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Computer Data Storage (Memory)

Computer data storage, often called storage or memory, refers to computer


components and recording media that retain digital data used for computing for some
interval of time. Computer data storage provides one of the core functions of the
modern computer, that of information retention. It is one of the fundamental
components of all modern computers, and coupled with a central processing unit
(CPU, a processor), implements the basic computer model used since the 1940s.

In contemporary usage, memory usually refers to a form of semiconductor


storage known as random-access memory (RAM), typically DRAM (Dynamic-
RAM) but many times other forms of fast but temporary storage. Similarly, storage
today more commonly refers to storage devices and their media not directly accessible
by the CPU (secondary or tertiary storage) typically hard disk drives, optical disc
drives, and other devices slower than RAM, but of a more permanent nature.
Historically, memory has been called main memory, real storage or internal memory
while storage devices have been referred to as secondary storage, external memory or
auxiliary/peripheral storage.

Fig. 1 Computer Memory Types

Memory Types
Volatile memory
Random Access Memory (RAM) static RAM, dynamic RAM
Non-Volatile memory
Read-only memory (ROM) PROM, EPROM, EEPROM
Flash memory
Volatile memory
Volatile memory, also known as volatile storage, is computer memory that
requires power to maintain the stored information, unlike non-volatile memory which
does not require a maintained power supply. It has been less popularly known as
temporary memory.

Non-volatile memory
Non-volatile memory (NVM or non-volatile storage) is computer memory that
can retain the stored information even when not powered. Examples of non-volatile
memory include read-only memory, flash memory, most types of magnetic computer
storage devices (e.g. hard disks, floppy disks, and magnetic tape), optical discs, and
early computer storage methods such as paper tape and punched cards.

Random-access memory (RAM)


Random-access memory (RAM) is a form of computer data storage. Today, it
takes the form of integrated circuits that allow stored data to be accessed in any order
(i.e., at random). "Random" refers to the idea that any piece of data can be returned in
a constant time, regardless of its physical location and whether or not it is related to
the previous piece of data.
By contrast, storage devices such as magnetic discs and optical discs rely on
the physical movement of the recording medium or a reading head. In these devices,
the movement takes longer than data transfer, and the retrieval time varies based on
the physical location of the next item.
The word RAM is often associated with volatile types of memory (such as
DRAM memory modules), where the information is lost after the power is switched
off. Many other types of memory are RAM, too, including most types of ROM and a
type of flash memory called NOR-Flash.

Types of RAM
Static RAM (SRAM)
Static random access memory (SRAM) is a type of semiconductor
memory where the word static indicates that it does not need to be
periodically refreshed, as SRAM uses bistable latching circuitry to
store each bit.
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
Dynamic random access memory (DRAM) is a type of random access
memory that stores each bit of data in a separate capacitor within an
integrated circuit.
Since real capacitors leak charge, the information eventually fades
unless the capacitor charge is refreshed periodically. Because of this
refresh requirement, it is a dynamic memory as opposed to SRAM and
other static memory.
The main memory (the "RAM") in personal computers is Dynamic
RAM.
The advantage of DRAM is its structural simplicity: only one transistor
and a capacitor are required per bit, compared to six transistors in
SRAM. This allows DRAM to reach very high density.
Read-only memory (ROM)
Read-only memory (usually known by its acronym, ROM) is a class of storage
media used in computers and other electronic devices. Because data stored in ROM
cannot be modified (at least not very quickly or easily), it is mainly used to distribute
firmware (software that is very closely tied to specific hardware, and unlikely to
require frequent updates).

Programmable read-only memory (PROM)


A programmable read-only memory (PROM) or field programmable read-only
memory (FPROM) or one-time programmable non-volatile memory (OTP NVM) is a
form of digital memory where the setting of each bit is locked by a fuse or antifuse.
Such PROMs are used to store programs permanently. The key difference from a
strict ROM is that the programming is applied after the device is constructed.
PROMs are manufactured blank and, depending on the technology, can be
programmed at wafer, final test, or in system. The availability of this technology
allows companies to keep a supply of blank PROMs in stock, and program them at the
last minute to avoid large volume commitment. These types of memories are
frequently seen in video game consoles, mobile phones, radio-frequency identification
(RFID) tags, implantable medical devices, high-definition multimedia interfaces
(HDMI) and in many other consumer and automotive electronics products.

EPROM
An EPROM, or erasable programmable read only memory, is a type of
memory chip that retains its data when its power supply is switched off. In other
words, it is non-volatile. It is an array of floating-gate transistors individually
programmed by an electronic device that supplies higher voltages than those normally
used in digital circuits. Once programmed, an EPROM can be erased by exposing it to
strong ultraviolet light from a mercury-vapor light source. EPROMs are easily
recognizable by the transparent fused quartz window in the top of the package,
through which the silicon chip is visible, and which permits exposure to UV light
during erasing.

EEPROM
EEPROM stands for Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only
Memory and is a type of non-volatile memory used in computers and other electronic
devices to store small amounts of data that must be saved when power is removed,
e.g., calibration tables or device configuration.
When larger amounts of static data are to be stored (such as in USB flash
drives) a specific type of EEPROM such as flash memory is more economical than
traditional EEPROM devices. EEPROMs are realized as arrays of floating-gate
transistors.
EEPROM is user-modifiable read-only memory that can be erased and
reprogrammed (written to) repeatedly through the application of higher than normal
electrical voltage generated externally or internally in the case of modern EEPROMs.
EPROM usually must be removed from the device for erasing and programming,
whereas EEPROMs can be programmed and erased in circuit. Originally, EEPROMs
were limited to single byte operations which made them slower, but modern
EEPROMs allow multi-byte page operations. It also has a limited life - that is, the
number of times it could be reprogrammed was limited to tens or hundreds of
thousands of times. That limitation has been extended to a million write operations in
modern EEPROMs. In an EEPROM that is frequently reprogrammed while the
computer is in use, the life of the EEPROM can be an important design consideration.
It is for this reason that EEPROMs were used for configuration information, rather
than random access memory.

Flash memory
Flash memory is a non-volatile computer storage technology that can be
electrically erased and reprogrammed. It is primarily used in memory cards, USB
flash drives, and solid-state drives for general storage and transfer of data between
computers and other digital products. It is a specific type of EEPROM that is erased
and programmed in large blocks; in early flash the entire chip had to be erased at
once. Flash memory costs far less than byte-programmable EEPROM and therefore
has become the dominant technology wherever a significant amount of non-volatile,
solid state storage is needed. Example applications include PDAs (personal digital
assistants), laptop computers, digital audio players, digital cameras and mobile
phones. It has also gained popularity in console video game hardware, where it is
often used instead of EEPROMs or battery-powered static RAM for game save data.

Since flash memory is non-volatile, no power is needed to maintain the


information stored in the chip. In addition, flash memory offers fast read access times
(although not as fast as volatile DRAM memory used for main memory in PCs) and
better kinetic shock resistance than hard disks. These characteristics explain the
popularity of flash memory in portable devices. Another feature of flash memory is
that when packaged in a "memory card," it is extremely durable, being able to
withstand intense pressure, extremes of temperature, and even immersion in water.

Although technically a type of EEPROM, the term "EEPROM" is generally


used to refer specifically to non-flash EEPROM which is erasable in small blocks,
typically bytes. Because erase cycles are slow, the large block sizes used in flash
memory erasing give it a significant speed advantage over old-style EEPROM when
writing large amounts of data.

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