. On the basis of quantity of available water in the soil.
3. By seeing the soil condition and qualities- By considering condition of the soil.
4 At critical growth stage of the plants- In each crop there are some stages at which moisture
stress leads to irrevocable yield loss. These are known as critical period. If irrigation water is
available in sufficient amount, irrigation is scheduled whenever soil moisture is depleted to
critical moisture level. Generally, flowering and pod developing stages are the most suitable
stages of pulses to irrigate.

Critical stages of some crops for moisture scarcity

Paddy Panicle initiation, flowering.


Wheat Crown initiation, jointing, milking.
Maize Silking, tasseling.
Ground nut Rapid flowering, pegging, easy pod formation.
Sugar cane Formative.
Arhar, Moong, Urad etc. Flowering, pod developing.

Methods of Irrigation:
1. Surface Irrigation System: By flooding the fields is most commonly practiced in this
country. Various methods have been developed for flooding.
(1) Flooding methods:
(a) Free or uncontrolled flooding: This is used for filling the fields and irrigating the Paddy
crops.
Merits: (i) Easy in irrigation. (ii) Less expensive.
Demerits: (i) 50 70 % water is lost. (ii) Uneven distribution of water in the field .(iii) More
water is required (iv) Not useful for sloppy fields.

(b) Check Bed Methods: In this method, first of all irrigation channels and beds of small size are
made. The size of bed depends upon type of soil, slope, crop and source of irrigation.
Merits: (i) Saving in water. (ii) Frequent and even distribution of water. (iii) Saving of time. (iv)
Saving in expenditure of irrigation.
Demerits: (i) Additional expenditure for making beds and channels. (ii) Decrease in actual area
of crop.
(c) Border Strip method: In this method, beds are made in the form of long strips. When
irrigation water is fully flooded in one strip then water is allowed to fill in next strip
subsequently.
(d ) Basin Methods: This method is generally used in the garden trees. The trees are surrounded
by circular, rectangular or square basins for the purpose of irrigation and are connected with
main irrigation channel.
(e) Ring method: By this method, there is no direct contact of the stems with the water and the
tree becomes safer. The water is accumulated in circular ring like structure. There is an
irrigation channel between the two lines of trees, which is connected with one tree.

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Merits :( i) Saving of irrigation water and time. (ii) The water becomes available directly at root
zone. (iii) More useful for gardens. (iv) Water does not harm the plants.
(f) Ridge and Furrow Method:
(a) Commonly used in Sugarcane and Potato crops.
(b) Corrugated or Zigzag Method: Those crops in which shallow furrow are made up which
are connected with each other, and water moves through these furrows e.g., Potato,
Bhindi etc.
Merits: (i) Good control of water. (ii) Irrigation of greater area. (iii) Saving of time. (iv) Less
loss due to evaporation. (v) Upper most layer does not become hard. (vi) More aeration. (vii)
Water does not contact the plants stem directly. (viii) Useful in alkaline soil.

Fig. 9 Methods of Surface Irrigation

2. Sub surface irrigation: In this system, water is applied into a series of field ditches deep
down to the important layer. It then moves laterally and then vertically through capillaries and
saturates the root zone. The ditches are deep down 30 cm deep, and at a distance of 1 2 meters.
The porous pipes are laid underground and water under pressure is distributed through these
pipes.
Merits: (i) Water loss through evaporation is minimum. (ii) Comparatively more land is available
for cultivation.
Demerits: (i) It is useful for limited areas (impervious layer) (iii) There is a chance of alkalinity
by seepage.

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3. Aerial Irrigation:

(1) Sprinkling Irrigation: It is a system in which water is sprayed on the crops and soil as a fine
spray. The equipment consists of a pump which pumps water and conveys it to different parts of
the field through PVC pipes. The fine spray is achieved by use of sprinkler heads which are
nozzles that produce a fine spray by rotating all round.

Merits: (i) Suitable for every type of soil. (ii) Equal distribution of water. (iii) Very little loss of
water (15%). (iv) Protection of crops from the temperature. (v) Possibility of easy application of
chemicals and fertilizers.

Fig.10 (a) A
View of Sprinkler Irrigation

Fig. 10 (b) Sprinkling Irrigation System

(ii) Drip of Trickle Irrigation: It involves the slow application of water drop by drop as the
name signifies, to the root zone of a crop. The method was invented in Israel and is now being
tried in other countries. In this method, water is used very economically, since losses due to deep
percolation and surface evaporation are reduced to minimum. This method is very much suited
to arid regions and is being followed for irrigating the orchard crops at present.
The equipment consists of a pumping unit to create a pressure of about 2.5 Kg/square cm pipe
line which may be of PVC and drip type nozzles or emitters are used along with a filter unit to
remove the suspended impurities.

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Demerits: (i) Pure water is a must for Irrigation.(ii) Initial high cost and its maintenance.(iii)
Technical knowledge is important. (iv) Unsuitable for uneven and more sloppy lands.

Plant Protection

Pest: It is any organism ( plant or animal) that damages our crops or other personal properties or
transmit diseases or causes annoyance to our self or domesticated animals to the extent that one
adopts or wishes to adopt control measures to check the nefarious activities.
Types: ( i.) Weeds (ii) Diseases and (iii) Insects.
(i)WEEDS: Weeds are unwanted plants which are growing where they are not wanted.
Or

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Weed is plant, which grows in numerous quantities and depresses the other plants
having greater important nutritional values.
SALIENT FEATURES OF WEEDS:
1. Weeds produce their seeds in numerous quantities by one plant.
2. Some weeds are seen to germinate even after 25-40 years.
3. Some weeds have deep roots. These roots grow very deep in the sub-soil, and they
store food materials in rhizomes for a long time.
4. The seeds of various weeds are more or less identical to associated crops. These
are quite similar in colour, size and shape.
5. Various weeds are disseminated by the vegetative parts of the plants also.
6. Weeds have capacity to resist the adverse conditions of soil, climate and diseases
etc.
MERITS OF THE WEEDS:
1. Weeds act as green manure for the fields, if weeds are mixed in the soil by tillage,
the fertility of the field increases to some extent.
2. Weeds are used as fodder to feed the cattle.
3. Weeds are also used by human beings for their diets as leafy vegetables having
more nutritional values e.g. Palak, Chaulai, Bathua.
4. They are helpful in checking the soil erosion. The roots of the weeds tie up the
soil particles and cover the soil.
5. Weeds are used as medicines for some diseases e.g. Gooma for snake poison,
Sarpagandha for Blood Pressure, and Satyanashi for skin diseases.
6. Weeds are used to decorate the bungalow offices etc. They are used as shed, lawn,
fences etc.
DEMERITS OF THE WEEDS:
1. Effect upon the production of the crops: Weeds reduce the crop yields. As they
compete with crops for plant nutrients, water, sunlight. Generally these nutrients,
i.e. water and sunlight are required in a definite proportion. If any one of these is
consumed by weeds ,the crops can not utilize the other two items adequately.
2. Increase in cost of cultivation: For controlling the weeds the farmer has to provide
more tillage, ploughing, hoeing and harrowing, with the result that the cost of
cultivation increases and net profit becomes less.
3. Effect upon the quality of the produce: Weeds can spoil the quality of crop and so
lower its value.
4. Spoiling the quantity and quality of animal products: Weeds having adverse effect
upon the products obtained from livestock-milk products, wool, flesh etc. and
spoil their qualities e.g. wild onion and garlic produce bad smell in the milk when
they are taken by the cattle.
5. Weeds can act as host for various pests and diseases: Weeds can act as host
plants. These causal organisms complete their life cycle upon the weeds and after
that they prepare themselves for attack upon the new crops.

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6. Decrease in the value of the land: The value of weed infected area is decreased
because of lower production of the crops cultivated in those lands, and more
expenditure is required for weed eradication.
7. Deterioration of the health of human beings as well as cattle: With the infestation
of some weeds like Parthenium hysterophorus , allergies and contagious diseases
are spread over human beings and cattle.
CLASSIFICATION OF WEEDS:
(A) ACCORDING TO LIFE CYCLE :
1. Annual weeds: Such weeds complete their life cycle within a year Bathua,
Satyanashi.
2. Biannual weeds : These weeds obtain their vegetative growth on first year and in next
year they produce seeds-wild carrot (Jangli Gajar).
3. Perennial weeds These weeds can survive two or more than two years after
germination Kans, Motha.
(B) ACCORDING TO SIZE OF LEAF :
1. Broad leave weeds: Krishaneel, Hirankhuri, Bathua Makoya, Jangli Chaulai.
2. Narrow leaved weeds Doob, Motha, Kans.
(C) RELATIVE SITUATION OF THE WEEDS:
1. Absolute weeds: Such weeds which are always harmful.e.g., Parthenium
hysterophorus.
2. Relative weeds: Those plants which grow in the field as weed having some beneficial
roles also than their harmful roles e.g., leafy vegetables ( Bathua, Palak, Chaulai).
3. Rogue : When plant of another variety grows in the fields, automatically without
sowing, it is known as rogue. Removal of such plant is known as rogueing.
(D) ACCORDING TO COTYLEDONES :
1. Monocot Pyaji, Motha, Doob etc.
2. Dicot Bathua, Krishnaneel, Vishkhapra, Satyanashi, Makoya etc.
(E) ACCORDING TO SOIL AND CLIMATE :
1. Weeds of water logged area Hydrilla, Velicinaria.
2. Weeds of Desert lands Kareel, Vayusuri, Chaulai.
3. Weeds of Agricultural lands-Bathua, Hirankhuri, Gokhur, Vishkhapra.

IMPORTANT WEEDS AND THEIR BOTANICAL NAMES

S.No. Common Name Botanical Name


1. Pyazi Asphodalus tenifolius

2. Motha Cyprus rotundus

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3. Satyanashi Argamone mexicana

4. Hirankhuri Convolvulus arvensis

5. Lahsua Sygera arvensis

6. Kans Saccharam spontanium

7. Patharchatta Trianthema monogyna

8. Hazardana Phyllanthus niruni

9. Vayusuri Plusia lanciolate

10. Javansa Alkehgi camelorum

11. Bari Dudhi Euphorbia hirta

12. Bathua Chenopodium album

13. Dhatura Datura stramonium

14. Jangli Chaulai Amaranthus virdis

15. Latzeera Acheranthus aspera

16. Krishnaneel Anagolis arvensis

17. Doob Cynodon dactylon

18. Jangli jai Avena fatua

19. Nunia Protulaca quadrifera

20. Choti Dudhi Euphorbia microphylla

WEED CONTROL
1. Preventive measure
2. Eradication
3. Curative Measures
1. Preventive Measures: - To check the spreading of weeds in new lands and its prevention is
known as preventive measures.

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i. Use of pure seeds.
ii. The cattle should be supplied with weed free fodder and grains.
iii. Well decomposed organic manures should be used.
iv. The movement of cattle upon the weed affected area should be avoided.
v. Neat, clean and improved implements should be used.
vi. Pure seedlings / plants should be used.
vii. Removal of weeds from irrigation and drainage channel.
viii. The soil should not be transferred from weed affected land to new land.
2. Eradication: - When weed is spread over in any area, the method of complete destruction of
that weed is known as eradication e. g. deep ploughing.
3 Curative Measures: - In this, the complete removal of weed is not made, but their quantity
should be limited to a certain extent in such a way that even in the presence of the weeds, the
crop can also be cultivated successfully.
1. MECHANICAL METHOD: - (Tillage, hand weeding, hand hoeing, use of mover, burning,
flooding, mulching)
i. Tillage: - By tillage operations in the field the weeds can be removed.
ii. Hand Weeding: - Weeds are rooted out one by one with the help of hands. It requires too
much time and appropriate moisture so that weeds may be rooted out easily.
iii. Hand Hoeing:- Hand operated implements are used as Khurpi, Spade, Hand hoe, etc.
iv. Cutting:- The weed is controlled by this method at barren lands, road sides, rain sides, and
channels sides. In this method the upper part of weed is cut several times, so ultimately the plant
is destroyed by utilizing the available food material from roots.
v. Burning:- In this method, the weed plant is destroyed by burning of the plants by fire. The
entire plants burns out and the protoplasm of root zone also burns and dries up and new growth
of plant is checked.
vi Flooding:- In this method, water is completely flooded in the field, and the weed plants are
beneath the water level, so that they may not utilize sunlight and air. In the absence of air and
light the plants can not respire and food formation process stops, resulting in removal of weeds.
vii. Mulching:- Field is covered by some materials so that they may not obtain air and sunlight
with result the food formation process is checked and plant dies up. For mulching purpose dried
grass, straw of paddy, paper, plastics etc. are used.

2. CULTURAL METHOD:-
With the help of agricultural operations and their change in mode of functioning, weeds
can also be controlled.

i. Selection of Crops:-
Fields having serious attack of weeds in those fields competitive crops e.g., Sunhemp,
Arhar, Chari, etc. should be selected for cultivation. As these crops grow very fast, the weeds do
not compete with these crops for sunlight, air, water and nutrients and after some times they are
destroyed .
ii. Variety of Crop:-
Every crop has some specific varieties which grow vigorously their vegetative growth
which should be sown in weed affected areas.
Iii .Crop Rotation:-
Various weed link with certain crops as Paddy-Berseem, (Kasni), for checking the
Kasni weed, Paddy-Gram, crop rotation should be applied.

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iv. Sowing date of the Crops:-If crops are sown well before germination of weeds, by which the
plants of crops may develop very well at the time of germination of weeds, the weeds can not
compete with crop plants.
v. Quantity of seed and distance:
As the line to line distance reduces, the crop becomes more shady so light would not reach to the
ground level, with the result weeds can not grow well. If seed rate is increased and distance
between plants is reduced, the growth of weeds will be reduced.
vi.Timely Tillage Operations: By performing timely tillage operations, the weeds can be
controlled.

vii. Use of Organic Manures:-


It has been observed that certain acidic substances are produced by using the town compost
which destroys the rhizomes of Kans by using localized placement of town compost, the crops
can be benefited as plants increase their vegetative growth, later on the weeds can also be
depressed.
3. BIOLOGICAL METHOD: The main objective of this method is not to eradicate the weeds
or to reduce the number of those weeds with the help of insect pests and diseases up to such an
extent that they can not affect the crop.
POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED WHILE SELECTING THE INSECT PEST:-
a. The pest should have least natural enemies.
b. It can reproduce very fast and increase its population very rapidly.
c. I t can survive even in the adverse conditions.
d. The pest should not harm the other species of the crops.
4.CHEMICAL METHODS: By using various chemical substances (weedicides), weeds can
be controlled) .
CLASSIFICATION OF WEEDICIDES :-
A. Selective Weedicides: They have capacity to destroy the specific type of plant, and do not
harm other plants. (2,4-D)
i. Contact Weedicides:- are those weedicides, which destroy the parts of plants which come into
contact with them.
ii. Transported weedicides:- If these weedicides are spread over the plants, they are transported
through xylem phloem, to various portions of the plants.
iii. Absorbed by roots: These are used for killing the weeds before their germination e.g.
Simazin.

PRECAUTIONS:-
i. The field should be well prepared.
ii. There should be adequate moisture in the field.
iii. The seeds should be sown at proper depth.

B. Non Selective Weedicides:These weedicides affect every type of plants. Therefore, these are
not used for standing crops.
i. Contact Weedicide:- They destroy only such parts of the plants which come into
the contact with these chemicals.
ii. Systemic Weedicides: These chemicals reach to root, stem, leaves by
absorption and by checking the system they destroy the weeds .

- 41 -
iii. Absorbed by roots:- (Soil sterilents):These are used to kill the deep rooted
weeds. By using it into the soil, the present bacteria is also destroyed and thus,
the soil become sterile. So these are also called soil sterilants.
Type: 1. Temporary. 2. Permanent.
1. Temporary Sterilents: Their effect upon the field does not stand for a long time. Whenever
these are used, they put their impact upon the plants and kill the weeds and bacteria etc.e.g.
Ammonium Thiocynate ( 2-4 weeks), Methyl Bromide (3days), Carbon di sulphide (4-6 days),
Sodium Tri-Chloro Acetate (2-3 months).
2.Permanent Sterilents: Their impact upon the field remains upto 2-3 years. After utilizing these
chemicals not a single crop can be grown in that field. E.g. Sodium Arsenite, Sodium Chlorates.

CLASSIFICATION BASED UPON TIME OF SPRINKLING:-


1. Pre sowing (Autumn): Pre sowing treatment in Potato and other vegetables.
2. Before Germination: After sowing but before germination Sprinkling of weedicides
e.g. Simazin in Maize.
3. After Germination: After germination at the stage of 4-6 leaves, sprinkling of
weedicides.

METHODS OF SPRINKLING:-
1. Sprinkling : Spreading of weedicide upon the whole area.
2. Strip treatment:- Weedicides should be applied only in the strips of the rows.
3. Localized treatment: Weedicides should be used at a particular place and for specific
weed.

Weedicides are available in different powder formation, wettable powders,


liquids, granules etc. Liquid type of chemicals are applied with the
help of sprayers, knapsack, Foot/ hand sprayer etc. whereas , solid type of plant
protection chemicals are applied with the help of rotary duster.

- 42 -
(ii) CROP DISEASES : The plant diseases are the result of the interactions between host and
pathogen or between host and adverse environmental factors giving rise to particular disease
symptoms. The science of studying plant diseases is known as Phytopathology (phyto = plants;
pathos = suffering and logos = discourse). In its broadest sense disease in plants may be
considered as anything other than normal. A disease symptom is an evidence of response to a
diseased condition in a plant.
On the basis of causal agents, the diseases may be classified in two major groups-

I. Parasitic diseases :
1. Diseases incited by members of Plant Kingdom: (a) bacteria. (b) fungi etc.
2. Diseases caused by viruses and mycoplasma.
3. Diseases incited by members of Animal Kingdom: (a) insects. (b) nematodes.

II. Non-parasitic diseases : Diseases incited by:


1. Soil conditions such as: (a) soil moisture imbalances, (b) unfavorable physical structure, (c)
deficient oxygen supply, (d) nutritional imbalance.
2. Meteorological conditions such as: (a) light deficiency, (b) unfavorable temperatures, (c) low
relative humidity (e) excess rains etc.
3. Defective agricultural practices i.e. excessive use of pesticides or fungicides or fertilizers,
4. Industrial and other chemical contaminations of the atmosphere.

- 43 -
Important Diseases and their Causal Organisms

S.N. NAME OF DISEASE CAUSAL ORGANISM


i) Rust of Wheat Puccinia graminis
ii) Loose Smut of Wheat Ustilago tritici
iii) White Rust of Mustard Albugo candida
iv) Powdery Mildew of Wheat Erysiphe graminis
v) Ergot of Bajra Claviceps fusiformis
vi) Early Blight of Potato Alternaria solani
vii) Late Blight of Potato Phytopthora infestans
viii) Leaf Spot of Mustard Alternaria brassicae
ix) Tikka Disease of Groundnut Cercaspora arachidicola
x) Blast of Rice Pyricularia oryzae
xi) Red rot of Sugarcane Colletotrichura fulvatum
xii) Black Scurf of Potato Rhizoctania solani
xiii) Yellow Mosaic Vain in Papaya YMV virus
xiv) Strip disease of Barley Helminthosporium graminis
xv) Citrus canker Xanthomonas compsetris
xvi) Damping off of Tomato Pythium ophanidermatum
xvii) Downy Mildew of Mustard Pernospora parasitica
xviii) Leaf Spot of Rice Helminthosporium oryzae
xix) Bunt of Wheat Tilletia caries
xx) Powdery Mildew of Sisham Phyllactenia corylea

Disease Control: Following points should be considered for disease control-


1. Disease resistant varieties should be sown.
2. Disease free treated seeds should be used.
3. Before sowing, seed treatment and soil treatment should be done.
4. Removal of the diseased plants / parts and their destruction.

- 44 -
5. Weeds should be controlled well in time.
6. Balanced fertilizer application should be adopted.
7. Improved agro technologies should be adopted.
8. Scientific crop rotation should be followed.
9 Timely fungicides should be applied.

Fungicides: - The chemicals applied for controlling the infestation of diseases upon the crops e.g.
Bavistine, Dithane Z.78, Dithane M-45.

(iii) Insect pests Insects are small invertebrate animals belonging to the family Insecta-
Arthropoda. They have segmented body divisible into head, throx and abdomen. Adults have
three pairs of legs and two pairs of wings. Some have one pair or some are wingless insects.
There are about 900,000 described species of insects e.g. ants, beetles, butterflies, cockroach etc.
Insect pest spectrum It is the complete range of insect pests ( major and minor) including
mites attacking a particular crop.

Important Insect Pest of the Crops and their Scientific Names


COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME CROPS AFFECTED
Gundhi Leptocorisa varicarnt Rice
Stem borer Chilo partellus Sugarcane, Jowar, Bajra,
Rice
Root borer Enmalocera depressella Sugarcane, Maize
Grass hopper Hieroglyphus Bajra, Sugarcane
nigroredletus
Locust Schistocerca gragaria Polyphagus
Leaf roller Sylepla desa Polyphegus
Termite Odontotermus obesus Polyphagus
Pyrilla Pyrilla pespusilla Sugarcane, Maize
Whitefly Aleurolobus borodensis Jowar, Bajra, Wheat
Aphid Lipaphis erysimi Mustard, Gobhi, Toria,
Radish
Pod borer Etielli zineckenella Pea, Arhar, Lentils
Cutworm Agrotic ypsilon Gram, Potato
Leaf hopper Annrilodus atkinsoni Mango
Leaf minor Phytomyza alricornis Pea, Potato, Mustard
Mealy bug Dresicha mangier Mango
Top borer Tryporyza nivella Sugarcane, Jowar
Fruit sucking moth Ophideres conjancta Mango, Guava, Citrus,
Lemon
Fruit fly Strumeta cucurbitae Lauki, Kheera, Kharbooj

- 45 -
Sawfly Atharia proxima Mustard, Radish
Khapra beetle Trogederma granarium Wheat, Barley, Jowar, Bajra
Rice weevil Situphilus oryzae Rice, Maize, Wheat
Red flour beetle Tribolium cestaneum Different grains
Painted bug Bagrada cruciferum Mustard, Radish
Red pumpkin bug Raphidopal pafoveicollis Gourd, Pumpkin, Torai

- 46 -
Chemical Pest Control Measures- Various insects pests can be controlled by using various
types of plant protection chemicals.

Insecticides: - The chemicals applied for controlling the attack of insects and pests e.g.
Malathion, BHC, Dimecron etc.

.Rodunticide: - Chemicals used for killing the rats- Ratoven, Zinc Phosphide.

Precautions in using plant protection chemicals-

1. Plant protection chemicals should be above the reach of children and cattle and far
away from the food materials.
2. Chemicals should not be tasted, touched or smelt.
3. Empty packets and sachets should be destroyed and put under the soil.
4. Solution must be prepared in deep containers and be mixed with wooden stick.
5. Change the cloths immediately after spraying or dusting.
6. Never smoke at the time of spraying or dusting.
7. Cover your nose, mouth and entire body with the cloth at the time of spraying or
dusting.
8. Vegetables should be used only after 10-15 days of spraying.
9. Plant protection chemicals should not be within the reach of the ponds, wells etc.

- 47 -
(A
cknowledgement Crop life India)
Fig. 11 Precautions for Pesticide Use

- 48 -
Treatment for poisoning:
1. Immediately inform the doctor.
2. Give a glass of salty warm water for vomiting.
3. Wash your eyes / with clean cold water if it has reached to the eyes.
4. Patient should be kept in clean ventilated room. Give strong Tea or Coffee.
Care of Plant Protection Equipments:
1. Wash the outers and inner tube, nozzle of the sprayers with clear water and clean it
with dry cloth immediately after spraying is over.
2. Clean the duster with cloth after removing the unused plant protection powder.
3. Greasing and lubrication should be done time to time.
4. Solution should be prepared in clean water, it should be sieved before its use.
5. Nozzles of the equipments, oil should be changed at its appropriate time and in
required quantities.
6. In power driven equipments, oil should be changed at appropriate time and in required
quantities.
7. Overhauling of engine / equipment should be done once a year.
8. Equipments should be kept in dry room.
.
Quantity of water to be mixed?

Crops Quantity of water for spray / ha Quantity of Powder


for broadcasting
High Volume or Fast Low Volume/ Power
Sprayed Operated
/ Acre / Ha / Acre / Ha / Acre / Ha
1. Low height 200 Lit. 500 Lit. 40 Lit. 100 Lit. 8 Kg. 20 Kg.
crops:
(Moong,Potato,
Tomato, Urd,
Soyabeen,Ground-
Nut.
2. Medium height 300 Lit. 750 Lit. 45 Lit. 115 Lit. 10 Kg. 25 Kg.
crops (Cotton, Til,
Paddy, Wheat).
3. More height 400 Lit. 1000 Lit. 50 Lit. 125 Lit 12 Kg. 30 Kg.
crops (Sugarcane,
Arhar, Jowar,
Bajra, Maize).

- 49 -
UNIT-V

HARVESTING,THRESHING, STORAGE AND FOOD PRESERVATION

Removal of entire plants or economic parts after maturity from the field is called
harvesting. Portion of stem that is left in the field is known as stubble. The economic
products may be grains, seeds, leaves, roots or entire plants.
Time of harvesting:-
If the crop is harvested early the produce contains high moisture,
and immature grains. The yield will be low due to unfilled grains. The storage of thus
obtained seeds is very difficult as shriveled grains with high moisture are prone to
infestation of pests. The germination percentage and quality of such grains are poor. Late
harvesting results in shattering of grains, germination even before harvesting during rainy
season, and breakage during processing. Hence harvesting at right time is essential to get
good quality grains and higher yield.

Harvest maturity symptoms of some important crops

Crop Symptoms
Rice Hard and yellow colored grains.
Wheat Yellowing of spike lets ,about 15 percent moisture in grains.
Sorghum Yellow colored ears with hard grains, grain moisture content less than 28 per cent.
Bajra Compact ears, on pressing hard seeds come out, less than 28 percent moisture in
grains.
Pulses Brown colored pods with hard seeds inside the pods.
Ground nut Pods turn dark from light color, Dark colored patches inside the shell. Kernels red or
pink. On pressing the kernels oil is observed on fingers.
Sugar cane Leaves turn yellow, sucrose content more then 15%, bricks reading more than 18 -20
percent.
Tobacco Leaves slightly yellow in colour.

Method of harvesting:-

Harvesting is done either manually or mechanically. In manual harvesting sickle


is the most important tool. It has to be sharp curved, serrated for efficient harvesting.
Mechanical harvesting is performed by harvester combine, which performs
several operations i.e., cutting of crop, separating the grain from straw, cleaning it from
chaff and transporting grains to the storage tanks. Harvesting is done by several ways
depending upon crops:
1) Cutting of crops with sickles.
2) In undermine plants, cutting is done at intervals as the economic product comes to
maturity at different periods.
3) Pods or fruits are picked at regular intervals. Harvesting in Green gram, Black
gram, Cotton, Pea, is known as picking and is done at fifteen days interval after
their ripening.

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Threshing and Winnowing:

Separating fruits or seeds from the plants or ears is called threshing. In cereals, straw
and grains are separated and in pulses, seeds are separated from the pods. Threshing
is followed by winnowing. Wind power is used to separate husk and grains since husk
is lighter than grain or seed. Threshing is done immediately after harvesting of the
crop or it may be done at a later stage.
Threshing of cereals, millets, pulses, oilseeds is done by beating against stones
or other hard material or by beating with mallets, or by treading under the feet of
cattle or tractor tyres.Some threshers like Olpad thresher etc. are also used. The ears
are spread in a circular path of one meter width with a thickness of about 20 cm .The
roller is pulled with the help of a pair of bullocks over this circular path . The
repeated rolling separates the seed from the ears.
Olpad thresher is used for threshing Wheat, Barley, Oats etc. It consists of 20
circular discs each of 45 cm in diameter and 3 mm in thickness placed 15 cm apart in
three rows. The thresher is run by a pair of bullocks over the dried crop spread in a
circular path on the threshing floor.
The threshing of paddy is done by holding the bundle of sheaves against the
leech of the revolving drum of paddy thresher.

Olpad thresher Paddy Thresher

Maize Sheller

Power Thresher (Inner view)

Fig. 12 Different Types of Threshers

Drying

- 51 -
The moisture content of grain at the time of harvesting of crops is about 18-20%,
moisture content for safe storage is 14% for most of the crops. Drying is a process by
which moisture content of the grain is reduced to safe limit. Drying process is basically
the transfer of heat by converting the water in grains to vapour and transferring it to the
atmosphere.
Drying is done either by using solar energy or by artificial heating.
1) Sun drying: - The produce is spread on hard floor or threshing yard, around 10 cm
thickness and is allowed to dry by heat supplied by the sun. The produce is stirred at two
hourly intervals to have uniform and quick drying. In general 4-5 days of sun drying is
required for different produce in bringing the moisture to a safe level.
2) Artificial drying: - Uses steam to dry the produce.It can be used at any time of the year
but it is very expensive.

Storage
Harvesting of crop is seasonal but consumption of the food grains is continuous.
The market value of the produce is generally low at harvesting time. Therefore, there is a
necessity to store the produce for a longer period.

Storage facilities: - Food grains and oilseeds are stored either in bags or in bulk.The
storage facility has to satisfy certain conditions:-
1) Protection of grains from excessive moisture insects, rodents.
2) Provision of safety and convenience while moving in and out of storage.
3) Provision for controlled aeration.
4) Facility for inspecting the grains without removal from storage.
5) Provision for making it sufficiently airtight for fumigation.

Moisture Content of Grains for Safe Storage

Crops Moisture content %


Paddy , raw Rice 14
Pre- boiled Rice 15
Wheat, Barley, Maize , Sorghum, Pearl 12
-millets
Pulses 12
Coriander ,Chillies, Fenugreek 10
Ground nut pods , Rape seed & Mustard 6

- 52 -
Food Preservation- It is the process of prevention of decay or spoilage of food and helps
it to be kept in a fit condition for future use.

Methods-

By these methods the fruits and vegetables can be preserved for a few days to a
few months.These are : Cleaning, protection from moisture and air, low temperature,
high temperature, application of mild fungicides.
a. Cleaning- The fruits and vegetables are plucked, washed properly with clean
water and stored in clean bags, packing materials. Cut spotted or defective
fruits should be segregated from the lot. .Trimming away spoiled portion of a
food or discarding spoilage samples may be helpful in food preservation.
b. Prevention from moisture and air- Most of the food spoiling
microorganisms grow very fast in the presence of excessive moisture and air
and deteriorating perishable ( tomatoes, mangoes, papaya, peaches, plums
and juicy fruits ) and semi perishable foods ( carrots, peas, green beans,
apples) . Microbial growth can be prevented and removed by asepsis (absence
of infection) through proper packaging, filtration and washing. Lack of
oxygen prevents growth of any surviving bacteria under no or a minimum
amount of air only eg. canning, fermentation.
c. Use of high temperature- The microorganisms are killed by heat due to
denaturation of proteins and inactivation of enzymes e.g. Pasteurization
(below 1000C), heating at about 1000C , and sterilization (1000C and above)
as
i.HTST (High temperature-short time) method - In this the product is heated
at high temperature for a shorter time. Heating at very high temperature reduces
the pathogenic activities.
ii. LTHT (Low temperature- long time) method- In this method the product is
heated at lower temperature for a longer time. Activity of microbes become
very slow or almost inactive at very low temperature i.e.Fridge, Cold storage
etc.
d. Pasteurization- The process of killing harmful organisms in food products by
heating at controlled temperature below 1000C.
e. Sterilization- By this method all microorganisms are completely destroyed
due to high temperature.
f. Use of antibiotics.- By using sugar, salt, vinegar ,different spices, and Sodium
benzoate, food items can be preserved for a shorter period,because these
items have very short time effect upon microorganisms.

- 53 -
1. Methods of Production of Important Field Crops

S. Name Botanical Family Sowing time and Maturity time Yield


No. of Crop Name seed rate/ha (Day after sowing) Qtl/ha
I. Cereals (Poaceae)
1. Wheat Triticum Poaceae Second fortnight of 120-125 35-45
-aestivum Nov. to mid Dec.
(Main : 100 kg)
(Late : 125 kg)
2. Rice Oryza sativa Poaceae Kharif-May-June Kharif : Sept., Oct. 45-55
Rabi-June-July Rabi Nov., Dec.,
Summer- Summer : March,
Nov. Dec. (40-45 kg) April
Fine varieties 20-25
kg
II. Oil (Brassiceae)
Seed
Crops
1. Rapesed Brassica Cruciferae Toria-1st fortnight of 80-90 Toria : 5-6
& -compestris Sept. Sarson-Last 120-130
Mustard Var. toria Sept. Mid Oct. Sarson:
Juncea Raya : 20 Sept.-15 10- 11
Oct.
4-6 kg.
Rai: 1-14
III. Pulse (Leguminace
Crops ae)
1. Arhar Cajanus Legumina- Northern India : April 15-20
(Pigeon cajan L. ceae Mid June-July
Pea or Millsp. Southern and Central
Red India : October 12-15
gram) kg.
2 Bengal Cicer- Legumina- Mid October 1st week 120-150 15-30
. Gram arietinum ceae of November
(chick 60-80 kg.
pea or
Gram)

- 54 -
IV. Others (Poaceae) Family Sowing time ,Seed Maturity -time Yield(Qui
rate ntals)
1. Sugar- Saccharum- Poaceae Spring : Feb. April 300-330 800-1000
cane officinarum Autumn : Sept.-Oct.-
Nov. 50-60 Quintals
(35,000- 40,000 sets)
2. Ground- Arachis- Legumina- Kharif : Last June 105-110 20-30
nut hypogaea ceae Rabi : Nov.-Dec.
80-100 Kg.

- 55 -
2. Methods of Production of Important Vegetables

Name of Botanical Family Sowing Seed Duration Yield


Vegetable Name Time rate Days qtl./ha
kg/ha
Cauli Brassica Cruciferae Early-July 500-700 90-100 150-250
Flower -olaracea var Mid-Aug. gm. Seed 3-4
botyrits Late-
Nov.-Dec.
Cabbage Brassica- Cruciferae Plain- 400-500 75-80 350-450
olaracea var Aug-Nov. gm.
capitata Hills-
May-June
Eastern
India-
Sept.
Brinjal Solanum- Solanaceae June-Nov. 500- 75-80 250-300
melongeno and 1000
March gm.
Tomato Lycoperscon- Solanaceae Sept.-Oct. 450-500 70 Improved
esculentus & Dec.- gm. 200-250
Jan. Hybrid
300-600
Bhindi Abelmonchus Molvaceae Summer Summer- 45-50 S-50
- esculentus Feb.- 20 Kg. R-100
March Rainy-
Rainy 10 Kg.
crop
May-June
French bean Phaseolus- Leguminaceae Mid- Bush 50-60 120-200
vulgaris Aug.-Oct. type
Pole
type
Pea Pisum Leguminaceae Oct.-Nov. Early Early 50- Early 25-
-sativum 120 Kg. 60 40 Main
Main 80- Medium 85-115
100 Kg. and late
90-100
Carrot Dacaus Umbilifereae Plains- 8-10 Kg. 50-60 150-200
-carrota Aug-.Dec.
South
Jan.-Feb.
Hills-

- 56 -
Mar.-July
Radish Raphanus Cruciferae Plains- 9-12 Kg. 50-55 150-200
-Sativus L. Aug.-Jan.
South-
Apr.-June
Hill-
March
Turnip Brassica- Cruciferae Asiatic- 3-4 Kg. 50-55 200-250
rapa L. July-Sept.
European-
Oct.-
December
Hill-
March-
May
Onion Alliums cepa Liliaceae Sept-.Nov 500-700 100-120 140-240
. gms.
Musk melon Cucumis Cucurbitaceae Mid Feb. 1.5-2.0 90 100-150
(kharbooj) -Melo L. Kg. Hybrid
500-600
Bottle Lagenaria- Cucurbitaceae Mid Feb. 4-6 Kg. 90-100 100-200
Gourd(Lauki July
) leucantha R
Potato Solanum Solanaceae Plain : 20-35 75-110 200-350
-tuberosum Early Quintals
crop-Sept tubers
Main-Oct.
Late-Dec.

- 57 -
2. Methods of Production of Important Fruits Crops

Name Family Botanical Method of Planting Month of Yield/Tree/


of name propagation Distance/Mtrs. flowering ha./year
Fruit &
fruiting
Guava Myrtaceae Psidium Seed, Air 6x6 Spring- 500-600
guajava layering, March- Fruits/tree
L. Stolen, April
Inarching Rainy-
July-
August
Winter-
Oct.-Nov.
Mango Anacardiaceae Mangifer Air layering 10x10 Nov.- 300-500
a indica Stooling Dec. Fruits/tree
L. Grafting March-
June
Aonla Euphorbiaceae Emblica Seed, 9x9 March- 200Kg.
officinalis Budding April Fruits/tree
Gairtin.
Papaya Caricaceae Carica Seed 2x2 After 5 200 qt/ha
papaya L. months
from
planting
Orange Rutaceae Citrus Budding 6x6 March 1000-1500
reticulate Fruits
Blanco

- 58 -
A. IMPORTANT VARIETIES OF CROPS

WHEAT:- Girija, Sonalika , Kalyan Sona, RR 21, P.B.W 301, 343, Arjun, Moti, Prabhat,
H.D. 2122,K 65, HD 2004, 2285, Lok 1, Raj 3689, Pusa Gold, Pusa Vishesh.

PADDY:- I.R.8,Jaya Padma, Kaveri, Saket.4, I.R.24, Bala, Jawahar, Triguna-1, C.S.R-
10, N.K.R-120,Narendra 118, Govind, Neeraj I E T 11865.

SUGARCANE:- CO .313, CO.395, CO.8627, CO..8416, CO510, CO.541, CO.3249.

ARHAR:- U.P.1, U P A S.120, Gwalior 3,Prabhat,Manak, T.21, Sugar, H.77.20.P, Bahar,


Pusa.9, Narendra-1.

MUSTARD/ RAPESEED:- Pusa Bold, Pusa Kranti, Pusa Barani, Varuna, PR.781,
Kiran., PBR 97, PBR-210, PBR-291.

GROUND NUT:- AW 1224,TMV2, TMV 9, Chandra, RV17,TO 19A, Kadiri.4,


Apoorva.

GRAM (DESI):- B.G 256, Phule G-5, K-850, Radhey, B.G 391, Pusa 362, Gaurava.

GRAM (KABULI):- B.G 1003, B.G1053, KAK-2.

- 59 -
B. IMPORTANT VARITIES OF VEGETABLES

CAULI FLOWER:- Pusa kartika, Early Patna, Snowball.16, Pant Shubra, Pusa
Deepali.

CABBAGE:- Drumhead, Golden Acrc, Pride of India, Danishball, Copen.

CARROT:- Nanties, Pusa Kesar, Jora lass, Okheart, Kalyanpur Yellow, Chantrey.

RADISH:- China red, Jaunpuri , Type.210, Scarlet Long, Pusa Deshi, White,Pusa
Rashmi, Pusa Himani, Pusa Chetaki, Japani white Early Breakfast.

TURNIP:- Poroletoo, Snowball, Golden ball, Pusa Kanchen, Pusa Swati,


Pusa Chandrima, Purple Top, White Globe, Early Melon Red Top.

ONION:- Pusa White Flat, Pusa White Round, Pusa Red, Punjab Selection, Hissar2,
Pusa Red, Nafed 53, B L.67, Pusa Ratney, Early Greens, Nafed, N.404.

TOMATO:- Selection 120, Pusa Red Plum, Pusa Ruby, Roma, T.U.12, PU.12,
Kalyanpur, Kuber, Angurlata, Best of all H.S 101, H.S 102, S.12, Sweet 72,
Pusa Gaurav, Pusa Yamdagni .

BOTTLE GOURD:- Pusa Summer Prolific Long, Pusa Meghdoot, Pusa Manjari,
Kalyanpur Green Long.

BHINDI:- Pusa Sawani, Pusa Makmali, Early White Long, Green 6-1, p-2, , Vaishali,
Vadhy, Sel 1-9-1,C-499,C-289, C-302, VRO-5, VRO-6 Punjab Padmini.

PEA:- Type 19, Type 56, Bonevilla, Azad, Arkel ,Jawahar-1, Jawhar-2, P-16, P-35,
Madhu.Pant, Uphar, Rashmi, Perfection Salviya, N-P-29, Pusa Pragati,
G.P.17, G.P.207.

POTATO:- D.140, Kufri Sinduri, Kufri Alankar, Kufri Chamatkar, Kufri Sheetmaan,
Kufri -Chandramukhi, Kufri Badshah,Kufri Lalima, Kufri Kuber, Kufri
Kisan, Kufri Deva, Kufri Jyoti .

BRINJAL:- Pusa Kranti, Pusa Purple Long, Pusa Purple Round, Pusa Anmol, Arka
-sheel, Alaka, Kusumar, Alka Sirish, S-4,S-5,Banaras Giant.

MUSK MELON:-Selection D.M.1, Pusa Madhuras, D.M.2, D.M.H.1, Punjab Hybrid,


Ravi.

FRENCH BEAN:- H A V-3, I I H R 909.

- 60 -
C. VARIETIES OF FRUITS

GUAVA:- Allahabadi, Safeda, Bedana, Sardar (Lucknow 49), Chittidar, Apple colour,
Surkha, Chittidar, Bedana.

PAPAYA:- Coimbtore-1, Coimbtore-2 , Honey dew, Pusa Delicious, Pusa Majesty, Pusa
Dwarf. Pusa Nanha, , Solo, CO-3 .

(CITRUS)-
Mosammi :- Pineapple, Jafa, Blood Red.
Santara :- Kinno.
Lemon :- Kagzi lemon, Pant lemon 1, Barahmasi.
Orange :- Coorg, Khasi, Nagpuri.

MANGO- Safeda, , Samarbahista , Shah Pasand, , Bombay Green.


Langra, Dusheri, Chousa, Bombay Green, Banglora, Amrapli, Neelam,
Mallika Sindhu, Arka, Arun ,Fazli.

AMLA:- Chakiya, Banarsi, Francis, Kanchan, Krishna, Haathi jhool, Bansi N-5.

- 61 -
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Mac Graw Hill Books co. Corporation ,New York .

Agrawal R.R.and GuptaR.N.(1968) Saline and Alkali Soils of India ,


ICAR New Delhi.

Bhutani, Dhamo K (1993) Dictionary of Agriculture, Westvill Publishing


House,New Delhi (2nd Ed.) .

Brady N.C.(1984) Nature and Properties of Soil, MacMillan Publishing


Co. New york (9th Ed.).

Donahue R. L ( 1977) Soils . An Introduction to Soils and Plants Growth,


Prentice Hall, Englewood cliffs, New Jersy .

Gaur, A.C.(2006) Biofertilizers in Sustainable Agriculture, Indian Council


of Agricultural Agriculture, New Delhi

I C A R (1971) Hand Book of Manures and Fertilizers, I.C.A.R., New


Delhi.

I C A R (1981) Hand Book of Agriculture, Indian Council of Agricultural


Research, New Delhi.

Joshi, P. and Singh, N.P.(1998) Greh Vatika Saiddhantik Tatha Vyavharik


Pakshya (in HINDI ), I.C.A.R.New Delhi.

Kang I.S., Narang D.D., Kolar J.S., Nayyar V.K.and Mehra S.P (2000)
Field Problems of Important Crops PunjabAgricultural
University Ludhiana .

Kanitker N.V. et.al. (1960) Dry Farming in India, Indian Council of


Agricultural Research, New Delhi

Kanwar J.S. (1976) Soil Fertility -Theory and Practices, Indian Council of
Agricultural Research, New Delhi

Kolay A.K.(1996) Basic Concepts of Soil Science, New Age International


(Pvt) Limited New Delhi

Lal P ., Chippa B.R. and Kumar A. (1993) Salt Affected Soils and Crop
Production A,Modern Synthesis, Agro Botanical Publisher (
INDIA) ,Bikaner

- 62 -
Reddy,T. Y. and Reddy, G.H.S. (1992) Principles of Agronomy,Kalyani
Publishers Ludhiana

Yavalkar, K.S. (1963) Vegetable Crops in India Agri.- Horticultural


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Yaduraju N.T.(2003) Herbicide Use Guidelines , National Research Centre


for Weed, Jabalpur

- 63 -

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