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S Y n c h ro n o u s M a c h in e T h e o r!t
an d M o d e llin g

SynchTonous generators form the principal Source of electric energy 1 @11 POW er
system s. s4any large loads are driven by synchronous m otors. Synck onous
condensers are som etim es used as a m eans of providing reactive pow er com pensation
and controlling voltage. T hese devices operate on the sam e principle and are
collectively referred to RS synchronous nAachines. A s discussed 1 *1l C hapter 2, the
PoW er system stability problem is largely One of keeping interconnected synchronous
@

naachines 111 synchronism . T herefore, an understanding of their characteristics and

accu rate m odelling of their dynam ic perform ance are of fundam ental im portance to
the study of pow er system stability .
T he m odelling qnd analysis of the synchronous m achine has alw ays been a
challenge. The problem w as w orked on intensely in the 1920s and 1930s (1,2,31,and
has been the subject of several nAore recent investigations (4-91. T he theory and
@

perform ance of synchTonous nlchines have also been covered ln a num ber of books
(10-141. @

ln this chapter, W e Aprill develop 111 detail the m athem atical m odel of a
synchronous m achine and brief y review its steady-state and transient perform ance
characteristics.

45
 46 S y n ch ro no us M ach in e T h eo ry an d M o d e llin g C h aP . 3

A -axis
xis of phase b &
&
&
&
l

l
&

A rm ature w indin ' F ield w inding

&
& a

t (:
.)
Cl

* * @ @

S o b' J -
axis
b 0 O r R otor
- -
. 0
A ir gap . ---
# 9 w--w
z
z @ c x- A xis of phase J
Z /
z a
z ' Stator

A xis of phase C

F igu re 3.1 Schem atic diagranl of a three-phase synchronous m achine

3 .1 P H Y S IC A L D ES C R IPT IO N

F igure 3.1 show s the schem atic of the CCOSS section of a three-phase
synchronous m achine w ith 0ne pair of f eld poles. T he m achine consists of tAA,tl
essential elem ents'
. the f eld and the arm ature. T he f eld w inding carries direct current
and produces a m agnetic f eld w hiG induces alternating voltages in the arm ature
w indings. t
<-
-.
<.
-
,
N
''

3 .1 .1 A rm atu re an d Field S tru ctu re

T he arm ature w indings usually operate at a voltage that is considerably higher

than that of the f eld and thus they require m or space for insulation. They are also
subject to high transient currents and m ust have adequate m echanical strength .
T herefore, norm al practice I @S to have the arnlature On the stator. T he tk ee-phase
w indings of the arnAature are distributed 1200 apart 1 *11 sp ace so that, w ith uniform
rotation of the m agnetic f eld, voltages displaced by 1200 in tim e phase Ahrill be
produced in the w indings. Because the arm ature is subjected to a varying m agnetic
i ux, the stator iron is built up of thin lam inations to reduce eddy cu rren t losses.
S ec . 3 .1 P hy sical D escriPtio n 47

W hen carrying balanced tk ee-phase currents, the arm ature Alrill produce a
m agnetic f eld 1 @11 the air-gap rotating at synchronous speed (this w ill be form ally
@

show n ln Section 3.1.3). T he f eld produced by the direct current in the rotor w inding,
On the other hand, revolves w ith the totor. F or production of a steady torque, the
f elds of stator and rotor m ust rotate at the Sanle speed. T herefore, the rotor m ust ruh
at precisely the synchronous speed.
T he num ber of eld poles is determ ined by the m echanical speed of the rotor
@ *

and electric frequency of stator currents. T he synchronous speed IS glven by

W (3 1)
.

P;

where isthe speed in rev/m in,/ is the frequency in H z,andPfisthe num ber of seld
P oles.
There are tw o basic rotor structures sed, depending On speed. H ydraulic
turbines Operate at 1()54, speeds and hence a relatively large num ber of poles aCC
required to produce the rated frequency.A rotor w ith salient or projecting poles and
concentrated w indings is better suited m echanically to this situation . Such rotors often
have dam per w indings or am ortisseufs in the form of copper or brass rods em bedded
in the pole face. T hese bars are connected to end rings to form shrt-circuited
w indings sim ilar to those of a squirrel Cage induction m otor, aS show n 1 @11 F igure
3.2(a).T hey are intended ttl dam p Uut speed oscillations. T he dam pet w indings m ay
also be non-continuous, being w ound only about th: pole pieces s show n 1 @11 F igure
3.2(b).The Space harm onics of the arm ature m agnetom otive force (> m 9 contribute
to surface eddy current lbsses; therefore, pole faces of salient pole nxachines are
usually lam inated.
Steam and gaS tufbines, On the other hand, operate at high speeds. Their
gen erators have round (or cylindrical) rotors naade up of solid steel forgings. T hey
*

have tAA?tl or four f eld poles, form ed by distributed w indings placed in slots m illed 111
the stllitl rotor and held 1 *11 place by steel w edges. T hey often do nOt have special

oo6o o o o o
O o O O o O o o O o
o o O Oo

(a) Continuous dam per (b)N on-continuous dam per

F igure 3.2 Salient pole rotor construction

48 S y n c h ro n o u s M ach in e T h eo ry an d M o d ellin 9 C h ap . 3

dam per w indings, but the solid steel rotor offers paths for eddy currents w hich have
effects equivalent to am ortisseur currents. Som e m anufacturers provide for additional
*

dam ping effects and negative-sequence current capability by uslng m etal w edges 1 @11
the f eld w inding slots RS dam per bars and interconnecting them to form a dam per
cage, Orby provi ding separate COPPCC rods underneat h the w edges. F igure 3.3
illustrates the rotor stru ctu re.
U nder steady-state conditions, the only rotor current that exists I@S the direct
current ill the s eld w inding. H ow ever, under dynam ic conditions eddy cu rren ts are
induced on the rotor surface and slot w alls, and 1 *11 slot w edges Or dam per w indings
(if used to produce additional dam ping).Figure 3.4 show s the rotor currentpaths of
a steam turbine generator.

Stator
N
s W edge
# N

R otor surface
O D /m p er
. w lndlng
.
R otor
F ield w inding
* slot w all
#
&
#
&
N
N
h /

(a) Itotor structure (b) Itotor slotand w indings

F igu re 3.3 E;(llitl round rotor construction

D am per/W edge current

E ddy current O - R otor surface

O eddy current
*
l
I - - - - - - > - - - - 1 a
II 1 l O .
I$ lI
l , Slot w all
eddy current
C ylindrical rotor O .

F ield current

(a) Current paths (b) Com ponents of currents associated

w ith an individual rotor slot

F igu re 3.4 C urrent paths 1

*11 a round rotor
 S ec . 3 .1 P hy sical D esc riptio n 49

3 .1 .2 M ach in es w ith M u ltip le P o le P a irs

M achines Apritll DAOCC than One pair of S eld poles Ahrill have stator w indings
nnade UP of a corresponding m ultiple set of CO1 -ls. F or PUCPOSCS of analy sis, it is
convenient to consider only a single pair of poles and recognize that conditions
@ @

associated w ith other pole palrs are ldentical to those for the pair under consideration .
T herefore, angles are norm ally naeasured in electrical radians Or degrees. T he angle
covered by one pole pair is 2a radians or 360 electrical degrees. T he relationship
@

betw een angle 0 ln electrical units and the corresponding angle m in m echanical units
is

0 0 (3.2)
2

3 .1 .3 M M F W av efo rm s

In practice, the arm ature w indings and round rotor m achine s eld w indings are
distributed 1 @11 Diany slots SO that the resulting m m f and ; ux w aveform s have nearly
sinusoidal SPaCC distribution. l11 the Case of salient pole m achines, w hich have f eld
w indings concentrated at the poles, shaping of the pole faces I @S used to m inim ize
harm onics in the ; ux produced.
F irst, let us consider the m m f w aveform due to the arnlature w indings only .
T he m m f produced by current f ow ing in only one oil in phase a is illustrated in
F igure 3.5, 1 *11 w hich the cross section of the stator has been cut open and rolled out
*

111 order to develop a vie:v of the m m f w ave.

M M F
M M F D istance along
periphery in
electrical degrees
- - *

C oil sides

F igu re 3.5 M M F w aveform due to a single coil

 50 S y n c h ro n o u s M ac h ine T h eo rt an d M o d e llin g C h qp . 3

M M F M agnetic axis

Dl
.stance
* * * * *

F igu re 3.6 M M F w aveform due ttl a num ber of coils

B y dding m ore coils, the m m f w ave distribution show n in F igure 3.6 m ay be

obtained. W e SCe that the m m f w aveform I @S progressing from a Sqiare W ave tosvard
a sine W ave aS coils are added.Through uSe of fractional-pitch w indings, the space
harm onics Can be naade sm all (12j. M achine design aim s at m inim izing harm onics
and, for m ost analyses of m achine perform ance, it is reasonable ttl aSSUDAC that each
phase w inding produces a sinusoidally distributed m m f w ave. T he w indings are thn
said to be sinusoidally distributed. T he harm onics m ay be considerd aS secendary
from the vieo oinf of m achine perform anc. ln addition to causing rotor surface eddy
cu rren t losses, harm onics contribute to arm ature leakage reactances.

R otating m agnetic # e/#

L et us nOW determ ine the net m m f w ave due to the three-phase w indings 1 @11 N

the statpr. F igure 3.7 show s the m m f w ave of phase a.

sritll y representing the angle along the periphery of the stator w ith respect to
the ceptre of phase J,the m m f w ave due to the three phases m ay be described aS
follow s:

M M FJ K iacosy

M M F. K i costy 2a )
3

M M F 2a
C
f ic costy + 3)
 S ec . 3 .1 PhysicalD escriptio n 51

Phase J P hase Phase C

l I l
l I
I I I
I I I
I I I
I I l
I l I
l I l
I I I
@

a -c b -a c -b a -c

Spatial m m f w ave of phase J

l
I I I I
0 2a

F igure 3.7 Spatial m m f w ave of phase J

w here I*q' ib and %

h
..% are the instantaneous values of the phase currents and K I
;
*S a
constant. E ach w inding produces a stationary m m f W ave w hose m agnitude changes
as the instantaneous value of the current through the w inding changes. T he tk ee m m f
W aVCS due to the three phases are displaced 120 electrical degrees ap art 1*11 sp ace.
@

W ith balanced phase currents, and tim e origin arbitrarlly chosen as the instant
w hen iJ l
@s m axim um , W C have

Ia fmcostst)

* 2a
e
1 I costesf- 3 ) (3 3)
.

* 2a
IC Imcoslost+ 3 )

w here Y =2a/= angular frequency of stator currents 1

@11 electrical rad/s.
T he total m m f due to the three phases is given by
 52 S y n c h ro n o u s M ach ine T h eo ry a nd M o d e llin g C h aP . 3

M M F total M M F J+M M F .+M M F C

Kl 2c 2a
m fcoslustlcosx +costesf- 3 lcosty - 3 )+
2
costosf+ 3a lcosty + 21
-
)
-
1 (3.4)
3
3
K I costy -Ysf)
2

T his IS the equation of a travelling w lvc. A t any instant in tim e, the total m m f has a
sinusoidal spatial distribution . It has a constant am plitude and a space-phase angle s/,
w hich is a function of tim e. T hus, the entire m m f w ave m oves at the constant angular
velocity of y electrical rad/s. F or a m achine w ith ry f eld poles, the speed of rotation
of the statt f eld is

@ 2
s* @s m ech.rad/s (3.5a)
PJ

Or

60Y
2 W r/lxlill (3 5b)
.

a PJ

This I
*S the San;e aS the synchronous speed of the rotor given by Equaiion 3.1.
T herefore, for balanced operation the m m f w ave due to stator currents I
*S stationary
Alritll respect ttl the rotor.
T he stator and rotor nAnlf xvaves are show n in F igure 3.8 relative to the rotor
structure, again slritll both stator and rotor CCOSS sections rolled out.
T he m agnitude of the stator m m f w ave and its relative angular position w ith
respect to the rotor m m f w ave depend on the synck onous m achine load (output).The
electrom agnetic torque on the rotor acts in a direction so as to bring the m agnetic
s elds into alignm ent. lf the rotor s eld leads the arnAature f eld, the torque acts 1 *l1
opposition to the rotation w ith the m achine acting as a generator. O n the other hand,
if the rotor s eld lags the arm ature eld, the torque acts in the direction of rotation
w ith the m achine acting as a m otor. In other w ords, for generator action, the rotor
f eld leads the arm ature s eld by the forw ard torque of a prim e m OVCr; for nAotor
action, the rotor f eld lags behind the arm ature s eld due to the retarding torque of
shaft load (m echanical).
 Sec. 3 .1 P hy sical D escriptio n 53

O m m ftfeld)
r

=O m m ftstator)
Stator

O r

S N S N

Itotor
0 2a
elec. rad

F igu re 3.8 Stator and rotor m m f w ave shapes

3 .1 .4 D irect a nd Q u ad ratu re A x es

W e See that the m agnetic circuits and a1l rotor w indings are sym m etrical w ith
resp ect to both polar axis and the inter-polar axis. T herefore, for the purpose of
identifying synchronous m achine characteristics, tw o axes are def ned as show n in
F igure 3 .1:

@ The direct (ur axis,centred m agnetically in the centre of the north P0le;

@ The quadrature () axis,90 electrical degrees ahead of the J-ax1

-s@

T he position of the rotor relative to the stator I

*S nzeasured by the angle 0
betw een the J-axis and the m agnetic axis of phase a w inding.
T he selection of the :-aXI
@S aS leading the J-axis I
@S purely arbitrary . T his
convention I*S based On the IE E E standard defnition g151, and is w idely used.
A lternatively, the @raX1
@S could be chosen to lltjthe J-axis by 90 degrees (16,17j.
 54 S y n c h ro n o u s M ach ine T h eo ry a nd M o d ellin g C h aP . 3

3 .2 M A T H EM A T IC A L D ES C R IPT IO N O F
A S Y N C H R O N O U S M A C H IN E

ln developing equations of a synchronous m achine, the follow ing assum ptions

are nAade:

(a) The stator w indings are sinusoidally distributed along the air-gap as far as the
m utual effects w ith the rotor are concerned.

(b) The stator slots Cause nO appreciable variation of the rotor inductances AA?itll
rotor position .

(c) M agnetic hysteresis is negligible.

(d) M agnetic saturation effects are negligible.

A ssum ptions (a),(b),and (c)are reasonable.The principaljustiscation CODACS

from the om parison of calculated perform ances based on these assum ptions and
actual m easured perform ances. A ssum ption (d) is m ade for convenience 1 @11 analysis.
shritll m agnetic saturation neglected, w e are required to deal w ith only linear coupled
circuits, m aking superposition applicable. H ow ever, saturation effects are im portantj
and m ethods of accounting for their effects separately in an approxim ate m anner w ill
be discussed 1 @11 Section 3.8. T he m achine equations w ill be developed s rst by
assum ing linear G ux-current relationships.
F igure 3.9 show s the circuits involved 1 *11 the analysis of a synchronous
m achine. T he stator circuits consist of three-phase arm ature w indings carrying
alternating currents. T he rotor circuits com prise s eld and am ortisseur w indings. T he
f eld w inding is coM ected to a Source of direct current. F or of analysis, the
currents 111the am ortisseur (solid rotor and/or dam per
*
purposes
w indings) m ay be assum ed to
@

; ow in tw o sets of closed circuits-. 0ne set w hose ; ux IS 1*l1 line w ith that of the s eld
along the #-axis and the other set w hose ; ux I @S at right angles to the f eld axis Or
along the -axis. T he am ortisseur circuits, aS discussed previously, take different
fornls and distinct, electrically independent circuits m ay not exist. In m achine design
analysis, a large num ber of circuits are used to represent am ortisseur effects. F or
system analysis, w here the characteristics of the m achine as seen from its stator and
rotor term inals are of interest, a lim ited num ber of circuils m ay be used. T he type of
rotor construction and the frequency range over w hich the m odel should accurately
represent the m achine characteristics determ ine the num ber of rotor circuits. F or
system stability studies, it I*S seldom ,nCCeSSary to represent nlor than tAArtl Or three
rotor circuits in each aXI @S. In F igure 3.9, fpr the sake of sim plicity only O n e
am ortisseur circuit is assum ed in each axis, and W e Alrill v ite the m achine equations
based On this assum ption . H ow ever, W e im plicitly consider an arbitrary num ber of
such circuits; the subscript k is used to denote this.
 S ec . 3 .2 M ath em atic al D esc riptip n o f a S y nc h ro n o u s M ac h in e 55

R otation
14 elec. rad/s
J-axis
@

l ib
*

:-aXIS efd
0 es #,
*

I* #c
J
A xis of phase a 1-c ea ia
*

#
C

*
C
o
1

Itotor Stator

G b, C @ Stator phase w indings

@
* Field w inding
kd J-axis am ortisseur circuit
@

kq @
* Y-aXI*S aG ortisseur circuit
k 15 2, @*@n 5
* nO. of am ortisseur circuits
0 A ngle by w hich J-axis leads the m agnetic axis
@

of phase J w lnding, electrical rad

Cr Itptor angular velocity, electrical rad/s

F igure 3.9 Stator and rotor circuits of a synchronous m achine

In F igures 3.1 and 3.9, 0 is des ned as the angle by w hich the J-axis leads the
centrelin of phase a w inding ill the direction of rotation. Since the rotor I *S rotating
w ith respect to the stator, angle 0 is ontinuously increasing and is related to the rotpr
angular velocity o r and tim e t as follow s:

0 O rt

T he electrical perform ance equatipns of a synchronous m achine Can be

developed by w riting equations of the coupld circuits idntif ed in Figure 3.9.B efore
W e attem pt to do this, it is upeful to review hpw the equitions of sim ple circuits m ay
*

be w rltten .
 56 S y n c h ro n o u s M ac h in e T h eo ry .a nd M o d ellin g C h aP . 3

3 .2 .1 R ev iew o f M ag n etic C ircu it E q u atio n s

S ing le ex cited circuit

C onsider s rst the elenlentary circuit of F igure 3.10, com prising a single
exciting ctlil.T he coil has N turns and a resistance of r. It is assum ed to have a linear
i ux-m m f relationship . ytccording to F araday 's law , the induced voltage ei I
@S

ei dt (3.6)

w here V is the instantaneous value of flux linkage and f is tim e.T he term inal voltage
C1 is given by

dl
## +ri (3 7)
.

dt

r
#i
+ *
>
l
1*

el ei

F igu re 3.10 Single-excited m agnetic circuit

T he S ux linkage m ay be expressed in ternls of the inductance f of the cl

@rcul
@t:

# Li (3.8)

T he inductance, by def nition, is equal to ; ux linkage Per unit current. T herefore,

L N *
@

I (3.9)
N lP

w here
P Perm eance of m agnetic path
* ;ux (M M F )P N iP
S ec . 3 .2 M athe m atic al D escriptio n o f a S y nc h ro n o u s M ach in e 57

C oup led circuits

L et U S next consider the circuit show n 1

*11 F igure 3.11, consisting of tAArtl
m agnetically coupled w indings. T he w indings have turns 1 1 and Chr2, and resistances
r 1 and r2, respectively; the m agnetic path I *S assum ed to have a linear G ux-m m f
relationship . T he w inding currents i1 and iz are considered positive into the w indings,
aS show n in the S gure. T he terrninal voltages are

M# #
dl +r1il (3.10)
dt

M# #
ez +rziz (3.11)
dt

T he m agnetic f eld is determ ined by currents in both w indings. T herefore, v j and v a

are the ; ux liA ages w ith the respective w indings produced by the total effect of both
currents. T hus

#1 N 3(+ m1++ uj+N 3+ mz (3.12)

#2 Nzll mz+l uj+Nzl mg (3.13)

w here

* ml m utual ; ux linking both w indings due to urrent in w inding 1 acting alone

* 11 leakage ; ux lilnlcillj w inding 1 only
* m2 m utual ; ux liA ing both w indings due to current in w inding 2 acting alone
* leakage ; ux lilplcillj w inding 2 only

m = ml+ m2

r, z N
, ) l ! z N
, j ! rz
1.
.
I I I * I
I l
I l I
- -

+ I jI jj I +
. l 1 I g I .
l1 1 ' j ' I Iz
1 I I
I I I I I
l I
d1 l I I ez
I I 1 2 I I l
1 I l
l I I I l
I I
I j 1 1 j
I j 1
m
l , I j t I
jg x z $- - - . - - - - - . x Q

F igu re 3.11 M agnetically coupled circuits ,

 58 S y nch ro n o us M ach in e T heo ry and M o d ellin9 C h ap . 3

T he ; ux linkages Can be expressed 1 *11 ternls of self and m utual inductances w hose
@ @

CXPCCSSIOnS are glven blow .

@

Self inductance, by des nition, IS the ; ux linkage per unit current in the sam e
w inding. A ccordingly, fhe self inductances Qf w indings 1 and 2 are, respectively,

f11 N kll mg+* ullit (3.14)

Lzz #2(* -c+* /c)/ic (3.15)

Or

f11 Lml+L11 (3.16)

L zz L m 2 +L tz (3.17)

w here L m l and L m2 are the m agnetizing inductances, and f 11 and f 12 the leakage
iqductances, of the respective w indings.
M utual inductance betw een tAA?tl w indings, by def nition, is the flux linkage
w ith One w inding Per unit current 1 *11 the other w inding. T herefore, the m utual
inductances betw een w lndings 1 and 2 @re

f12 N ql mzlig (3.18)

and

G 1 Nzlmglij (3.19)

lf P I
*S $he Perm eance of the m utual ; ux path,

* # 11P (3.20)

* m2 #aaP (3.21)
i

F rona E quations 3.18, 3.19, 3.20 and 3.2 1, W e See thaf

f12 G1 N 1#zP (3.22)

Substitution of E quations 3.16 to 3.19 in E quations 3.12 and 3.13 gives the follow ing
expressions for ; px linking w indings 1 and 2 in term s of self and m utual inductanes:
 S ec . 3 .2 M ath e m atical D escriptio n o f a S y n ch ro no us M ach in e 59

#1 Z1ii1+kijzfz (3.23)

#z fzlil+fzzic (3.24)

ln the above equations, it is im portant to recognize the relative directions of self and
*

m utual S ux linkages by the uSC of an approprlate algebraic sign for the m utual
inductance. T he m utual inductance is positive if positive currents in the tw o w indings
@

produce self and m utual iuxes 1l1 the sam e direction (1 . ., the Ruxes add up),
'e .
otherw ise it is negative.
E quations 3.10 and 3.1 1 for voltage together w ith E quations 3.23 and 3.24 for
: ux linkage give the perform ance equations of the linear static coupled circuits of
*

Figure 3.11. l11 this form of representatlon, the self and m utual inductances of the
w indings are used as param eters. A n inductance represents the proportionality betw een
a ; ux liA age and a current. A s seen from E quations 3.9 and 3.22, an inductance is
directly proportional to the Perm eance of the associated ; ux path .
ln developing the equations of m agnetic circuits in this section, W e have not
explicitly specif ed units of system quantities. T hese equations are valid ill any
consistent system of units.
F inally, before w e turn to synchronous m achine equations, a com m ent about
notation used is appropriate. ln circuit analysis, the sym bol l is com m only used to
denote f ux linkage, w hereas in m ost of the literature On synchronous nlachines and
POW er sy stem stability the sym bol v is used. Ylere W e have follow ed the latter
@

practice, 111 order to correspond w ith the published literature and to avoid confusion
in later chapters w here W C uSe l to denote eigenvalues.

3 .2 .2 B asic E q u atio n s o f a S y n ch ro n o u s M ach in e

T he sam e general form of the equations derived in the previous section applies
to the coupled circuits of F igure 3.9. W e w ill, how ever, use the generator convention
for polarities so that the positive direction of a stator w inding current is assum ed to
be out of the m achine. T he positive direction of s eld and am ortisseur currents is
assum ed to be into the m achine.
In addition to the large num ber of circuits involved, the fact that the m utual
and self inductances of the stator circuits Vary AAritll rotor position com plicates the
synchronous m achine equations. T he variations 1 *l1 inductances are caused by the
* *

variations 111 the perm eance of the m agnetic ; ux path due to non-uniform alr-gap .
T his is pronounced in a salient pole m achine in w hich the perm eances in the tw o axes
are signis cantly different. E ven in a round rotor m achine there are differences in the
tAArtl RXeS due m ostly to the large num ber of slots associated w ith the f eld w inding.
T he ; ux produced by a stator w inding follow s a path through the stator iron,
O

aCrOSS the air-gap, tk ough the rotor iron, and back across the a 1r-gap . T he variations
*

111 Pernleance of this path aS a function of the rotor position Can be approxim ated aS
 60 S y n ch ro no u s M ach in e T heo r/ an d M o d e llin 9 C h ap . 3

P Po+P2cosza (3.25)

In the above equation, is the angular distance from the J-ax1

-s along the periphry
as shou 1
@11 F igure 3.12 .
A double frequency variation is produced, since the Perm eances of the north
and south poles are equal. H igher order CVCn harm onics of Perm eance exist but are
sm all enough to be neglected.

i i
I
I
l I
I I
I I
I l
l l
I I
l
l
l
l

900 00 90O 1800 2700

J-axis :-aXI
@S
P

fh

@
-

900 00 90O 1800 2700

F igu re 3.12 V ariation of Perm eance Alritll rotor position

W e w ill uSe the follow ing notation ill ANrritillj the equations for the stator and
rotor circuits:

eVae::ec instantaneous stator phase to neutral voltages

@

IVale I* instantaneous stator currents in phases J, b, C

bn c

efd s eld voltage

*

I/#,iu gikq s eld and am ortisseur circuit currents

R d,R u ,R k rotor circuit resistances
/ q
lcl'lbb,lcc self-inductances of stator w indings
lab'lbc ,lca m utual inductances betw een stator w indings
lafd'lakdnlJ:C m utual inductances betw een stator and rotor w indings
l#d,lW 'lm self-inductances of rotor circuits
RJ arnlature resistance per phase

# differential Operator dldt

 SeC,3 .2 M athem aticalD escription of a synchronous M achine 61

Stator circuit equations

T he voltage equations of the three phases are

## J
eJ - -R i ## J-R JJ
I* (3.26)
dt aa

eb p%b-Raib (3.27)

eC ## C-X JiC (3.28)

The flux linkage in the phase J w inding at any instant is given by

#J -1aaia-1abib-1GCI*C+1afdi/d+lakdiv +lau u (3.29)

Sim ilar expressions apply to S ux linkages of w indings and C. T he units used are
w ebers, hec ys, and am PCrCS. T he negative sign associated Alritll the stator w inding
@

currents IS due to their assum ed direction .

A s show n below , al1 the inductances in E quation 3.29 are functions of the rotor
position and are thus tim e-varying.

Stator xett-inductances

T he self-inductance lJJ is equal to the ratio of ; ux linking phase a w inding to

@

the current l@J, Alritll currents in all other circuits equal to zero. T he inductance IS
directly proportional to the Perm eance, w hich as indicated earlier has a second
harm onic variation . T he inductance laa w ill be a m axim um for 0 =00 a m inim um for
0 =9005 a m axim um again for 0 = 1800 and SO On .
N eglecting space harm onics, the m m f of phase a has a sinusoidal distribution
@

1l1 space w ith its peak centred on the phase a axis. The peak am plitude of the m m f
W ave is equal to N aia, w here N a is the effective turns per phase. A s show n in F igure
@

3.13, thls can be resolved into tAA?tl other sinusoidally distributed m m f S, One centred
on the J-axis and the other on the :-aX1 @S.
T he peak values of the tw o com ponent YVaVCS are

peak M M F U N J iJ coso (3.30)

peak M M F J

N Ji&costo +900) -N JJ
i sm
'0 (3.31)

T he rCaSOn for resolving the m m f into the d- and ;-aXI

*S com p onents is that each acts
on specis c air-gap geom etry of de ned conf guration. A ir-gap S uxes Per p ole along
the tAArtl aX CS are
 J

62 S y n ch ro n o us M ac h in e T h eo ry an d M o d elling C h aP . 3

;-aXIS J-axis Phase a axis

l I I
l l I
I I I
*

l l I V
I 1 x a
I I I
I A * - N I e * * w
A N
X Gq xx
. l
l z
AA l
l
M
zY
z lx
N
x I z I z l x
xx l zz Izz I xx N JiJcoso
Iz I x
xx
z I d
zz l z j I xx
11
,
x z I z
z
I I x ,
1:
E1
4
E
2
:
11
- 1
.
,
x
x xz l .z l e I xx F I -N i sin o
x - x
w
I
.
y j
w , ad I J J

I I
l 0 +900 l M M FJ
l I

F igure 3.13 P hase J m m f w ave and its com ponents

* gad (N aiacosu)P# (3.32)

* #J# (-# JJ
isin0)Pq (3.33)

ln the above, Pd and P are the Perm eance coeff cients of the d- and @-aXI @S?
respectively. I11 addition to the actual Perm eance, they include factors required to
relate f ux per pole w ith peak value of the m m f w ave.
T he total air-gap ; ux lilzlcillj phase J I
@S
-
J

* #JJ * w coso -T *

N aa
i (Pdcos20+P s1 20)
q (3.34)
P# + P Pa - P
N j q+ gcosze
JJ 2 2

T he self-inductance l&JJ of phase J due to air-gap ; ux I

@S

N +
l J #X
#JJ I*
a

2 P#+ P P -P (3.35)
N q + # q c o s ze
a
2 2

L #p+L acos20
 S ec . 3 .2 M athem atical D escriptio n o f a S y nch ro no us M ach ine 63

T he total self-inductance laa is given by adding to the above the leakage inductance
z w hich represents the leakage ; ux not crossing the al *
r-gap :
al

lJJ L al+1gaa

L a/+Z #p+Z .acos20 (3.36)

L , 0+L = acos2 0

Since the w indings of phases b and C are identical to that of phase a and are displaced
from it by 1200 and 2400 respectively, W e have

l V cp+Zx2COS2(0- 21
3) (3.37)
N 2a
%%
Laap+fuuacoszto + ) (3.38)
3

The variation of laa w ith 0 is show n 1

@11 F igure 3.14.

JJ

JJ

00 0
90O 180 0 2700 3600

F igu re 3.14 V ariation of self-inductance of a stator phase

ln E quafiops 3.36, 3.37 and 3.38,the stator self-inductances have a s xed plus
second harm onic term s. H igher order harm onic term s have been neglected. In a w ell
designed m achine in w hich the stator and rotor w indings produc nearly sinusoidally
distributed m m f and ; ux W aVCS, these higher ordr harm onic ternls are negligible.
64 S y n c h ro n o u s M ac h in e T h eo ry a n d M o d ellin g C h aP . 3

S tator m utual in ductan ces

T he m utual inductance betw een any tw o stator w indings also exhibits a second
harm onic variation because of the rotor shape. It is alw ays negative, and has the
greatest absolute value w hen the north and south poles are equidistant from the
cen tres of the tw o w indings concerned. F or exam ple, lab has m axim um absolute value
w hen 0 = -300 Or 0 = 1500.
T he m utual inductance lab Can be found by evaluating the air-gap S ux O # ba
lil:lcillj phase w hen only phase J I@S excited. A s w e w ish to f nd the ; ux linklng
phase due to m m f of phase J, 0 I
@S replaced by 0 -2a/3 1
@11 E quation 3.34.

* gba * shl(0 2/ 2a
#w costo- 3 )-* #J# 3)
N JiJ P 2a 2a
ycosocosto - 3 )+P-si
@ nosinto - 3 ) (3.39)
P# + P P# - P 2a
N JiJ .

q+ costzo - )
4 2 3

T he m utual inductance betw een phases a and due ttl the air-gap ; ux is

N * b
lzba ' 6 .
& a
I@
J (3.40)
1 L 2a
= - -
L .0+ ab2COSG 0 - 3 )
2

w here f go has the sam e m eaning aS in the expression for self-inductance lgaa given by
E quation 3.35. T here is a Very sm all am ount of m utual ; ux around the ends of
w indings w hich does not CCOSS the air-gap . shTitll this ; ux included, the m utual
inductance betw een phases a and Can be w ritten aS

l 2a
Js lba -L&. +L wcos(20 3 )
(3.41)
Lax -L wcos(20+-3)
-

Sim ilarly,

lbc lcb -VaboOL wcostzo-a) (3.42)

lC a aC -L abo- Lawcostzo --3 ) (3.43)

 Sec. 3 .2 M athem atical D escriptio n of a S y nchro no us M achine 65

yrom the above equations, it can be readily seen that f abc =L aaz.T his is to be expected
since the sam e variation in perm eance produces the second harm onic term s in self and
m utual inductances. lt can also be seen that f abo is nearly equal to f aaoll.
T he variation of m utual inductance betw een phases a and b as a function of
0 is illustrated 1
@11 F igure 3.15.

lJb
O O

J b2 J#0

F igu re 3.15 V ariation of m utual inductance betw een stator w indings

M utual in ductan ce bebveen stator an d rotor w in dings

ssritll the variatios 1

*11 air-gap due to stator slots neglected, the rotor circuits
SCe a constant perm eanc. T herefore, the situation in this Case I *S nOt One of variation
of Perm eance; instead, the variation 1 @1l the m utual inductance is due to the relative
m otion betw een the w indings them slves.
W hen a stator w inding is lined up w ith a rotor w inding, the ; ux lilzlcillj the
* @

tsA?tl w indings is m axim um and the m utual inductance IS m axlm um . W hen the tAN?tl
w indings are displaced by 90O5 no ; ux links the tw o circuits and the m utual
inductance is zero.
ss?itll a sinusoidal distribution of m m f and ; ux W aVeS,

lJ/J Zafycoso (3.44)

lc# LJe coso (3.45)

lckv LJu costo+ 2) (3 .

46)
-

Z a* sino

For considering the m utual inductance betw een phase b w inding and the rotor circuits,
0 is replaced by 0 -2a/3; for phase C w inding 0 is replaced by 0 +2a/3.
 66 S y nc h ro no u s M ach ine T heo ry and M o d ellin 9 C h aP . 3

W e n OW have the expressions for a11 the inductances that appear in the stator
yoltage equation s@ O n substituting the expressions for these inductances into E quation
3 .29, w e obtain

#J -1*J(Z. p+fx acoszol+ibfLab0+f. acos(20+-3 ))

+@ (3.47)
1(
cL ,p+Zxacos(20--3)1+iydLczeCoso
+ fuw coso-f L sZ 0

Sim ilarly,

# (fusp+Z. ccos(20+-a
3 )J-iG
gfL-
GG
-W
n+L-
**
-=
ncoszlo - 2a
3 )1
u

2a
+icfLaw +Laazcosllo -a))+iydLaydcoslu ) (3.48)
3
* L 2% 2a
+1
W aw costo 3 )-f* L us1 (0--3 )

and r

#c iJ(fJbo+f.acos(20--3))+i,(L x +Zuc2cos(20-s)1
21 2c
-

C(ZJJo+Laa2cos2(0+ 3 ll+i fczacosto+ 3 ) (3.49)

+i au coslu + 2a
3 )-f
H
nZ-
GH
n si
n(0 + 23
a)
u
L

R otor cl@rcul*t equations

T he rbtor circul
it voltage equations aCC

ef# ##fd+R/:ig (3.50)

0 p%v +M iw (3.51)

0 p%.+% ikq (3.52)

T he rotor circuits See cunstant Perm eance because of the cylindrical structure
of the statr. T herefore, the self-inductances of rotor zircuits and m utual inductances
betw een each other do not Vary w ith rotor position. O h1y the rotor to stator m utual
@

inductances vary periodically w lth 0 aS given by E quations 3.44, 3.45 and 3.46.
 Sec. 3 .3 T he d q O T ransfo rm atio n 67

T he rotor circuit ; ux linkages m ay be :xpressed aS follow s:

#z# a
ydfi
a coso +f
# costo - 2a
3 )+f costo + 2a
Lgdiyd+Ly iu -L 3 )1
- - -

(3.53)

# Ly iyd+Lku iu -Lau fiacos +fhcosto - 2a

3 )+Ccosto + 2a )1
-
- - -

(3.54)
3

#u L kk ik +L akq(usino +i,sin(0 -
2a 2a
q
3 )+fcsinto + 3 )) (3.55)

3 .3 T H E d q 0 T R A N S FO R M A T IO N

E quations 3.26 to 3.28 and E quations 3.47 ttl 3.49 associated w ith the stator
circuits, together sAritll E quations 3.50 to 3.55 associated Alritll the rotor circuits,
com pletely describe the electrical perform ance of a synchronous m achine. H ow ever,
these equations contain inductance term s w hich vary w ith angle 0 w hich in turn varies
w ith tim e. T his introduces considerable com plexity in solving m achine and pow er
system problem s. A m uch sim pler form leading to a clearer phy sical picture I *S
obtained by appropriate transform ation of stator variables.
W e See from E quations 3.53 ttl 3.55 that stator currehts com bine into
convenient fornls ill each axis. T his suggests the transform ation of the stator phase
currents into neW variables aS follow s:

id kag
f
Jcoso+ibcoslo23 a)+iccosto+23a) (3.
56)
@

I -kgf
usino+,sin(0-23
a)+U-sin(0+23
a) (3.
57)
T he constanis and kC are arbitrary and their values m ay be chosen to
sim plify num erical coeff cients ln perform ance equations. In m ost of the literature on
synchronous m achine theory (3,10,11,12,13,191, kd and kq are taken as 2/3, and this
choice w ill be follow ed here. A n alternative transform ation w ith kd= kq= 2/3 is
discussed in Section 3.4 .8.
W ith kd and kq equal to 2/3, for balanced sinusoidal conditions, the peak values
of id and i are equal to the peak value of the stator current as show n below .
68 S y n c h ro n o u s M ach in e T h eo ry a nd M o d e llin 9 C h aP . 3

F or the balanced condition,

Ia Im sin o S t

*
h.
2a
gt
qh fw sintosf- 3 )
* 21
e
>O I sintosf+ 3 )

Substituting 1
@11 E quation 3.56 gives

I
d kag
zmsh>
-lcoso+fm
-sinto'
-/-23
a)cos(0-23
a)+fm
-s1(Y'
-/+23
a)cos(0+23
a)
V -f
3
2 sintosl-ol
m

Forthe peak value of id to be equalto Im,V should equal2/3.

Sim ilarly from E quation 3.57, for the balanced condition

@ 3
I -kV-21 costesf-o)

A gain, k =212 results in the m axim um value of iq being equal to the peak value of
stato r cu rren t.
T o give a com plete degree of freedom , a third com ponent m ust be des ned SO
that the three-phase currents arC transform ed into tk ee variables. Since the tAN?tl
current com ponents id and iq together produce a f eld identical to that produced by the
original set of phase currents, the third com ponent m ust produce no space f eld in the
*

T herefore, a convenient third variable is the Zero Sequence current i0,

a 1r-gap .

associated w ith the sym m etrical com ponents:

1
o
>
*o 3 (iJ+1@ +ic) (3.58)

U nder balanced conditions I@a+l.b+t.c.; and, therefore, i0=:.

T he transform ation from the abc phase variables to the dq0 variables Can be
w ritten 1
*11 the follow ing m atrix form :
 Sec. 3 .3 T h e d q O T ransfo rm atio n 69

coso costo 2a ) 21
id 3 coste. 3 ) *

lJ

* 2 2a 2a
I -shl0 -sin(0 - 3 ) -sin(0 + 3 ) ib (3.59)
*
3
%
&
q%t
$
1 1 1 O
2 2 2

The inverse transform ation I

@S given by

coso -sin o 1
*

la I*
costo 2a ) -
s&(e 2a ) 1 d
l 3 3 I* (3.60)
*

*
e
> 2
costo + 3a ) -s1 2
(0 + 3a ) 1 io
=

The above transform ations also apply to stator ; ux linkages and voltages.

Stator# = linkages dq0 components

U sing the expressions for V J, and v c given by E quations 3.47, 3.48 and
3.49, transform ing the ; ux linkages and currents into dq0 com ponents (Equation
3.59),and Anritlz suitable reduction of term s involving trigonom etric term s, W C obtain
the follow ing expressions' .

## -(Zaa0+Zab0+ 3
2 Zaa24id+LaJdi/d+LJ- -
-

# 3
-

(ZJJp+LJ+ 2LJJa)iq+luu fu

#0 -(Z*0-2=ap io

D ef ning the follow ing neW inductances

3
L a = .Z aa o+L a w +- L
2 aa2
(3.61)
 70 S y n c h ro n o u s M ac h in e T h eo ry an d M o d e llin 9 C h ap . 3

&* L aa0+L co 3
- - Laa2 (3.62)
2

fo L aa0 -2Z J#0 (3.63)

the ; ux linkage equations beconAe

%& -Zdid+Lafdi/#+L&- - (3.64)

# -Z I*q+ZJk ik (3.65)

#0 -Z0i0 (3.66)

T he dq0 com p onents of stator ; ux linkages are Seen to be related to the com ponents
of stator and rotor currents tk ough constant inductances.

R otor# = linkages dq0 components

Eitlllstitlztit)ll of the expressions for itt, iq in E quations 3.53 ttl 3.55 gives

#y: L 3
# y fya+iw fa -- i uyyf: (3.67)
2

# 3
-
LF f:+Z
f a a -- L a j, (3.68)
2

Q* Lkq ikq- 3Z
-

(3.69)
2 a* q

A gain, a1l the inductances r e Seen to be constant, they arC independent of the
1.e .,

roto r position . lt should, how ever, be noted that the saturation effects arC nOt
considered here. T he variations 1 @11 inductances due ttl saturation are of a different
nature and this w ill be treated separately .
lt I
@S interesting to note that io does not appear in the rotor ; ux linkage
equation s. T his is because zero sequence com ponents of arm ature current do not
produce net rnrnf across the air-gap .
n ile the dq0 transform ation has resulted in constant inductances in E quations
3.64 to 3.69, the m utual inductances betw een stator and rotor quantities are n ot
reciprocal. F or exam ple, the m utual inductance associated Asritll the f ux linking the
eld w inding due to current ia G ow ing in the J-axis stator w inding from E quation
 SeC. 3 ,3 T he d q O T ransfo rm atio n 71

; 67 is (3/2)fayd,w hereas from Equation 3.64 the m utual inductance associated w ith
gux linking the J-axis stator w inding due to eld current is f ayd. A s discussed in
Section 3.4,this problem is overcom e by appropriate choice oftie per unit system for
the rotor quantities.

Stator voltage equations dq0 co+ p onents

E quatipns 3.26 to 3.28 are basid equation s for phase vbltages in ternAs of phase
P ux linkages and currents. B y applying the dq0 transform ation of E quation 3.59, the
follow ing expressions in ternAs of transform ed com ponents of voltages, ; ux linkages
and currents result..

ed ###-# #0-R J: (3.70)

e ## +# d#0-# ai (3.71)

eo ##c-& % (3.72)

T he angle 0, aS def ned 1 *S the angle betw een the axis of phase
*11 Figure 3.9, I
J and the J-axis@ T he term pn 1 *11the above equatlons fepresents the angular velocity
@ r of the rotor.F or a 60 H z system under steady-state conditions p =( o,= ,=2a 60 =377
electrical rad/j.
T he above equations have a form sim ilar to those f a static coil, except for
the v # 0 and w # 0 term s. T hey result from the transform ation from a stationary to
a rotating refefence fram e, and represent the fact that a ; ux W ave rotating in
synck onism slritll the rotor Ahrill create voltages 1
@11 the stationary arm ature coil. T he
v p and v ##0 ternts are referred to as speed voltages (due to flux change in space)
and the ternlsPTa and P% RS the trans forh er voltages (due to Sux change ih tim e).
T he speed voltage ternls are the dom inant com ponents of the stator voltage.
Under steady-state conditions, the transform er voltage ternAs#V# and P% are in fat
equal to zero;there are m any transient condition: w here the transform er voltage term s
Can be drbpped from the stator voltage equations w ithout causing errors of any
signi cance. H ow ever, 1 @11 other situations they could be im portant. This Ahritl be
discussed futther in Sections 3.7 and 5.1.
T he signs,associated w ith the speed voltage terAs in E quations 3.70 and 3.7 1
are related to the Sl ;gn conventins assum ed for the voltage and tlux linkage
relationship ahd to the assum ed relative positions of d- and q- aXeS. Since W e have
*

assum ed that the g-axis leads the J-axis by 900,the voltage e ln the g-axis is induced
by the ; ux 1 @S induced by a ; ux 1
*11 the J-axis* Sim ilarly, the voltage ed I *11 ah axis
' *

lagging the J-axis by 90O5 1.e., the negative 6 -aX 1S. T herefore, the voltage induced 1 *11
*

the Y-aXI @S due to rotatioh IS +O V # and that in the J-axis I@S -(op .
 72 S y nc h ro n o u s M ach in e T h eo ry an d M o d ellin g C h ap . 3

E lectrical # /N dr an d torque

T he instantaneous tk ee-phase POW er Output of the stator I

@S

#t eJiJ+ebis+ec ic

llilllillfttillj phase voltages and currents in ternls of dq 0 com ponents, W e have

Pt 3
-
2 (e ia+eqiq+2ecio) (3.73)

U nder balgnced operation, ca=1*:=0 and the expression for POW er I

@S given by

3
#t (edia+eqi)
q
2

T he electrom agnetic torqu e m ay be determ ined from the basic consideration

@ *

of forces actlng On conductors aS belng the product of currents an ' (

j
-
'
;
2
(
r
ji
I
j
1
,
- the flux .
A lternatively, it can be derived by developing an expression for the PoW er transferred
across the air-gap .
U sing E quations 3.70 to 3.72 to CXPCeSS the voltage com p onents 1
@11 ternls of
* *

; ux linkages and currents, by recognlzlng O r aS the rotor speed #0/#f, and

rearranging, W e have

#t 3
2
(
(i:J7lt
# +i
q##:+2f
, #p
+(#:i-#iJ*r
- (f2
d +12
* +zi02)R aj (3.74)

(R ate of change of O atc e m agnetic energy)

+l ow er la fea ed aCCOSS l e al -gap)
-

tn= atc e resistance loss)

T he air-gap torque Fe is obtained by dividing the POW CC transferred across the air-gap
'

(1.e., P OW CC corresponding to the speed voltages) by the rotor speed in m echanical

radians P er second.

F 3 Or
e (1@diq-# qid)o
mech (3.75)
3 #
-

2 l%diq-% qid) l
 Sec.3 .3 T he dq O T ransfo rm atio n 73

T he G ux-link age equations 3.64 to 3.69 associated w ith the stator and rotor
circuits, together w ith the voltage equations 3.70 ttl 3.72 for the stator, the voltage
@

equatlons 3.50 to 3.52 for the rotor, and the torque equation 3.75, describe the
electrical dynam ic perform ance of the m achine in term s of the dq0 com ponents. T hese
*

equatjons are usually referred to aS P ark 's equations ill honour of R .H . P ark w ho
developed the concepts on w hich the equations are based (3j.The dq0 transform ation
given by E quation 3.59 is referred to as P ark 's transform ation . It is based on the tw o-
reaction theory originally developed by Blondel (1) and the further exposition of the
cOncept by D oherty and N ickle (21.

Physic'l interpretation of dq0 transform ation

In Section 3.1.3, W e saw that the com bined m m f w ave due to the currents 1 @11
the three arnlature phases travels along the periphery of the stator at a velocity of O s
rad/s. T his I
@S also the velocity of the roto r. T herefore, for balanced synchronous
operation, the arm ature m m f w ave appears stationary w ith respect to the rotor and has
a sinusoidal Space distrl'bution . Since a sine function can be expressed as a sum of tw o
sine functions, the m m f due to stator w indings Can be resolved into tAArtl sinusoidally
distributed m m f w aves stationary Alritll respect to the rotor, SO that One has its peak
*

O V CC the J-axis and the other has its peak OVer the @-aX1S. T herefore, ivi m ay be
interpreted as the instantaneous current in a s ctitious arm ature w inding Nvhich rotates
at tlltl San;e speed aS the rotor, and rem ains 1*11 such a p osition that its axis alW ays
coincides w ith the J-axis* T he value of the current 1 *11 this w inding is such that it
results 1 @11 the San;e m m f On the J-axis aS do actual phase currents G ow ing 1 *11 the
arm ature w indings. A sim ilar interpretation applies to iq, except that it acts on the q-
axis instead of the J-axis@
T he m m fs due to id and I@ are stationary Anritll respect ttl the rotor and act On
* @

paths of constant Perm eance. T herefore, the correspondlng lnductances f d and f are
con stan t.
F or balanced steady-state conditions, the phase currents m ay be w ritten RS
follow s:
*

G
> f. sin(Y/ +) (3.76)

I m
1Ns1 (Ys f+ - 2a
3 ) (3 77)
.

* f 2a
-
= m
sintes/+ + 3 ) (3.78)

where s=za/ isthe angular frequency ofstatorcurrents.U sing the dq0 transform ation,

id I s1 (% f+ -0) (3.79)
*

I -f cos(% f+ -0) (3.80)

*
N
:
u$
2
b
0 (3.81)
74 S y n c h ro n o u s M ach in e T h eo ry a nd M o d ellin g C h ap . 3

F or synchronous operation, the rotor speed o r is equal to the angular frequency

O S of the stator currents. H ence,

t * /

T herefore,

l I s1 coM tO t
*

l -1 cos coM tant

F or balanced steady-state operation, id and i are constant. In other Nvords, alternating

phase currents 1 *11 the abc reference fram e appear aS direct currents ih the dq0
reference fram e.
T he dq0 transform ation m ay be view ed as a m eans of referring the stator
quantities to the rotor side. T his is analogous to referring secondary side quantities in
a transform er to the prim ary side by m eans of the turhs ratl @o. T he I.nVCCSC
(
transform ation (Equation 3.60) Can sim ilarly be view ed aS referring the rotor
quantities to the stator jide.
T he analysis of synchronous m achine equations ill ternls of dq0 vafiables I *S
considerably sim pler than in ternls of phase quantities, for the follow ing reaSOnS* .

* T he dynam ic perform ance equations have constant inductances.

* F or balanced conditions, Zero Sequence quantities disappear.

@ F or balanced steady-state operation, the stator quantities have constant values.

F or other m odes of operation they vary w ith tim e. Stability studies involve
slow variations having frequencies below 2 to 3 H z.

@ Ter
t he parahlet
nal testers
rnl s. associated w ith d- and 6-aXeS nAay be directly nAeasured from

W e Alrill show in Section 3.6 that, under balanced steady-state conditions, the
dq0 transform ation I *S equivalent to the use of phasors to reprejent alternating stator
phase quantities. In m any w ays, the advantages of using 4 q varibles are sim ilar to
those of using phasors (instead of dealing difectly w ith tim e varying sinusoidal
quantities) for steady-state analysis of ac circuits.
 S ec.3 .4 Per U n it R ep resentatio n 75

3 .4 PER U N IT R E PR ES EN T A T IO N

ln pow er system analysis, it I

*S usually convenient to uSCuni
atpser
( unitsystem to
norm alize system variables. C om pared to the uSe of physical am peres, volts,
ohm s, w ebers, henrys, etc-), the Per unit sy stem offers com putational sim plicity by
elim inating units and expressing system quantities as dim ensionless ratios. T hus,

(lllltlltit)r m Per Y t acm al qur tity

base value of (IlTltlltit)r

A w ell-chosen Per unit System Can m inim ize Com putational effort, sim p lify
evaluation, and facilitate understanding Of system chr acteristics. Som e base quantities
m ay be chosen independent ly and quite arbitrarily, w hile others follow autom atically
depending on fundam ental relationship s betw een system variables.N orm ally,the base
values arC chosen SO that the principal variables Anrill be equal to One PCr unit under
rated condition.
In the Case of a synchronous m achine, the Per unit System m ay be used to
rem ove arbitrary constants and sim plify m athem atical equations so that they m ay be
expressed in term s of equivalent circuits. T he basis for selection of the per unit system
for the stator is straightforw ard, w hereas it requires careful consideration for the rotor.
@

Several alternative per unit system s have been proposed 111 the literature for the
selection of base rotor quantities (18,191.O nly OnC system Alrillbe discussed here aS
it offers several advantages over others and has found w ide acceptance. T his system
@

IS referred ttlaS tli? fJd-base recborocal # er unitsystem .

In this section, for the purpose of def ning per unit values and show ing their
relationship s to the values in natural units, a superbar w ill be used to identify per unit
quantities. W e w ill, how ever, drop this convention for subsequent general uSe to
x

sim plify the notation .

3 .4 .1 Per U n it S y stem fo r 1he S tato r Q uantities

T he uhiversal practice 1@>-to use the m achine ratings aS the base values for the
stator quantities. l11 the m achine equations developed SO far, the stator currents and
voltages have been expressed aS instantaneous values; w here they svere sinusoidal
quantities, they have been expressed ill ternAs of the peak values and sinusoidal
functions of tim e and frequency .
L et us choose the follow ing base quantitiesfor the stator (denoted by subscript
s):
e s:r e peak value of rated line-to-neutral voltage, V
iJhr e peak value of rated line current, A

fbase rated frequency, H z

76 S y nch ro no us M ach ine T heo ry and M od elling C h ap . 3

T he base values of the rem aining quantities are autom atically set and depend On the
above aS follow s:

Obue 2zfbue,elec.radians/second

O m bX d * ,- -

e Ne
(),),mech.radi
e
ans/second
Z sba e *
ohnls
Isba e

Z b
L Jhr e 5
henrys
O bu e

# s- e L'#reisbae
e
shlse
5 w eber-turns
C base

3-phase V A base = 3E Russw efaw huse

3 ex:r e isba e

4 4
3 *
-
e sba else e, volt-am peres
2
3 -phase V A
T Orque base base
O base

2
2 (*
2).sbaei
sh
e,neMon-meters
13.21.1! P e r U n it S tato r V o ltag e E q u atio n s

Frona E quation 3.70,

ed # # #-# Cr-Raid

D ividing throughout by esbase, and noting that esbase=isbasez sbase=o sssev xbase, W e get

ed 1 #: #q Or Ra :
(3.82)
e Jhr e * b.e #,,=e #x,=e O base Zx- e isbue
 S ec . 3 .4 Pe r U n it R e p resentatio n 77

ExPressed 1
@11 Per unit notation,

1 = - - - -
ed # K -# Or-Raia (3.83)
:c'e

T he unit of tim e in the above equation is seconds. T im e can also be expressed

in Perunit(or radians) w ith the base value equal to the tim e required for the rotor to
m OVe One electrical radian at synchronous speed ' .

t 1 1
base 1 21/,.: (3.84)
:> e

ssritll tillle 1
*1I Per llllit, E quation 3.83 m ay be w ritten aS

ed ###-#qYr-RaId (3.85)

C om paring E quation 3.70 and E quation 3.85, W e See that the form of the original
equation is unchanged, w hen al1 quantities involved arC exprssed ill Per unit.
Sim ilarly, the Per unit fornAs of E quations 3.7 1 and 3.72 are

e = ##q+#:Or-XJl# (3.86)

e0 # #0-RaI0 (3.87)

T he Per unit tim e derivative # appearing ill the above equations is given by

d 1 d 1
#
-

# (3.88)
dt O H edt O base

:1.21.:3 P e r U n it R oto r V o lta g e'-E q u atio ns

F rom E quation 3.50, dividing throughout by efdbase=O :Je Vy#:Jxe=zfdbaseifdbase,

.

the Per unit s eld voltage equation m ay be v itten aS

ef# ##z:+Rzgy: (3.89)

 78 S y n c h ro no u s M ach in e T heo ry a nd M o d e llin g C h aP . 3

Sim ilarly, the Per unit fornls of E quations 3.5 1 and 3.52 are

0 ## +# 1* (3.90)

0 ## +X i (3.91)

T he above equations show the form of the rotor circuit voltage equations. H ow ever,
W e have not yet developed a basis for the choice of the rotor base quantities.

13.21.21 S tato r Flu x Lin kag e E q u atio n s

U sing the basic relationship v sbase-L sbaseisbase,the per unit form s of E quatitons
3.64, 3.65 and 3.66 m ay be w ritten aS

#: -Zdid+Lu/#ifd+Lc- i- (3.92)

# Lq1-q+LJQ 1-q (3.93)

;
i
!E
j
--L
j
,
0$
'
f
-0 (3.94)

w here by def nition,

L J/a Lcz# Ldbue*

(3.95)
L se e Isba e

L L J:# i- b. e
*
(3.96)
Ly:e e Isba e

Z i b
akq * me
L Ju (3.97)
Lye e
iwe e

1,.81.E$ R oto r Flux Lin kage E q uatio ns

Sim ilarly, 1
*11 Per unit form E quations 3.67, 3.68 and 3.69 beconle

V Z##ifd+L> i--Lfdaid (3.98)

#- L-gI@fd+ZW iW -Le 1*d (3.99)
>

Tu Lm 1-* -Lkqa1-q .
f (3.100)
 S ec. 3 .4 P er U n it R ep rese ntatio n 79

w here by def nition,

Lz. 3 Z c/a isbp e

2 Lza,cseLdbue (3.101)

L we
L (3.102)
L db ifa,- e
f ase

fpu 3 LJu sbae (3.

103)
2 L v bas e i- h- e

LF ifaw e
Lv; (3.104)
Z - ,. e iW b@ e

LQ J 3 Z q* isbm e
(3.105)
2 L #. , i* ,. e

B y appropriate choice of Per unit system , W e have elim inated the factor 3/2 1*11 the
rotor : ux equations. H ow ever, W C have pot yet tied dou the values of the rotor base
voltages and currents, w hich W e snrill proceed to do next.

11..1.($ Per U nit ystem for th Rotor

T he rotor circuit base quantities Alrill be chosen SO aS to m ake the ; ux linkage

equatiohs sim ple by satisfying the follow ing:

(a) The Per unit m utual inductq ces betw een different w indings are to be
reciprocal; for exam ple, L af# = Ly. . T his sA?ill allow the synchronous m achine
m odel to be represented by equivalent circuits.

(b) A 1lPer unit m utualinductancet betg een statr and rotor circuits in each axis
are to be equal; for exam ple, Z afd= Z ce .

I11 order to have L equal ttl Luy jo that reciprocity I

@S achieved, from
E quations 3.102 and 3.104, it is necessary to hate

L ee LF if:,. r
'

Z - ,- e i- b. e
Lfah-eLdbue
Or

L - bu eiv
2 base Lz i2 (3.106)
d bse fdba e
80 S y n c h ro n o u s M ac h in e T h eo rh and M o d e llin 9 C h ap . 3

Ikltlltillllrillj by O base gives

2 2
Y H eL W i
base H e e
O b. eLrabu e iidbu e

Since O baseL baseI*base=e:JXC'

e- bu eiH e e e a,useza,
f =e
(3.107)

T herefore, 1
@11 order for the rotor circuit m utual inductances to be equal, their volt-
am pere bases m ust be equal.
F or m utual inductances L J/d and L/. to be equal, from E quations 3.95 and
3.10 1,

3 Z 6 d i b. e
Lcz: Ldbase / s.

L ,. e I*sba e l Lzgh- e ig b. e

Or

Lf iz2ahave 3
L xhr eisbas
2 e
a huxe
2

Istlllltillllrillj by O base and noting that O f 1=e, W e get

3
efd,-ei,use 2eshres
l
*bae (3.108)
3 -phase V A base for stator

Sim ilarly in order for L J'/ = L kdc and Z a* = Z Q J,

3
eU e eiW bae -

2e sbkeI
@sbase (3.109)

and

3 *

ek baseikqbk e
-
2 e sbkeIx:re (3.110)
SeC. 3 .4 P er U n it R ep resentatio n 81

T hCSC equations im ply that in order to satisfy requirem ent (a) above, the volt-am pere
base 1*11 a1l rotor circuits m ust be the Sanle and equal to the stator three-phase V A
base.
So far, w e have specif ed only the product of base voltage and base current for
the rotor circuits. T he next step is to specify either the base voltage or the base
curren t for these circuits.
T he stator self inductances Ld and L are associated w ith the total S ux
linkages due to it and i , respectively . T hey can be slllit into tw O PaX S: the leakage
inductance due to flux that does not link any rotor circuit and the m utual inductance
due to ; ux that links the rotor circuits. A s shou 1@f1 F igure 3.16, the stator leakage
: ux I
*S naade UP of the slot leakage, end turn leakage and air-gap leakage. T he stator

E nd connection s
/ N N

I l z - - - - - - - - - -! 1 1
IlII hI I
*jI
l I I I I I I I N
N
I I I j
I I I
I I l I
I I

## % I N

II I$ lII < -

I I I I
I I I 1 I
I l
1 1 $, /1 1 I
I I x . - . - j
I I I
ll ll
N - - - - K J
N = .> > . . #

(a) Leakage ;ux w ithin the slot (b) Leakage ; ux around

the end connection

- - - - - - - o * * * * * * e * e e * * - ' W*X - - - - - * * - *
* >
# 1
l I
1 I
I I
l I
l l

,
I x x x j
I 1
l I
l I
1 I
I
' X X X '
1
I I
j e - - - - - - - - e - - - - j
I I - - - ..- . . 1 I - ----.. 1 1
I ; l ; : '
i
I I
I j
l * * I
l 1
1 I
I
I
I
I @ * I
I
I I
I I
l 1
1 I

(c) Leakage ; ux follow ing zigzag path betw een

stator and rotor t00th faces along the a1
*r-gaP

F igu re 3.16 Stator leakage ; ux patterns

82 Synchronous M achine T heo ry and M odelling C hap , 3

leakagr l
'nductancesinthetwo axsarene/ly equal.Denoti
ng theleakageinductanceh
and the m utual inductances by L and a!i *
. .

t)tp

Ld Ll+Lcd (3.111)

r d

Lq L l+L a (3.112)
q

111 order to naake al1 the Per unit m utual inductanes betw een the stator and
rotor circuits 1
*11 th J-axis equal, from E quations 3.95 and 3.96 it follow s that''

Lw L qfa iydys f
L L ef#
Z sba e
L shr e I*sbu e

L Jw iu yp v
L J:# *

L we e Isba e

T herefore,

L ad
ifd,.ve -
jsb@e (3k113)
L
c/#

,-e L i (3.114)
L sase
J:#

Eiillliltrllr, for the :-aXI

@S m utual inductances LJ# and ttl be equal,

L
iee M J I*
sbue (3.115)
L akq

T his com pletes the choice of rotor base quantities.

A s stated before, the Per unit system used here is referred to as the f w -base
reciprocal Per unit system ..ln this system , the base current in any rotor circuig is
def ned as that w hich induces in each phase a Per unit voltage equal td per unit Lad,
that 1
*S, the Sanle voltage aS balanced tk e-phase unit-peak arnlature currqnts.
 S ec . 3 .4 P er U n it R e p rese ntqtio n 83

3 .4 .7 Per U nit Pow er and T Orque

Frorn E quation 3.73, the instantaneous PoW er at the m achine ternainal I

*S

P 2(edid+eqiq+2ecfc)
2

p ividing by the base three-phase V A =(3/2)csbaseisbase,the expression forper unitm ay

be w ritten as

Pt ed Id+eq Iq +2d0 I0 (3.116)

Similarly,with base torque -2

a ())#sbaei
Jhre,t
hePeruni
tformofEquati
on3.
75I
*
S
Fe ##Iq-#<l# (3.117)

11.:1.t) A ltern ativ e P er U n it S y ste m s an d T ra n sfo rm atio n s

Several different alternative Per unit sy stem s have been proposed 111 the
literature for the analysis of synchronous m achines (4,13,161.Som e analysts, notably
Lew is (20j,have also suggested the use of an alternative form oftransform ation from
the abc reference fram e ttl the dq0 reference fram e, w hich is sim ilar to that of
E quation 3.59, but w ith factors kd and instead of 2/3 and w ith ZerO-
equal to 1/V2.kqequalto
SCQUCnCC coeff cients T he alternatl
*ve transform ation equations are
given by

2a 2a
coso costo - 3 ) costo + 3 )
l I#
# J
sino 2
-sin(0 - 3a ) -shy(e + 21
l
@ -
-

3 ) ib
- -

(3.118)
* @
h.
*
: IC
 84 S y n c h ro n o u s M ac h in e T h eo ry a nd M o d e llin 9 C h ap . 3

and the inverse transform ation by

coso -sino
e

Ia I*
d

ib costo- 2c
3 ) -sin(0 - 23a ) I@ (3.119)
*

e o*o
>
=

2c 2a
costo + 3 ) -sin(0 + 3 )

Such a transform ation is orthogonal; i.e., the inverse of the transform ation m atrix IS
equal to lts transpose. T his also m eans that the transform ation is pow er invariant:

#t eJiJ +ebib+ec ic

edid+eqiq+% c

I11 additioh, w ith this transform ation, a1l m utual inductances w ould be reciprocal.
H ow ever, RS discussed ill reference 19 by H arris, L aMenson and Stephen son , such
a transform ation has several fundam ental disadvantages w hich appear to override the
advantages. T he orthogonal transform ation does not correspond to any particular
m eaningful physical situation. W ith kd and kq equal to 2/3,the equivalent #- and q-
axis coils w ould have 3/2 tim es the num ber of turns as abc coils.This rem oves the
unit-to-unit relationship betw een abc and dq0 variables that exists w ith the original
transform ation of E quation 3.59.
R eference 19 provides a thorough and com prehensive analysis of the
alternative Per unit and transform ation system s. It concludes that the transform ation
of E quation 3.59 together Ahritll the f Js base reciprocal Per unit system leads to a
sy stem w hich rei ects m ost closely the physical features of the m achine. In addition,
the inductances 1 @11 the resulting equivalent circuits correspond to those norm ally
calculated by m achine designers. ln view of these advantages, this system I @S w idely
used by the electrical utility industry and generator m anufacturers.

:1.21.6) S u m m a r!t o f P er U n it E q u atio ns

lJase quan tities

Stator base quantities..

3-phase V A ba se volt-am pere rating of m achine, V A

e J:r e peak phase-to-neutral rated voltage, V
 S ec . 3 .4 P er U n it R e P resentatio n

fbase rated frequency,H z

iS,cs: peak line current, A
3 -phase V h b. e

(3/2)eJ:re
e
Z ,. sbase
5

a:r e

Obase 2zfb. ,elec.rad/s

2
O base O ba s e 5 m ech . rad/s
Pf
Z
L ie e H
,= 5
O ba e

#s- e Lsba eishre, R 'turns

R otor base quantities..

L
ifa,use I*sba e , A
Z #
af
L
iv base l*sbase , A
L Ju

L *

i ,.,e M J Isba e, A
L ck

3 -phase V A ba s e
f V
ifas- e
e g-
Z/#H f e
e
i >
/#H e
3 -phas V h ba se
I2
*

fdbk e
3 -phase V A base
ZU e e
i2
U e e

3 -phase V h bu e
Z ,
* .e l@2 5
kq ba e

ZF e e
L a,- 5 H
f e
O b
u e
 86 S y n ch ro n o us M ac h in e T h eo ry an d M o d ellin 9 C h ap . 3

ZU e e
L - bu e 5 H
O base

Z b e
L , 5 H
* .e
1 :, 6
t 1
S
base R 5
b# :
3 -phase V A
F base N .m
base
O bu e W

Complete setof electrical equations #dr unit

In view of the f Jy-base Per unit system chosen, 1

@11 Per unit

Lc/# %. f&- Lhu ZJ#

LQJ V;A
L v;

ln the follow ing equations, tAArtl :-aXI @S am ortisseur circuits are considered, and the
subscripts 1 and lq r e used (in place of kq) to identify them . O nly One J-axis
*

am ortisseur circuit IS considered, and it is l 'dentif ed by the subscript 1#. Sin ce alI
q u an tities are ixl P er Illlit, W e d rop th e su p erb ar n otation .

P er unit stator voltag e equations..

ed = ##:-#qr-Raid (3.120)

e ## +%dor-Raiq (3.121)

en ##c-& ij (3.122)

P er unit rotor voltag e equations:

ef# ##ya+%di (3.123)

0 p%td+Rjdikd (3.124)

0 ##1:+#1i1 (3.125)

0 p%zq+h qizq (3.126)

 S ec . 3 .4 P e r U n it R eP resentatio n 87

Fer unitstator .#Nx linkage equations:

## -(Lad+Lt)f#+Zw fya+L #1, (3.127)

#: -(Laq+%4iq+Laqikq+Laqizq (3.128)

#o -Loio (3.129)

Per unit rotorW &x linkage equations..

#yd L#,% +Zp:i1,-L :, (3.130)

#1d Lfgdigd+Lbtditd-fw i: (3.131)

#1 Z11i1+Laqiq-LJiq (3.132)

#2: LJ#f1q+fax izq-Laqiq (3.133)

P er unit air-gap torque:

Te ##i -# id (3.134)

111 A&rritillj Equgtions 3.137 and 3.133, W e have assum ed that the Per unit m utual
inductance f 12 is equal to f aq. T his im plies that the stator and rotor circuits in the q-
axis a11 liA a single m utual f ux tepresented by f aq. T his is acceptable because the
rotor circuits represent the overall rotor body effects, and actual w indings w ith
physically nAeasurable voltages and currents do not exist.
F or pow er system stability analysis, the m achine equations are norm ally solved
w ith q11 quantities expressed in per unit, w ith the exception Qf tim e. U sually tim e t is
exprssed in seconds, in w hich ase the per unit p in E quations 3.120 to 3.126 is
replaced by (zlebasejp .

P er un it reactan ces

If th frequency of the stator quantities is equal to the bas frequency, the PCr
unit reactance of a w inding is num erically equal to the Per unit inductanc. F or
>'

exam ple,

Xd 2a/1: Q
88 Synchronous M achine T heory and M odelling C hap.3

D ividing by Zsbase-lzfbaseLsbase,

X: 2zf La
Z sba e 2l/,.eLsbue

lflf fbase,per unit values of X a and f d are equal. F or this reason, in the literature on
-

synchronous m achines, sym bols associated w ith reactances are often used to denote
Per unit inductances.

3 .5 E Q U IV A LE N T C IR C U IT S FO R D IR E C T
A N D Q U A D R A T U R E A X ES

W hile E quation s 3.120 to 3.133 can be used directly to determ ine synchronous
m achine perform ance, it is a com m on practice to use equivalent circuits to provide a
visual description of the m achine m odel.
B efore W e develop an equivalent circuit to represent com plete electrical
characteristics of the m achine, let us f rst consider only the J-axis ; ux linkage. F igure
3.17 show s an equivalent circuit w hich represents the J-axis stator and rotor ; ux
linkage equations 3.127, 3.130 and 3.13 1. ln this f gure, the currents appear as'loop
cu rren ts.
A sim ilar equivalent circuit Can be developed for the :-aXI *S flux linkage and
current relationships. A t this point, it is helpful to introduce the follow ing rotor circuit
per unit leakage inductances:

L, Lfga-L ad

i: i iz:
1#

Ltka-Lpd V d-Zz,,
## Lad

#1d #z:

F igu re 3.17 T he J-axis equivalent circuit illustrating v - relationship

S eC. 3 ,5 Eq u iv alent C ircu its fo r D irect and Q u ad ratu re A x es 89
J

L/a L#:-ffga (3.135)

L3d L 11#-Zzld (3.136)

bs4 Z11-Zaq (3.137)

Xq L22:-Laq (3.138)

E quivalent circuits representing the com p lete characteristics, including the voltage
@

u atlon s, a re show n in F igure 3.18. In these equivalent circuits, voltages aS w ell aS

Cq
: ux linkages appear. T herefore, f ux linkages are shou 1
@11 ternls of their tim e
derivatives.

RJ *r#q h Lyga-Lad
-
+
+
+ i j i
g ba ya Lzd
L 3d
+
ed P %d Lad + RJd
R +
## 3d e # #zJ
1a yd

(a) #-axis equivalent circuit

RJ Yr## h
+
+ +
iq I1: izq
Z1 Lg
. q q

eq # #q L aq
+ +

P% R3 &q ##2:
q
q

(b) Y-RXI
@S equivalent circuit

F igu re 3.18 C om plete d- and :-aXI

*S equivalent circuits
90 S y nch ro no us M ach ine T heo ry a nd M o d elling C h aP . 3

111 $he #-axis equivalent ci rcuit,the seriesinductance V ,-Ladrepresents the *

; ux lilxlcillj both the f eld w inding and the am ortisseur, but not the arnl/ture. It IS a
V ery Com m oq P racti ce to neglect this series inductapce on the grounds that the flux
@ @

linking the dam per clrcuit IS Very nearly equal to that lilzlcirlj the arm ature, bause
. J. .

the dam per w indings are near the air-gap . T his w ould be true in practice if the dam per
circuits w ere fully pitched. F or short-pitched dam per circuits and solid rotor iron
paths, this apprpxim ation is not strictly valid (19j.111 recent y ears, there has been
k
Sorne em phasis on lncluding the series inductance Lf7#-L J#, particularly for detailed
studies w here the identity of the seld circuit I
*S ttlbe retained (5,211.
In the Case of the 6-aXI @S, there I@S no s eld w inding and the am ortisseurs
represent the overall effects of the dam per w indings and eddy current paths.
T herefore, it@
IS reasonable to aSSUDIC (as has been done in th developm ent of the q-
axis equiyalent circuit of F igure 3.18 and the related equations) that the arm ature and
dam per circuits a1l lilllk a single ideal m utual ; ux represnted by f aq.
@ *

ln the literature, it ls a w ldely accepted practice to sim plify the d- and :-aXI
*S
*

equivalent clrcuits aS show n 1

*11 Figure 3.19 w hich do not show the stqtor resistance

% Lfg:-Zw

+ id i fs
1g L
Z J#
14

# ## Lad Xy:

R bd +
ey#

(a) J-axis equivalent circuit

h
+ jq .

f1 jlq
q

Z 1q V*
# ## L aq

# 1q
%*

(b) Y-RXI
*S equivalent circuit

F igu re 3.19 C om m only used sim plif ed equivalent circuits

S ec.3 .5 Eq uiv alent C irc u its fo r D irect and Q uad ratu re A x es 91

voltage drop s and the speed voltage ternAs. T hese equivalent circuits are adequate for
determ ining V # and V , including their tim e derivatives.
The equivalent circuits in F igure 3.19 represent rotor ; ux liA age and voltage
equations. So far aS the stator is concerned they m erely establish v #, v in term s of
iq and rotor variables.
%,
E xam ple 3.1

A 555 M V A , 24 kV , 0.9 p .f., 60 H z, 3 phase, 2 pole synchronous generator has the

follow ing inductances and resistances associated w ith the stator and f eld w indings:

l 3.2758+0.0458c0s(20) m H
lb
J -1.6379-0.0458c0s(20+//3) m H
lJ/d 40.0 cos0 m H
Z# d 576.92 m H
RJ 0 .003 1 fl

*/ 0.0715 fl
J. Ileternxine f d and f q in henrys.

b. lf the stator leakage inductance I

*S 0.4 129 m H , determ ine L ad and L aq 1
*11
henrys.

C. U sing the m chine rated values aS the base values for the stator quantities,
determ ine the Per unit values of the follow ing 1
*11 the f w -base reciprocal Per
unit sy stem '
.

Z ,, L ad , L aq, LWa L , Z c/d, L#d, Lfd, R J,

S olu tion

J. From E quations 3.6 1 and 3 .62,

Ld Z 3
JJo+L ax + - Z uw
2

3.2758 + 1.6379 + 2 x0 0458 .

2
4.9825 m H

L 3
L aa0+Z ax L 2
q
2
3.2758 + 1.6379 3
x0.0458
2
4 .845 1 m H
 S y n ch ro n o u s M ach in e T h eo ry and M o d ellin 9 C h ar

b. L Z a-Z /
4 .9825 -0 .4 129
4.5696 m H

LJ# L q-Z ,
4 .845 -0 .4 129
4 .432 m H

C. T he base values of stator and rotor quantities are aS follow s:

3-phase V A base 555 M V A

fs- e(RM S)= 24/): 13.856 kv

esbaae(Peak) 4 x13.856 19.596 kv
555 x 106
Ile e(> S) 13,35 1.2 A
3 x 13.856 x 103

isbase(peak) 4 x13,351.2 18,881.5 A

Z,e e 13 856 y 103
* 1.03784 D
13,35 1.2
*e e 2a 60 377 elec. rad/s
L 1.03784 X 103 2 753 m H
.
Se e
377
L
i/db. e i b. e
Z af:

4.56?6 x 18,88 1.5

40 .0
7158.0 A
555 106
efgh- e 257.183 kv
2 158
257.183
Z d- 119.18 (1
/ e
2 158.0
L 119 .18
Td- e X 103 3 16 12 m H
.

377

T he Per unit values are

Lt 0 .4 129
0.15 Pu
2 .753

Lu 4.5626 1.66 Pu
2.753
% yA 4.432 1.6 1 Pu
2 .753
 SeC.3 .6 Steady-s tate A nalysis 93

Ld Z w +Z / 1.66 +0.15 1.8 1 Pu

L L J#+L t 1.6 1+0 .15 1.76 Pu

L afd Lczd Ld- e

L hcae it- e
40 .0 2 158
X- 1.66 Pu
2 .753 18,88 1.5
576.92
Z#d 1.825 Pu
3 16.12
Zyd LF a-i w
1.825 - 1.66 0.165 Pu
R 0 .003 1
J 1.03784 0.003 Pu

R J# 0.07 15
0.0006 Pu
119.18

3 .6 S T EA D Y -S T A T E A N A LY S IS

T he perform ance of synchronous nxachines under balanced steady-state

conditions m ay be readily analyzed by applying th Per unit equations sum m arized
@

111 Section 3.4 .9.

3 .6 .1 V o ltag e , C u rrent, a n d Flu x Lin ka g e R elatio nsh iP S

A s has been show n 1

*11 Section 3.3,the dq0 transform ation applied to balanced
steady-state arm ature phase currents results in steady direct currehts. T his is also true
of stator voltages and ; ux linkages. Since rotor quantities are also constant under
steady state, all tim e derivative ternls drop out of m achine equations. ln addition,
Zero-sequence com ponents are absent and C r=o s= 1 Pu .
slitll# V ternAs set to ZCCO ill E quations 3.124, 3.125 and 3.126,

Rjditd R1 i3q & qizq 0

T herefore, al1 am ortisseur currents are Zero.T his is to be expected since, under steady
state, the rotating m agnetic f eld due to the stator currents is stationary w ith respect
to the rotor.A s the am ortisseurs are closed circuits w ith no applied voltage, currents
are induced in them only w hen the m agnetic f eld due ttl the stator w indings or the
s eld w inding is changing.
T he Per unit m achine equations (3.120 to 3.134),under balanced steady-state
condition s, beconae
 94 S y n c h ro n o u s M ach ines T h eo ry an d M o d e llin 9 C h aP . 3

e -0,#q-R aid (3k139)

e Or% -Rai (3.140)

Td Rf,ig (3.141)

#a Ld1*d+LJ#ig (3.142)

# -Z I*q (3.143)

#z: L#aja-iuy: (3.144)

#1# L# afyy-fugf, (3.145)

Xx: #2: LGq1-q (3.146)

F ield curren t

F rona E quation 3.142,

% % +Ldid
L Jd

Eitlllstitlztilzj for V # in ternls of ed, u

N
:*
l
jN
from E quation 3.140,

i e#+R6i9+*rLdq
zd O
r
L

R eplacing the product of synchronous speed and inductance f by the corresponding

reactan ce A

e9+R 6 iq+X :f:

y# (3.147)
X ad

T he above equation is useful in com puting the steady-state value of the f eld current
for any specif ed operating condition . T he inductances/reactances apparing 1 @11
E quations 3.139 to 3.147 r e saturated values. T his Aprill be discussed 1
@11 Section 3.8.
 Sec. 3 .6 S tead y-S tate A n aly sis 95

3 .6 .2 Phaso r R epresentation

For balanced steady-state operation, the stator phase voltages m ay be w ritten

JS

eJ Emcoslost+a) (3.148)

2a
e Emcoslost- 3 +a) (3.149)

2a
CC Emcoslost+ 3 +a) (3.150)

w here O is the angular frequency and a is the phase angle of eJ Alritll respect to the
tillltl Orl
@gl
@n .
A pplying the dq transform ation gives

e fmcostosf+a -0) (3.151)

e F.s1 (Ys/+a -0) (3.152)

The @ngle 0 by w hich the J-axis leads the axis of phase J I

@S given by

0
. Orf+0c (3.153)

w here1% is the value of 0 at f=0.

s?itll O r equal to 0 , at synck onous speed, subsfitution for 0 1
@11 E qugtions
3.15 1 and 3.152 yields

ed fmcosta -Qp (3.154)

e Fmsinta -0c) (3.155)

In the above equations, E m is the peak valge of phase voltqge. In stady-state

analysis, W C arC interested 1 @11 W S values and phase displacem ents rather than
*

ln st/ntan eou s Or peak values. U sing E t to denote Per unit U S valu of arnlature
@

term inal voltage and noting thqt ln Per unit V S and peak values are equal,

e4 E tcosta -00) (7.156)

e G sinta -0p (3.157)

T he dq com ponents of arm ature voltage are scalar quantities. H pw ever, in view
* e @

of the trlgonom etrlc relatlonship betw eep thep , they can be expressed as phasors in Gx
 96 S y n ch ro n o us M ac h in es T h eo ry an d M o d ellin g C h aP . 3

Y -RXIS ; -aX IS
*

Et
q l t
I
I
I
l
l
t. I l* I
I I
I
I j
'
I
a -00 I I

I yoaxl
.s I J-axis
>
ed Id

(a) V oltage com ponents (b) Current com ponents

F igu re 3.20 R epresentation of dq com ponents of arm ature

voltage and current aS phasors

a com plex plane having d- and g-axes as coordinates. T his is illustrated in F igure 3.20
and is conceptually sim ilar to phasor representation of alternating quantities varying
sinusoidally w ith respect to tim e. T hus the arm ature term inal voltage m ;y be
expressed in com plex form aS

Et ed+le
@ (3.158)
q

B y denoting nias the angle by w hich the #-aXI

@S leads the phasor E t, E quations 3.156
and 3.157 beconae

ed E tsh j (3.159)

e E tcosj (3.160)

Sim ilarly, the dq om ponents of arnAature term inal current It Can be expressed RS
phasors. lf # I@S the PoW er factor angle,W e Can w rite
*

Id frsintf+) (3.161)

ffcostj+) (3.162)
 Sec.3 .6 S tead9-s tate A n aly sis 97

rd
I l@d+Jl
** (3.163)

FronA the above analysis, it I *S clear that ill phasor form w ith dq RXCS aS
reference, the V S arm ature phase current and voltage Can be treated the SaDXC W ay
as I*S done Anritll phasor representation of alternating voltages and currents. T his
provfdes the lilllc betw een the steady-state values of dq com ponents of arnAature
quantities and the phasor representation used in conventional ac circuit analysis.
T he relationships betw een dq com ponents of arm ature terrninal voltage and
current are de ned by E quations 3.139, 3.140, 3.142 and 3.143. T hus

ed -0 r#:-R Jj:

OrZq1*q-R Ji: (3.164)

X i -R a i:

e Or#J-R aiq
(3.165)
-

X di +# w js -R Ji#

T he reactances X d and X q are called the direct- and quadrature-axis

synchronous reactances, respectively . T hey represent the inductive effects of the
arm ature m m f w ave by separately accounting for its d- and g-axis com ponents. T hese
and other reactances of a synchronous m achine sl/ill be discussed irl detail 1
*11 a later
section .
sve have nOt yet developed a m eans of identifying the d- and g-axis positions
relative ttl E t. In order to assist US in this regard, 1et US des ne a voltage E q aS

E ' t+(Ra+jx q)/,

(3.166)
(e#+/e:)+(Ra+jXq4(id+jiq)

Substitution of E qutions 3.164 and 3.165, follow ed by reduction of the resulting

expression, yields the follow ing expression for E in phasor form AAritll RXeS RS
q
reference'
.

E /(Xc#i -(X:-#:)i:1 (3.167)

The corresponding phasor diagram is show n in F igure 3.2 1. W e see that the
phasor / liesalong theg-axis.Theposition oftheg-axiswith respectto h can be
identii ed by com puting E ? the voltage behind R a+JX q.
 98 Synchronous M achines T heory and M odelling C hap . 3

,
*

; -RX IS

Eq
-

X qIt

Et R J It

J-axis

F igu re 3.2 1 P hasor E ill dq com plex plane

3 .6 .3 R oto r A n g le

U nder np-load O t open-circuit conditions, l.d=l* =0 . Substituting 1

@11 E quations
3.139, 3.140, 3.142 and 3.143 yields

#: L J i:
f
N

# 0

ed 0

e f w fy:

T herefore,

Et ed+le
@
(3.168)
=
jX * ifd

U nder no-load conditions, E t has only the :-aXI

. *S cosaponent and hence l.=0. A s the
m achine is loaded, iincreases. T herefore, the angle ,.is referred to RS the internal
rotor angle or load anglei T he relationship betw een pow er output and the rotor angle
is nonlinear and is of funda ental im portance in pow er system stability studies.
 Sec.3 .6 S teadY-s tate A nalysi 99

The angle &irepresents the angle by w hich the g-axis leads the stator term inal
voltage phasor E t, and it is given by

h 90O-(a -00) (3.169)

w here @is the phase angle of e& and 0n is the value pf 0 w ith respect to the tim e
@ *

OC1g1n . T herefore, i depends 0n the angle bet w een the stator and rot or m agnet ic
felds. F or any given m achine PoW er Output, either a or 0: m ay be arbitrarily chosen,
but not both .

1).t$.:1 S teady -s tate E quivalent C ircu it

If saliency is neglected,

Xd X X

w here X s is the synchronous reactance. T herefore,

E ' t+(Ra+jxsllt (3.170)

w ith X d=X q, from E quation 3.167, the m agnitude of E q is given by

E
q
X&#ig (3.171)

The corresponding equivalent circuit I *S shoMm 1

@11 F igure 3.22. T he resistance R a I
*S
usually Very sm all and m ay be neglected.

RJ XS
E tZ0 O
It

s qg si

E : = X J#iyd

X d=X =X

F igu r'3.22 Steady-state equivalent circuit Anritll saliency neglected

 1O O S y n ch ro n o us M ach in es T h eo ry an d M o d e llin g C h aP . 3

T he voltage E q m ay be considered as the effective internal voltage. lt I

@S equal 11
m agnitude to X adig and hence represents the excitation voltage due to the Jield
cu rren t. T he synchronous reactance & accounts for the Sux produced by the stator
@

currents, 1.e ., the effect of arm ature reaction . F or a round rotor m achine, X d is nearly
equal to X q and therefore the above equivalent circuit provides a satisfactory
@

representatlon .
F or salient pole nAachines, X d is not equal to X q. T he effect of saliency 1
@S,
how ever, nOt Very signif cant SO far aS the relationships betw een term inal voltage,
arm ature current,pow er and excitation over the norm al operating range are concerned.
T he approxim ate equivalent often provides sufs cient insight into the steady-state
characteristics. O nly at sm all excitations w ill the effect of saliency becom e signif cant.
T he approxim ation also neglects the reluctance torque due to saliency. W ith m odern
com puting facilities, there is little diff culty in accounting for saliency; therefore, the
* @

approxlm atlon associated w ith round rotor theory is not used in detailed calculations.

A ctive an d reactive # O< dr

E tIt

(c#+/e:)(i#-# :)

(edid+eqiq)+J-leqi N i)

Pt edid+e I* (3.172)

IN e I
*-e#I
* (3.173)

Steady-state torque I
*S given by

Fe ##-##

(edid+eqiq)+Ra(#2+i 2) (3.174)

P +R I 2
t a t

3 .6 .5 P ro ced u re fo r C o m p u tin g S tead y -s tate V alu es

F or stability analysis, it is necessary to 5 nd the initial steady-state values of

m achine variables as a function of specis ed term inal Quantities. T he follow ing steps
sum m arize the procedure for com puting these values. lt is assum ed that all quantities
a re expressed in per unit.
 Sec.3 .6 S tead y-s tate A nalysis 1O 1

(a) N orm ally, term inal active PoW er P tn reactive

p ow er Q t, and m agnitude of
voltage E t are specif ed. T he corresponding term inal current It and PoW er
factor angle are com puted aS follow s'
.

P2 2
t+Q t
It
Et

-1 # t
COS
E tIt

(b) The next step is to com pute the internalrotor angle &i.Since E liesalong the
*

:-aXIS, aS illustrated in F igure 3.23, the internal angle I

@S given by

h ta n -1 XqItcos: -#Jfrsin
Et+Rahcosk+xqhsW k

E :-aXIS

I
I
I

X I - I
q t 'I X qItcos
I

E- I
i t
%
.
N
-
.
N -
RJIt Rahsin
N
. T
A At
N
.
.
N
t
N k aItcos: X ffsins
J-axis

F igure 3.23 Steady-state phasor diagranA

(c) sh?itlliknow n,the dq com ponents of stator voltage and current are given by
k

ed F fsin j

e E tcosf

Id Itsin(j+)
*

l zrcostj+)
 1O 2 S y n ch ro no u s M ac h in es T h eo ry an d M o d e llin 9 C h ap . 3

(d) The rem aining m achine quantities are com puted aS follow s:

#a e#+R aiq

# -ed R a1*d

e9 +R a i+X i:
# -

X Jd

ef# R /# iyd

#y: ILU +Lyd4iyJ-Lad:f

#1: Lad(iy:-iJ
#1 #2 Ldq1*q

Te # +R I 2
t J t

So far W C have not discussed the effect of m agnetic saturation. It 1 @S, how ever,
im portant to recognize that the inductances f t;!d, L aq, L #, f 1 and the corresponding
-

reactan ces vary w ith saturation and should be accounted for ln com puting the steady-
state m achine quantities. The m ethod of accounting for saturation w ill be discussed
ill Section 3.8.

E xam p le 3.2

T he follow ing are the param eters 1 @11 Per unit On m achine rating of a 555 A , 24
kV , 0.9 P .f., 60 H z, 3600 R P M turbine-generator 1:

L aa = 1.66 L Gq = 1.6 1 L t= 0.15 R J = 0.003

LJd = 0.165 # J: = 0.0006 Z ja = 0.17 13 R 3d = 0.0284

Z1 =0.7252 R3q=0.00619 Lgq=0.125 & q=0.02368

fw is assum ed to be equal to L ad*

(a) W hen the generator I

@S delivering rated M VA at 0.9 P.f. (lag) and rated
te= inal voltage, com pute the follow ing:

1 T his generator is sam e as that of E xam ple 3 1, except that am ortisseurs arC considered
.

here. W e w ill consider this generator illm any other exam ples throughout the book to illustrate
different aspects of generator characteristics and stability perform ance.
SeC.3 .6 Steady-state A nalysis 1O 3

(i) Intem al angle niin electricaldegrees

(ii) Per unit values of eWa ePo I*d, I* i1:, il , i , id,
f efa, #ya, # 1:, # 1:5 # 2
*11Per unit and in ne< on-m eters
(iii) A ir-gap torque Fe 1

ytssunle that the effect of m agnetic saturation at the given operating condition is to
reduce L aa and Laq to 83.5% of the values given above.

(b) Com pute the intem al angle j and feld current i

ya for the above operating
condition, using the approxim ate equivalent circuit of F igure 3.22.N eglect R a.

S olution

(a) W ith the given operating condition,the Perunitvalues ofterm inalquantities are

# =0.9, Q =0.436 , E t= 1.0, It= 1.0, =25.840

The saturated values of the inductances are

Lu 0.835 x 1.66 1.386

% yA 0.835x1.61 1.344
La Lad+L t 1.386 + 0.15 1.536

L L +f, 1.344 + 0.15 1.494

q

Follow ing the procedure outlined 1

@11 Section 3.6.5,

(i) ni jgn -1 1.494x1.0x0.9 -0.00311.0x0.436

1.0 + 0.003X 1.0 x0.9 + 1.494 x 1.0 x0.436

t n-1(0.812) 39.1 electrical degrees

(ii) ed E tsihf 1.0s1 39.1 0.631 Pu

e E tos f 1.0 tos39.1 0 .776 Pu
*

I 6sintf+) 1.0s1 439.1+25.84) 0.906 Pu

@

*
o Itcoslni+) 1.0cos(39.1+25.84) 0.423 Pu
eq+R Ji#-x aid
izd
Xu

0:776 +0:003x0.423 +1:536 x0.906

1.386
1.565 Pu
1O 4 S y n ch ro n o u s M ach ines T h eo ry and M o d ellin 9 C h ap . 3

efa R fyjy, 0.0006 x 1.565

0 .000939 Pu

#yd (Lu+%d4i -f-i,

(1.386+0.165)x1.565-1.386x0.907
1.17 Pu

# 1d Ladliya- ia)

1.386x(1.565-0.906)
0 .9 13 Pu

# 1: # 2q L aq1-q -1.344x0.423

0 .569 Pu

U nder steady state,

i3d I*1 i:tq 0

(iii) A ir-gap torque

Fe P + I2R a
t

0.9 + 1.02x0 003 .

0 .903 Pu

A b x106
FH ase
e O
m ba e

555 y 106 1
@
472 x 106 N .m
2 a 60

T herefore,

F 0 903 x 1.472 x 106

@

1 329 x 106
@ N .m

(b) U sing the saturated value ofXad,

E X w fya 1.386 /d
S ec. 3 .7 ElectricalT ransient P erfo rm ance C h aracteristics 1O 5

and

X X w +X t 1.386 +0.15 1.536

From the equivalent circuit of F igure 3.22, Alpitll E t as reference phasor,

Eq E t+J'X sIt

1.0+/1.53640.9 -j0.436)

1.670+/1.382
2 .17 /39 .60 Pu

i 39.60

T herefore,

E
Ld 2.17 1.566 Pu
Xw 1.386

T he values of iand if# com puted using the approxim ate representation are seen to be
*

111 good agreenlent w lth the accurate calculation . T his is to be expected, since X q is
nearly equal to X d and w e are considering rated operating condition.

3 .7 ELEC T R IC A L T RA N S IEN T PER FO R M A N C E C H A RA C T ER IS T IC S

T his section exam ines the fndam ental electrical transient characteristics of a
synchronous m achine by considering the response to a three-phase short-circuit at the
term inals. Such an analysis, in addition to providing insight into the m achine transient
perform ance, is useful in identifying som e of the approxim ations necessary for its
representation in large scale stability studies. W e w ill f rst consider a sim ple R L
circuit, as it help s in understanding of the nature of transient response of a
synchronous m achine.

3 .7 .1 S h o rt-c ircu it C u rre nt ill a S im p le R L C irc u it

C onsider the R L circuit show n in F igure 3.24, Anritll

e f.sin(* /+a) (3.175)

 1O 6 Syhchronous M achines T heory and M odellin9 C haP . 3

L R

+
e S

F igu re 3.24 R L circuit

lf the sw itch s is closed at tim e f=0,the crrent l@is given by

e L di
dt+R i (3.176)

Solving fot l*n

rv
k. / -

R t
E
I* K e L + sinte l+a -) (3.177)
Z

w ith

Z R 2+ * 21 2

tall-1(ys#j
I11 E quation 3.177, K is such that l* at f=0 + I
*S the Sanle aS that at f=0 -.lf i is equal
to at f=0 -

E
K j0- msjat: -4) (3.178)
z

From E quatin 3.177 the short circuit current has tw o com ponents: a transient
unidirectional com ponent and a steady-state alternating com ponent. T h: Presence of
the unidirectionul com ponent of the short circuit current ensures that the current does
ot change instantaneously . T he unidirectional com ponent decays to zero w ith a ti> e
constant of L/R .
S ec . 3 .7 ElectricalT ransient Perform ance C haracteristics 1O 7

3 .7 .2 T h ree-p h ase S ho rt-c ircu it at the Term inals of a S y n ch ro n o us M ach in e

If a bolted three-phase fault is suddenly applied to a synchronous m achine,the

tk ee Phase currents are RS show n in Figure 3.25.
In general, the fault current irl each phase has tw o distinct com ponents:

(a) A fundam ental frequency com ponent , w hich decays illitiltll)rVery rapidly (in
a few cycles) and then relatively slow ly (i1
1several seconds ) to a steady-state
value.
(b) A unidi
r ectional com ponent (or a dc offset
) ,w hi
ch decays exponenti
all
y 1
@
11
several cycles.

T his IS sim ilar to the short-circuit current in the CaSC of the sim ple R L circuit
considered 111 the
@
previous section. H ow ever, in the CaSC of a synchronous m achine
the am plitude of the ac com ponent is not constant because the internal voltage, w hich
is a functlon of the rotor ; ux linkages, is n0t constant. T he initial rapid decay of the
@

*
yA
;1
*

Phase a

T1
'm C

Phase b

IC

phase c
> . '

F igu re 3.25 Shoh -circuit cnrrents in the three phases

 1O 8 S ynchro no us M achines T heo ry and M odellin9 C haP . 3

ac com p onent of the short circuit current is due to the rapid decay of flux linking the
subtransient circuits (ld and 2q in Figures 3.18 and 3.19).The slow ly decaying pa=
of the aC com ponent is due to the relatively slow decay of R ux linking the transient
circuits (feld and l).
T he dc com ponents have different m agnitudes in the three phases and decay
@

w ith a tim e constant Fa' the arm ature tim e constant. T his tim e constant ls equal to the
ratio of the effective arm atu re inductance (Asritll the unidirectional currents 1
@11 the
arnAature) to the arnAature resistance.
ln addition to the fundam ental frequency and dc com ponents, the short circuit
@

arm ature currents contain second harm onlc com ponents, w hich depend on subtransient
saliency (X 1''-#J') (101.The am plitudes of these com ponents are very sm all apd are
usually of llttle signis cance.
The currents during short-circuits (either balanced or unbalanced) or any other
disturbance can be com puted by solving E quations 3.26 to 3.5 1 in term s of the phase
(abc) variables, or the corresponding Equations 3.120 to 3.133 in term s of the
transform ed dq0 variables. T he fundam ental frequency com ponents of phase currents
are rei ected as unidirectional com ponents in the transform ed currents id and iq. T he
dc offset associated w ith the phase currents is rei ected as fundam ental frequency
com ponents in id and iq.
T he f eld current follow ing the short-circuit is show n in F igure 3.26.lf consists
of a unidirectional com ponent and an alternating com ponent, orresponding to the ac
com ponent and the dc com ponent in the arm ature phase, respectively .

IJd
F ield current
U n1
'directional com ponent
* * * W W W

N orm al fleld current

izgp
1m e

F igu re 3.26 F ield current CCSPOnSC follow ing a stator short-circuit

3 .7 .3 E lim in atio n of D C O ffset irl S h o rt-c ircu it C u rren t

T he analysis of PoW er system perform ance Arritll the effects of both

fundam ental frequency and unidirectional com ponents of phase currents included
w ould be com plex and com putationally Very involved. F or Eqany classes of P OW CC
system problem s, com putation is m uch sim pler if the effects of dc offset in the phase
current are either neglected Or treated separately. T his also nlakes it easier to
 S e . 3 .7 ElectricalT ransient Perfo rm ance C h aracteristics 1O 9

distinguish betw een the im portant and the unim portant factors ini uencing the dynam ic
Perform ance of PoW er system s.
T he effects of dc offset 1*11 the stator phase currents m ay be elim inated by
neglecting the transform er voltage ternls T vy,pkq) illthe stator voltage equations
3.120 and 3.12 1:

ed ###-Or#-& #
e # #:+% ##-R J#
i

The tran sform er voltage ternAs represent the stator transients and prevent v : and V
from changing instantaneously. It is this fact that produces the dc offset in the phase
curren ts. O m ission of p y d,# v ternls w ould therefore elim inate the dc offset and its
related effects On the dynam ic perform ance of the m achine. B y neglecting the # V
term s, w e are not assum ing that v : and v rem ain constant; on the contrary, w e a re
assum ing that they change instantly follow ing a perturbation .
If the stator transients (accounted for by the rv term s) are neglected, the
resulting arm ature short circuit current is as show n 1
@11 F igure 3.27.

Ia Subtransl
.ent perl
*od

x T ransl
'ent p eriod Steady-state p eriod
N

J -

e e * o e G e * * e R * * + e o e e

T im e
* e A e e +e e e J e * eee * eo e e

Z' E xtrapolation of
E xtrapolation of steady-state current
transl'en t envelope

F igu re 3.27 F undam ental frequency com ponent of arm ature current

W e See that the resulting current cohsists of .pnly the fundam ental frequency
.
com ponent. T he w aveform of the current m ay be divided into three distinct tim e
periods'. the subtransient p eriod, lasting only for the f rst few cycles, during w hich the
am plitude decays rapidly; the transient p eriod, spanning a longer tim e, during w hich
the am plitude decays qonsiderably m ore slow ly; qnd snally the steady-state period,
during w hich the am plitude of the current rem ains constant. T he param eters of the
synchronous m achine that determ ine the am plitudes of the short-circuit w aveform
during the three tim e periods and the rates of decay during the s rst tw o periods w ill
be discussed in the next section .
 1 10 S y n ch ro n o u s M ach in es T h eo ry an d M o d e llin g C h ap . 3

T o sum m arize the results of this section, w e have discussed the response of-the
electrical circuits associated w ith a synchronous m achine by considering a three-phase
short circuit.W e have l 'dentif ed the signif cance of neglecting the transform er voltage
*

ternAs I V#,#V) in the stator voltage equat lons. T his provides valuable guides to the
@

representation of synck onous m achines 111 p ow er system analysis. lt I *S also helpful

in understanding the basis for and the signif cance of paranleters w idely used to
identify the m achine param eters.
T he need for and the effects of neglecting the transform er voltage ternls 1
*11
P0W er system stability studies Alrill be discussed in C hapter 5.

3 .8 M A G N ET IC S A T U R A T IO N

ln the developm ent of basic equations of the synchronous m achine and the
analysis of its characteristics so far, w e have ignored the effects of stator and rofor
@11 Section 3.2, this w as done to m ake the analysis sim ple
iron saturation . A s noted 1
and m anageable. A rigorous treatm ent of synchronous m achine perform ance including
saturation effects is a futile exercise. A ny practical m ethod of accounting for
saturation effects m ust be based on sem i-heuristic reasoning and judiciously chosen
approxim ations, w ith due consideration to sim plicity of m odel structure, data
availability, and accuracy of results.
B efore W e discuss the m ethods of representing saturation in stability studies,
it is useful to briei y review the characteristics of synchronous m achines w ith stator
term inals Open r d shod ed.

3 .8 .1 O p e n -c ircu it an d S h o rt-c ircu it C ha racte ristics

M agnetic circuit data essential to the treatm ent of saturation arC given by the
open-circuit characteristic.
U nder no-load rated speed conditions, aS Seen ill Section 3.6.3, W e have

l l*
d # ed 0

and

Et e #: Ladiyd

T herefore, the open-circuit characteristic (O CC)relating Etand iyd gives the saturation
characteristic of the J-axis.
A typical O C C I
*S show n in F igure 3.28. T he straight line tangent to the loqver
pa= of the Curve is the air-&J# line indicating the seld current (Or m m 9 required to
Overcom e the reluctance of the air-gap . T he depal ure of the O C C from the air-gap
@

line I
@S an indication of the degree of saturation ln thlwrotor and stator l*ron.
Sec.3 .8 M ag netic S aturatio n 111

A ir-gap
line
OCC

> 1.0
I I >
= l =
W I W
O I I -
!
I I
l sc c .
<
3 I I k
3 I 1 >
> l I - - --- -- 1.0 o
I I ' j
I I I O
I I -
Q I I j >
Q l l I
j %
O
l l O
I I
l I :
I I
l I u
I I I X
l I !
I I j
l I j
p I I
I l I
j

IfNL IfSC ifd

IfNL(ag)

F igure 3.28 O penacircuit and short-circuit charactefistics

The short-circuit characteristic (SCC) is atso show n 1

@11Figure 3.18.This is a
plot of the arm ature current vs.the held current,w ithtt
shor -he
circui
t placedoperating at rated
generator
speed in the steady state and w ith a three-phase 0 the arm ature
tnals. T he SC C is ljnear up to and w ell beyond the rated arm ature ckrrent, since
term l .

thefe is Very little Or no saturation in the iron under rated short-circuit conditions du
to the dem agnetizlng effect of the arm ature reaction.
From F igurz 3.22, it can be seen that the internally generated voltag is equal
to the product of the short-circuit current and synchronous reactance (Ra is m uch
much sm aller than & and hence Can be neglected).W hen the short -circuit current is
one per uhit, thls voltage is proportional to 1fSC aS show n in F igure 3.28. H enc,

K Izsc 1.0 1 J(uu at)

C orresponding to the Une per unit voltage on the air-gap line,

K Ifxo(u#) 1.0
 1 12 S y n ch ro n o us M ach in es T heo ry an d M o d elling C h aP . 3

Therefore,the unsaturated value of& I

*Sgiven by
f/fc
X
(u> J/)
.
(3.179)
f xz(u
f #)

T he saturated value of X S corresponding to rated voltage is given by

I
Xslsatj (3.180)
Izxz

w here fyxz and are the values of s eld current required to give rated term inal
ksc
voltage on the O C C and rated arnlature current on the SC C , respectively .
The short-circuit ratio (SCR) I
@S desned aS the ratio of the feld current
required to produce rated voltage at rated speed and no load to the f eld current
required to produce rated arm ature current under a steady tk ee-phase short-circuit
condition . T hat is,

I 1
SC R (3.18,
1)
Izsc X
slsatj

If there svere no saturation, the SC R w ould be equal to the reciprocal of the

unsaturated value of synchronous reactance. T he SC R rei ects the degree of saturation
and therefore has signif cance w ith respect to both the perform ance of the m achine
and its cost.A low er SC R is indicative of a larger change in eld current required to
m aintain constant term inal voltage for a given change in load. Therefore, a m achine
w ith a 1ow SC R requires a n excitation sy stem that is able to provide large changes of
f eld current to m aintain system stability.
O n the other hand, w hen the SC R is low er, the size, w eight and cost of the
*

m achine are loqver. sritll im provem ents 111 excitation system s and the associated
controls, there has been a trend tow ard the uSC of generators of loqver SC R .and,
consequently, loqver cost.

3 .8 .2 R e p resentatio n o f S atu ratio n in S ta b ility S tu d ies

In the representation of m agnetic saturation for stability studies, the follow ing
assum ptions arC usually naade:

(a) The leakage inductances are independent of saturation. T he leakage S uxes are
in air for a considerable portion of their paths so that they are not signis cantly
affected by saturation of the iron portion. A s a result, the only elem ents of the
equivalent circuits of F igure 3.18 that saturate are the m utual inductances f ad
and f aq.
 S ec . 3 .8 M ag n etic S atu ratio n 1 13

(b) The leakage iuxes do not contribute to the iron saturation.The leakage Suxes
are usually sm all and their paths coincide w ith that of the m ain flux for only
a sm all part of its path. B y this assum ption, saturation is determ ined by the air-
gaP ; ux linkage.

(c) The saturation relationship betw een the resultant air-gap ;ux and the m m f
under loaded conditions I *S the San;e aS under no-load conditions. T his allow s
the saturation characteristics to be represented by the open-circuit saturation
@S usually the only saturation data readily available.
Curve, w hich I

(d) *S no m agnetic coupling betw een the d- and :-aXeS RS a result of

There I @

nonlinearities introduced by saturation ; 1.e., currents 1*11 the w indings of one

axis do nOt produce ; ux that lilllc w ith the w indings of the other aXI *S.

sTitll the above assum ptions, the effects of saturation m ay be represented aS

Lad K S#Zw . (3.182)

V ;* K L (3.183)

w here f adu and f ?qu are the unsaturated values of f ad and f aq. T he saturation factors
K sd and K J2 identlfy the degrees of saturation in the d- and g-axis, respectively . W e
w ill first dlscuss how J-axis saturation is represented and then consider saturation of
the 6-aX1 @S.
A ccording to assum ption (c) above, the degree of J-axis saturation I@S
determ ined from the O C C . R eferring to F igure 3.29, for an operating point des ned
by point iia55 on the O C C , the saturation factor X d iS given by

#u,
K Sd (3.184)
#c,p

It can be show n by jim ple proportion that lcsd ip also given by

2I
K Sd (3.185)
I

l11 our representation of saturation, w e w ill use the expression given by

E quation 3.184. T his gives the degree of saturation for any specif ed value of air-gap
;ux linkage or voltage.
O ur next step is to identify a convenient W ay of m athem atically representing
the deviation of O C C from the air-gap ll
@ne.
u
 1 14 S y n c h ro no u s M ach ines T h eo ry a nd M o d ellin C h ap . 3

V oltage Or
k
; ux llnkage A ir-gap
line b

I
#z I
1
O CC
,
l .

Ygj -- **** * S
I I

I L #us
I I Jdu =
I I I
I
l I
I I

! I
I L #u, I
k-.,
I I =
I c:
I I I
j
I I
I 1
I I
l I
l I
I I
I I

f0 f iJ: or * M F

F igu re 3.29 O pen-circuit characteristic show ing effects of saturation

D ef ning

#z #us-#u, (3.186)

the exprssion for the saturation factor beconaes

ll lpu,
(3.187)
sd # +#z
c,

T he saturation Curve m ay be divided into three segm ents'

. unsaturated segm ent 1,
nonlinear segm ent ll, and fully saturated linear segm ent 111.T he tk eshpld values V T7
and V 12 def ne the boundaries of the tk ee segm ents aS shou in F igure 3.30.
F or segm ent l de ned by trc/skrr?

#z 0 (3.188)

<v rJ, V z Can be expressed by a suitable

For segm ent 11 defned hy V w?<V at-
@ @

m athem atical function. llere W C A,?$11 uSC an exponential functlon . @

#z deze #=J#,r-#rJ) (3.189)

 Sec . 3 .8 M ag netic S atu ratio n 1 15

V oltage or
; ux liA age
Slope = L Jdu
l
I
I
1
I
l11 l
I IjT.
1.0
11

1TF1 ------ 21
L ratio =
1 L incr

ld
f Or M M F

F igu re 3.30 R epresentation of saturation characteristic

w here A sat and ion.

11 port B sat arC constants depending On the saturation characteristic 1
*11 the
segm ent
W hen v u/=v p ,from E quation 3.189,vg=A sat.H ence,this representation results
in a sm all discontinulty atthe junction of segm ents Iand II.H ow ever,Asatis norm ally
Very sm all and the discontinuit)r is inconsequential.
For segm ent Ill defned by T atYknn ,

#z #sc+& c,o(#c,-#=)-#u, (3.190)

w here L rat/o, aS de ped in F igure 3.30, is the ratio of the slope of the air-gap line to
the increm ental slope of segm ent llI of the O C C .
W ith the above m ethod of repfesentation, the saturation characteristic for any
given m achine IS com pletely specif ed by V rl, V FJ, V GJ,W s
iat
s ncom
B sat and
put ed L ratio.
T he value of K sd, for any given operating condition, as a function
of the corresponding air-gap ; ux linkge given by

T/c, .#c2:+#u2
.
, (3.191)

w here V cj and # J are the d- and @-aXI@S com ponents of a1@r-gaP Or m utual ; ux
)
k
linkages, ldentls ed in F igure 3.3 1.
1 16 S y n c h ro n o u s M ac h ines T h eo rh/ and M o d e llin 9 C h ap . 3

L, Z,

= id i z, r i iz
q 1 q
1#

L ,d Zya Z1 Xq
## #w Lad #f #aq L&V

#1, #ya #1: #2

(a) J-axis (b) Y-aXI

*S

F igu re 3.3 1 E quivalent circuits identifying nonlinear

elem ents and air-gap ; ux linkages

T he d- and Y-aXI
@S air-gap ; ux linkages are given by

#- %d+Llid (cq+R &i#)+lgf, (3.192)

#c #+Ltiq (-cd-R aj,)+Ljiq (3.193)

T herefore, V af 1
*11 Per unit I
@S equal to the al
@f-gaP voltage

EJ :t+(Ra+jx,)( (3.194)

T he saturation factor K sd can thus be determ ined, for any given values of term inal
voltageandcurrent,byurstcomputing k andthenusingEquations3.187 and 3.188,
3.189 Or 3.190.
F or salient pole m achines, because the path for g-axis S ux is largely in gir,f aq
does not vary signif cantly w ith saturation of the iron pod ion of the path. T herefore,
lcsq is assum ed to be equal to 1.0 for a11 loading conditions.
In the CaSC of round rotor nlachines, there is m agnetic saturation in both axes.
T he saturation factor K sq can be determ ined from the no-load saturation characteristic
of the ;-aX1 @S saturation data is usually not available; hence, l:sq I
*S. H ow ever, g-aXI @S
* @

assum ed to be equal to K sd. T his IS equivalent to assum lng that the reluctance of the
m agnetic path is hom ogeneous around the rotor periphery . Im proved saturation
*

m odelling using 6-aXIS saturation characteristics derived from f nite-elem ent analysis
Or tests On loaded nAachines is discussed ill the follow ing section .
SeC.3 .8 M ag netic S atu ratio n 1 17

3 .8 .3 Im proved M odelling of S atu ratio n

T he m ethod of representing saturation described in the previous section is

based On a num ber of idealizing assum ptions. F or accurate representation under al1
loading conditipns these assum ptions are not strictly valid. Several im provem ents in
saturation m odelling have been proposed in the literature to Overcom e these
@

lim itatlons. T hese include consideration of the follow ing effects'

.

(a) Pow er and load angle dependency of the direct and quadraturv axis saturation
(4,7,221.T his variation OCCUrS because of higher saturation of rotor iron under
@

load and variation 1 *11 PernAeance 111 the air-gap w ith load angle. T he m utual
i uxes 1*11 the stator at no-load and loaded conditions are sim ilar because the
stator voltage is close to rated value under both conditions. O n the other hand,
due to large excitation under loaded conditions, particularly w hen overexcited,
the rotor ; ux is considerably m ore dense and hence saturation is considerably
higher than under no-load. F or a given stator term inal voltage and active
pow er output, f ad is sm aller w hen overexcited and larger w hen underexcited.
In contrast, L aq is sm aller w hen underexcited since the corresponding load
angle is higher. A ccurate representation of saturation effects including pow er
and load angle dependency requires a signis cant am ount of com putational
*

effort, w hlch cannot be justised for stability studies.

(b) Cross coupling betw een d- and @-aXeS (6,9,231. D ue to the nonlinearity
introduced by saturation, the perm eability pattern is not sym m etric around the
*

J-axis@ T hls results 1 @n ; ux linkages; that is, J-axis currents

@11 dissym m etry l
*

produce Y -aX IS ; ux linkages and vice versa. T he CFOSS coupling phenoraenon

@

111 fact invalidates the fundam ental assunxption On w hich P ark 's dq0
transform ation I*S based. H ow ever, the use of a rigorous m athem atical m odel
of a synchronous m achine including nonlinear effects is neither practical n O r
-

Justif ed. T he cross-oupling effects are of a secondary nature and m ay be

represented approxim ately or neglected altogether.

(c) Q uadrature-axis saturation (5,6,9,241.Forrovnd rotorm achines,experience has

show n that the Y-aXI
*S saturates appreciably nAore than the J-axis. T his is due
to the Presenc of rotor teeth in the m agnetic path of the g-axis. F or accurate
prediction of steady-. state rotor angle and s eld excitation, it w ould be
.

necessary to account for the g-axis saturation characteristic as distinct from the
J-axis characteristic. T he errors introduced by assum ing the g-axis saturation
to be Sanle aS the J-axis open-circuit CUCVC are show n 1 *11 F igure 3.32. T he
s gure show s the differences betw een nleasured K d com puted values of rotor
angle and s eld current aS a function of reactive pow er output of a 500 M W
generator atthe Lam bton coal-red generating station in O ntario (51.The error
in f eld current is greater in the overexcited region w ith the highest error being
on the order of 4% ; the error in rotor angle is higher in the underexcited
region w ith the highest value being as htgh as 100.
 1 18 S y nch ro no us M ach ines T heo ry nd M o d elling C h ap . 3

5
m easured value - com puted value
RQ
% error = - X 100
m CRSW Cd Value
O
O
O
=
0 . *
* . *
* * .
* . . *

m * *
@ @1* * 1 . . * *@
.* l . . l
* @ @ .
. * @
@
. * .

l . -- l ------ -- l - l - .-.
---- -... l
-
5 - -- - - - -

-
0.4 -
0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6
Reactive POW er (pu)

(a) Field current error

)

0 error = m easured value - com puted value

X
O @
@ * @ *
O @
*
. * * - @
O * * * @ * .
= @ @
@ *
W - 5 . - * *
@ * @ @

* * @ * *
@ .
*
m @ *
@ @ *
@
. @ *
. @
-10 Q4 l -

- -l l I -- l
0.4-
-0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6
Reactive PoW er (pu)

(b) Internalangle error

F igu re 3.32 F ield current and internal angle errors

Anritlz conventional saturation representation

T he :-RXI
*S saturation characteristic is not readily available from the generator
m anufacturers. It CO , how ever, be easily determ ined from steady-state nAeasurenAents
of s eld current and rotor angle at different values of ternAinal voltage, active and
reactive pow er output. T hese nAeasurenAents also provide the J-axis saturation
characteristics under load, w hich should be m ore accurate than using the Op en -cl*rcul@t
saturation Curves. F igure 3.3) show s the d- and ;-aXI @S saturation characteristics
derived from steady-state nleasurenAents on the Lam bton unit (51.
 Sec. 3 .8 M ag netic S aturatio n 1 19

1.25 J . . . g-aX1s air-gap line

-
axls alr-gap llne
5 -e ' AA . . .* * .
*% a e x.* .
1.00 ' -v >
' *
. * @
A %*
@ R R . e
e
- e
e
-
M
-
X 0.75 y f
A
A

3# Z
A
#

0.50 . J-axis m easured load points

l * g-axis m easured load points
@

<
0.25

: r - - - M
0
0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2 .00
Excitation (pu)

F igure 3.33 L am bton saturqtion Curves derived from sfeady-state

i eld current r d rotor angle nleasurenlents

M accurate m ethod of Saturation representation including the effects of cross

coupling and g-:XI @S saturation, based n fniie elem ent analysis, is presented in
references 6 and 9. T he overall effect of this im proved representation on system
stability is assessed in reference 8.The benesci>l ffect of using such a representation
aPPCRCS ttl be only m arginal for the Case investigated.
Jll general, very com plex saturation m odels based on specially developed data
are notjqstised fnr stability studies. The approach described in Section 3.8.2 using
readily available data should be adequate in m ost situations. ln critical cases, the best
approach is to uSC d- and :-aXI *S saturation characteristics based On sim ple
pAeasurenlen t under stady-state on-load conditions, such aS those show n 1 *11 F igure
3.33.

Use of Potier reactance1

T h voltage
saturatiEp
on behind
level the Pot
. The irof
use react
Xp,ance (#s)of
instead isAof,
ten
isused
bel in place
ieved to ofEato
identify the naake an
em pirical allow aqce for the difference betw een the load saturation and open-circuit

1 F or a description of the P otier reactance @nd its physical significance see references 12
,

and 14 .
12 O S y n c h ro n o u s M ach in es T h eo ry an d M o d e llin 9 C h ap . 3

characteristic. A n im portant factor causing the discrepancy betw een the load and nO-
load saturation is the difference in the f eld leakage S ux under the tw o conditions.T he
P otier reactance accounts for this difference and I *S higher than the stator leakage
reactance due to the appreciably higher s eld leakage under loaded conditions.
T he use of EAa because of the m anner in w hich X p is com puted, gives accu rate
values of s eld current under steady-state loaded conditions. H ow ever, its u Se to
represent saturation under transient conditions, w hen the am ortisseur effects are
included, leads to uc ealistic results 1@11 Son;e situations. lts use 1
*l1 stability studies 1
*S,
therefore, not recom m ended.

E xam p le 3.3

T he open-circuit saturation Curve of the 555 M V A generator considered in E xam ples

3.1 and 3.2 is show n in F igure E 3 .1. T he Per unit resistance and inductances
associated w ith the stator circuits are as follow s:

Ra 0.003 Lt 0.15 Ladu 1.66 laq. 1.61

(a) lf the feld current required to generate rated Eton the air-gap line I
@S 1300
am p eres, determ ine the base values of the s eld current and f eld voltage.
C om pare w ith the values com puted in E xam ple 3.1.

(b) lf segnaent 11 of the saturation Curve I@S to be represented by the function

def ned by E quation 3.189, determ ine the constants A sat and B sat.

(c) sritllthe arm ature term inalvoltage at rated value, for each of the follow ing
generator output conditions expressed in per unit of the M V A rating:

(i) #t=0 ,Q t=0

(ii) # f=0.4 , Q ,=0.2 (overexcited)
(iii) P t=0.9, Q ,=0.436
(iv) # t=0.9, Q t=0
(v) # t=0.9 , Q l= -0.2 (underexcited)

com pute the air-gap voltage E J, saturation factor K sd, internal rotor angle 8/,
and f eld current id.
f A ssum e that the open-circuit CUVVC represents the
@

saturation characterlstics of both d- and :-aXIS. C om m ent On the effect of

reactive PoW er output on i and if#.

(d) H ow w ould the results of (c) change if the g-axis saturation characteristic
differs from that of the J-axis as show n in F igure E 3.2?
S ec . 3 .8 M a9 n etic S atu ratio n 12 1

O e - L aau = 1.66

2 .4
# D 0=2.3 e 1
I
I
I
I
> 2 .0 1
l
= l
I
1
*>#
1
l
l I
1.6 1
l
1
l
3 I
1
1
1
3 I
l
l

> # = = 1.3 r
1
#
I
= 1.2 I 1
l 1
1 l
X l I
I 1
@- 1 1
l 1
< I j
# T1- 0.8 e - e e e e e
1
1
1
1
I 1
I 1
1 I
1 1
1 1
* 1 @ 1
0.4 - j - I

l l I .
1.
I l
*> e 1 @-
1
I 1
l l

0 .0
0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6
i/g 1
@11 Pu

F igu re E 3.1 O pen-circuit saturation Curve

2 .4
z'1
.
Slope =L = 1.6 1
2z GqM
e 1

> 2 .0 Slope = L S u = 1.66 ,

.' '
,
I
= z
e
l
l
Q
@- e
e

z
e
Z 1
X 1.6 z
1
l
Q 1

3 e
', . .
1
cc .
- - - *
> #
#
-
- - * e
l
1 - - - -
1.2 '
z
w -
J-
1
1
z .y y - j j a . .
z e I 1 a .ax j: 8atUfat1OR CUW C
.

# I
# #
*- #
' . .
'
< 0.8 , g-ax ls saturatlon cuN e
1
z 1
z 1
Z 1
I
( 1
# rJ 1
0.4 t j

1
I
I
1
l
0.0
0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6
E xcitation 1
@11 Pu

F igu re E 3.2 T he d- and g-axis saturation characteristics

12 2 S y n c h ro n o u s M ach in es T h eo ry a nd M o d e llin g C h aP . 3

S olu tion

(a) A s discussed in Setion 3.8.1,under no-load rated speed conditions,

Et e Z uafy,

T he slope of the air-gap lin represents the unsaturated value of L a#. T hem fore, the
f eld current required to produce 1.0 per unit E t on the air-gap line I
@S

i 1.0
Per Y t
/g L
adu

1.0
k
1.66 Per unit

Since this is equal to 1300 am peres, the base f eld current I

@S
)

ifah- e 1300 x 1.66 2 158 A

V A rath g 555 x 106
efz- e V
izd- e 2 158

257.183 kv

A s is to be expected, this agrees w ith the valu com puted in E xam ple 3.1.

(b) From Equation 3.189,

# z = # Y ze Baatkat-%vlt

W e w ill com pute A sat and B SJt by considering tw o points On the saturation Curve
corresponding tp v a/= 1.2 and 1.3 in F igure E 3.1.W ith V J/=1-2, v z=1.7 - 1.2 =0.5,and
Apitll V at= 1.3, v z=2 .3 - 1.3 = 1.0. T herefore,

0.5 = # #a.(1.2-0.8)
Y ze

and

1.0 A Sate Bsa((1.3-0.8)

Solving gives

# s4 t 0.03175
B sat 6.93 1
Sec. 3 .8 M a9 netic S atu ratio n 12 3

(c) From the steady-state equations sum m arized 1

*11Section 3.6.5,

P2 2
f t+ Q t
, E
r

P
CO S 1
-
t

ItE t

EJ E t+(R a+/#,)f,
Q *% EJ

F rom F igure E 3.1, V r?=0.8 and V rJ= 1.3.F or 0.8<v u/< 1.3,

#z 0.03125,6.9314*.-0.8)

K #
d %sA # at
at+# z
Xw K sdX H v; X d X w +X t
X J# K X ; X X J#+X t
VN -
1 X q Itcos -Rufrsin
Et+Rahcosk +xfrsin:
eq E lcos f

id 4sintj+)
i zfcostj+)
eq +R J i+X #f:
Ld X
w

T able E 3.1 sum m arizes the results for the given operating conditions.

T ab le E 3 .1

Pt Q, Ea (Pu) Ksd f(deg) La (pu)

0 0 1.0 0.889 0 0.678

0.4 0.2 1.033 0.868 25.3 1.0 16

0.9 0.436 1.076 0.835 39.1 1.565

09
. 0 1.0 12 0.882 r54 .6 1.206

0.9 -0.2 0.982 0.899 64 .6 1.089

From the results,the reactive pow er outjut is seen to have a signifant effect O n
as w ell as ig .T he reason for this is readily apparent from the phasor diagram s show n
12 4 S y n c h ro n o u s M ach in es T h eo ry and M o d e llin 9 C h ap . 3

111 F igure E 3.3. T hese diagranls are based On the sim plif ed m odel of F igure 3.22,
@

w hlch neglects saliency.

(d) C on stants approxim ating the nonlinear podion (segm ent ll) of the Y-aXI
*S
*

saturation C u rv e of F igure E 3.2, determ ined by considering tw o polnts on the Curve

corresponding xpyt= 1.0 and 1.2, are

# 0 .077
Satq

9 sotl 3.465

T he threshold value des ning the beginning of segm ent 11 is

# w;q 0.46

C orresponding to any air-gap voltage E a =v cf, the g-axis saturation factor I

*S

% # at

sA
# at+# z

w here

# Iq 0 077e 3.4654*.,-0.46)
.

The J-axis saturation representation is sam e as in (c).

T able E 3.2 sum m arizes the results obtained w ith distinct d- and Y-aXI
@S saturation
representations.

T able E 3.2

#, V Ea (pu) Ksa Ksq j(deg) ig (pu)

'
.
.

0 0 1.0 0.889 0.667 0 0.678

0.4 0.2 1.033 0.868 0.648 2 1.0 1.0 13

0.9 0.436 1.076 0.835 0.623 34.6 1.559

0.9 0 1.012 0.882 0.660 47.3 1.194

0.9 -0.2 0.982 0.899 0.676 55.9 1.074

B y com paring w ith the results of T able E 3.1, the effect of increased g-axis satur>tion
is seen to be quite significant, pad icularly in the underexcited operating conditio'n .
Sec. 3 .8 M ag netic S atu ratio n 12 5

EJ E
X K yx w .
x x, < ,
E E X uafy,
q X q

(a) Sim pliled steady-state m odel

Eq X 0.835 x 1.66 1.386

X 1.386 +0 .15 1.536

ft 0.9-/0.436
1.0 Z -25.80
jX f,
E 1.0+/1.536(0.9 -/0.436)
2.17 /39.60
i= 39.60

25.80 Et Ld 1.564
% x' 39.60
It

(b) Phasor diagranl Nvith P =0.9 ,Q =0.436 ,E t= 1.0

E
Xw 0 .882 x 1.66 1.464

X 1.6 14

jX sIt It 0.9 /0 0

E 1.764 /55.50

1.205
j= 55.50
- Ef i 55.50
It

(c) Phasor diagranl Apritll P =0.9 ,Q =0 ,E t= 1.0

F igure E 3.3 Phasor diagranls show ing the effect

of vaa ingQ 0n i/d and VN
(Continued on nextpage)
12 6 S y n ch ro n o us M ach ines T heo ry and M o d e llin g C h aP . 3

E Xu 0 .899 x 1.66 1.492

X 1.64

It 0.92 / 12 .50
jX Sf, Eq 1.62 Z65 .5 O

8 I i/d 1.0 86
i 65.50 t
=

Et i 65.50

12.5 0

(d)Phasor diagram Al/itll P =0.9 ,e = -0.z,E t= 1.0

Figure E3.3 (Continue+ Phasor diagranls show ing

the effect ofval ing Q On ifg and i M
h

E xam p le 3.4

F or the generator of E xam ple 3.3, determ ine the steady-state relationship betw een
aM ature current and s eld current, w ith the term inal voltage m aintained at rated value
and w ith :

(a) A ctive pow er constant at 0,0.25 Pu,0.5 Pu and 0.9 Pu

(b) Pow er factor constant at 0.6 lead,0.8 lead, 1.0,0.8 lag,and 0.6 11t1;

A ssum e that the d- and g-axis saturation characteristics are aj show n in F igure : 3.2.
D iscuss the characteristics determ ined.

S olution

(a) W ith P equalto the specifed value,Q is varied betw een -0.6 and +0.6.For each
value of Q ,the It,E a, K sd, K xy, j, eq, id, iy, and ig values are com puted as described
in E xam ple 3.3. C urves show lng the relatlonship betw een arm ature current and f eld
current for # =0, 0.25, 0.5 and 0.9 pu are in F igure E 3 .4 . T hese are know n as V curves
because of their characteristic shape.

(b) slritll PoW er factor at specif ed value, It I@S varied betw een 0.0 and 1.5. T he
corresponding values of Q,P and i g are com puted using the sam e approach as in (a).
T he loci of constant pow er factor are show n as dashed lines in F igure E 3.4 . T hese are
com m only referred to as com p ounding C&rVdS.
S ec . 3 .8 M ag n etic S atu ratio n 12 7
*

For a givn P,alo atuye current ItIS a m inim um at unity pow er factor (U PF).U nder
such a condition the s eld provides a11 the m agnetizing current required and the
arm ature cua ent is associated w ith only active pow er. T he generator neither supplies
nor absorbs reative POW Cr.

lf the s eld current is increased beyond the value coa esponding to U PF , not a11 of the
s eld current is required to m agnetize the generator. T he stator current, w hich now has
a reactive com ponent in addition to the active com ponent, increases and lags the stator
k
term inal voltage. The reactlve pow er output Q is positive and the pow er factor is
lagging. T he generator under such a condition is said to be overexcited.

1f, on the other hand, the eld current is decreased beyond the value corresponding
to the U PF condition, the f eld current is insuff cient to m agnetize the m achine, and
the balance of m >gnetizing current I *S draw n from the System to w hich the m achine
is connected. T his inductive com ponent of stator current absorbed by the generator
increases aS the f eld current is reduced. T he m agnitude of the tptal stator current
therefore increases.The m achine absorbs Q ;'
1.e.,the Q output is negative.The stator
current leads the stator voltage and hence the pow er factor is considered to be leading.
T he gnerator under these conditions is said to be underexcited.

P oqver factors 0.6 lead 0.8 lead 1.0 0.8 lft1;

1.25 z
z
#

v
z
#

'
*
z
:
#
1
z' z # z

z
z
y
z
'
z
z
z
e
z * . 1t1j
z z* z z z
> e z z' z #z
= z
z
.*
,
z
z
#
z
z
z

z ,< z z z
Q
@> e
z .*
ze z
z z' z

1. z
. #
z z
'
z
p
' ,
' z
O ' z z z
' ' z z
= V
Z
z
z z
z
z
.
> z z z z

. < zz #
z z
; z
z z
zz z -'-U .
Q z
z
I
z
z
z
'
z ,
z
z

# z z e #
d 6 ; .* .? zZ z
* G z # # z z
Q g
;
z
;
z
z
z
z
z

; : z z z

#
l #
g
z
y
z

z z
z
z
. 5
l # ' z e
' : z z
l l z
z ' z
I - z zZ
> *5 $ ' , .z ,

o I t ; z
I J z '

% %
l
I
I
;
,
zz' . z
.5
Q
* -# % $ z z
z
z
z

z
: ; z
: ! # z z

.* j '
:q !&
h : ,
t,
' zzzzzz
N 1 z *
& I ? z
1 , z '
'
Y & z
x t '
xN & l V
zz
- I
N> I #r '

%% #
l
*

9.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00

F ield current 1
@11 Pu

Figure E 7.4 R elationship betw een arm ature >nd s eld current
for varying values of P and PoW er factors
 12 8 S y nch ro n o us M ach in es T heo ry .and M od ellin9 C h ap . 3

3 .9 EQ U A T IO N S O F M O T IO N

T he equations of central im portance in pow er system stability analysis are the

rotational inertia equations describing the effect of unbalance betw een the
electrom agnetic torque and the m echanical torque of the individual m achines. In this
section, w e w ill develop these equations in per unitform and defne param eters that
are used to represent m echanical characteristics of synchronous m achines in stability
studies.

3 .9 .1 R ev iew o f M ech an ics of M otio n

B efore W C develop the equations of m otion of a synchronous m achine, it is

useful to review the quantities and relationships associated sAritli the m echanics of
m otion . T hese are sum m arized in T able 3.1. Since it I
*S easier ttl visualize quantities
associated w ith rotation by analogy w ith those associated w ith the m ore fam iliar linear
m otion, the latter are also included in the table.

3 .9 .2 S w in g E q u atio n

A s w e are introducing new per unit equations and param eters, once again w e
tem porarily resort to the use of superbars to identify per unit quantities.
W hen there is an unbalance betw een the torques acting on the rotor, the net
torque causing acceleration (or deceleration) I
@S

FJ Fm - FC (3.195)
w here

FJ accelerating torque ill 1iT.1z1

F m echanical torque ill l$;-1z1
Fe electrom agnetic torque 1
s11 1N$1-111

In the above equation, F and Fe are positive for a generator and negative for a m otor.
T he com bined inertia of the generator and Prl@m e m over is accelerated by the
*

unbalance in the applied torques. H ence, the equatlon of m otion I *S

d@ *
J - -- FJ Fm - Fe (3.196)
dt
w here

J com bined m om ent of inertia of generator and turbine, kg'm 2

@* angular velocity of the rotor,m ech.rad/s
t tim e, S
 S ec . 3 .9 Eq u atio ns o f M otio n 12 9

T ab le 3.1

L in ear M otion R otation

Q uantity Sym bol / Sym bol/

Equatjo n M K S unit Q uantity Equatjon M K S unit

A ngulr
Length s m eter (m ) djspjacem ent 0 O dian (rad)

M om ent of z k
M ass M kilogram (kg) j .m 2
ueuja J=Jrdm B
V m eter/second A ngular
elocity v=A ldt (m js) velocil O =d0/df r&d/S

z A ngular 2
A cceleration a=dvldt m /s accejeratjon l =dO Idt rad/s

F neM on-m eter

orce F =M a neM on @ ) Torque T=Ja @ .m ) or J/rad

Work w=jF, joule(J) Work w=jTdu J,orW's

Pow er P =dW ldt w att (w ) Pow er P =dW ldt W
=
Fv =F

The above equation can be norm alized in ternAs of per unit inertia constant H ,def ned
*11 w att-seconds at rated speed divided by the V A base. U sing
aS the kinetic energy 1
* 0- to denote rated angular velocity 1 @11 m echanical radians per second, the inertia
con stant is

2
H 1 Jlcm (3 .
197)
2 V h bu e

s
The m om ent of inertia J in ternls of H is

J 2:/
-
Y h base
2
O *

Substituting the above in E quation 3 196 gives .

5
 13 O S y n ch ro n o u s M ach in es T h eo ry an d M o d elling C h aP . 3

2// Md o
-

2
VA base
T m -T e
dt

R earranging yields

21/ d % F m -F e
=

dt % . V h buelh m

N oting that Tbase=V A ,cxe/ 0,,,the equation of m otion 1

*l1 pr unit form I
*S

dr
21/ T -T (3.198)
dt

ln the above equation,

@* s /p O r
O r
1;# oolpy %

w here @ < I
@S angular velocity of the rotor in electrical rad/s, 0 0 is its rated value, and
Pf I
*S num ber of l eld poles.
lf ig the angular position of the rotor 1*11 electrical radians w ith respect to a
synchronously rotating reference and+% I
@S its value at f=0,

Yrl-Ocl+c (3.199)

Taking the tim e derivtive,W e ave

d6
dt Or-O 0 Ar (3.200)

ad

d 2 dor #(A% )
J f2 dt dt
(3.201)
d
= dlhr)
r
0 :-d
- -t O d
t
Sec . 3 .9 Eq u atio n s o f M otio n 13 1

Substituting for drIdt given by the above equation in Equation 3.198,W e get

2H d l6 T
m Te
-

(3.202)
O c d tl

ft is often desirable to include a com ponent of dam ping torque, not accounted for 1 @11
the calculation of Fen separately . T his is accom plished by adding a terrn proportional
*

to speed deviation ln the above equation RS follow s:

2# d 2
Tm -Te-K DAYr (3.203)
d tl

Frorn E quation 3.200,

AOr 1 d6
Ar
*0 dt

E quation 3.203 represents the equation of m otion of a synchronous m achine. It is

conAnAonly referred to aS the sw ing equation because it represents sw ings 1
*1l rotor
angle during disturbances.

Per unit m om ent of inertia

Sub stitlltillj 1
*11 E quation 3.203 gives

IH d 2 T- - K s d 6 (3
m T e- - -
-
.
204)
O c d t2 Y0 dt

ln E quations 3.203 and 3.204, K o is th dam ping factor or coeff cient in pu torque/pu
speed deviation.
lf it is desired to uSe PCr unit value of tim e t, E quation 3.204 beconles

2 d 26 T m -T e- K D #
1/R (3.205)
dt
-2 dt

Som e aathors (for exam ple,reference 19) refer to 2:/* 0 aS the Per unit m om ent of
inertia J .
13 2 S y nch ro n o us M achin es T heo ry and M od elling C h aP . 3

3 .9 .3 M ech a n ical S tartin 9 T im e

F rona E quation 3.198,

dor 1 -
'

-
FJ
dt 21f

lntegrating snritll respect to tim e gives

t
O
r
-

Z1
Hjo/u#r (3.206)
L et FM be the tim e required for rated torque tll acylerate the rotor from standstill to
rated speed. Frona E quation 3.206, w ith Y r = 1.0 , T J =
1.0 and w ith the starting value
of Y r= 0 , W e have

1.0 TM
-

1
2H
$ 1
'0dt 2
F
1M
/
T herefore,

FM 21/ S

and Tu I *S called the m echanical starting tim e. T he sym bol M is also used 1
*11 the
literature to denote this tim e.

3 .9 .4 C alcu latio n o f ln ertia C o n sta nt

A s def ned 1
@11 Section 3.9.2, the inertia constant I
@S given by

H stored energy at rated speed in > .s

M V A rath g

Calculation of H from of inertia M KS units

Stored energy kinetic Cnergy

1 2
-
J o om W .s
2
1 2
-
J O O- X 10 -6 M W 's
2
S ec . 3 .9 Eq u atio n s o f M o tio n 13 3

w here

J m om ent of inertia in kg'm 2

07* rated speed 1

@11nlech.rad/s
2 M
a -
60

Therefore,

1 J Y c.
2 x 10 -6
H
2 M V A rating

1 J(2aR#M /60)2x10-6
M VA (3.207)
2 rathlg
5.48x10-9 J(> K 2
M V A rating

Calculation of H from W R 2 E nglish units

Som etim es the m om ent of inertia of the rotor is given in term s of W R 2, w hich
is equal to the w eight of rotating parts m ultiplied by the square of radians of gyration
in lb.ft2@ T h en, m om en t of inertia in slug'ftz= W R l/32 2 . .

T he follow ing relationship betw een M K S units and E nglish units is useful in
converting n l to J . .

1m 3.28 1
1 kg 2.205 1l)(m ass) 0.0685 slug
1 slug'ft2 1 1 356 kg'm 2
.

0.0685x3.2812

The m om ent of inertig J in kg'm 2 I

*S related to n l aS follow s-
.

u 2
J x 1.356
3 2 .2

Substituting the above expression for J in E quation 3 207 gives .

 13 4 S y n c h ro n o u s M ac h in es T heo ry a nd M o d e lling C haP . 3

H 5.48x10-9y1.3564+ R 2)4r & 2

M V A rating x 32 .2
(3.208)
2*31x10-10(< R 2)(r & 2 @
M VA m M W .S/M V A
rath g

Typ ical valu es

T able 3.2 gives the norm al range Arritllill w hich the inertia constant H lies,for
therm al and hydraulic generating unl *ts.T he values of H given are in M W .s per M V A
rating of the generator, and represent the com bined ineh ia of the generator and the
turbine.

T ab le 3.2

T ype of generating unit H

T herm al unit
(a) 3600 r/m in (2-pole) 2.5 to 6.0
(b) 1800 r/m in (4-pole) 4.0 to 10.0
H ydraulic unit 2.0 to 4 .0

E xam p le 3.5

lf the W Rl of the rotor (including the turbine rotor) of the 555 M V A generating unit
of Exam ples 3.1 and 3.2 is 654,158 lb.# ,com pute the follow ing' .

(a) M om ent of inedia A k .m 2

(b) lnedia constant M M W 'S/M V A rating
(c) Stored energy, M W .s at rated speed
(d) T he m echanical stad ing tim e, S

Solution

(a) From the relationships developed 1

*11Section 3.9.4,
1
' 2
32.2 x 1.356 654,158x 1.356
J
32 .2

27,547.8 k .m 2
S ec . 3 .9 Eq u atio ns of M otio n 13 5

(b) Inedia constant

H 5 48x10 -9 Y(O & 2

.

M V A rath g

5.48x10-9x27,547.8x36002
555

3.525 G 'S/M V A

(c) Stored energy at rated speed

E S XM V A rating 3.525 x555

1956.4 M W .s

(d) M echanical stading tim e

FM 21/ 2 x3.525

7.05 S

3 .9 .5 R eP resentatio n irl S y stem S tu d ies

For analysis of pow er system dynam ic perform ancejthe com ponent m odels are
expressed in the state-space fornl (see Chapter 12,Section 12.1) or the block diagranx
forrn.
T he state-sp ace form requires the com ponent m odls to be expressed RS a set
* @ *

of f rst order differential equatlons. T he SW lng equatlon 3.203, xpressed s tw o rst

order differential equations, beconaes

dhr 1 - -
-
21/(Fm -Fe-K D'lY
s- r) (3.209)
dt

dn
dt A r (3.210)

ln the above equatins, tim e t is 1

@1
.1 seconds, rotor angle is in electrical radians, and
g is equal to 2a/ In later chapters,w hen w e use the above equationp w e w ill not use
superbars to identify per unit quantities. W e w ill assum e the variables A F and Te
Per llllit.H ow ever, t w ill be expressed in seconds and 0 i Ln D;
to be in n electrlcal radians
Per second.
The block diagram fotm representation of E quations 3.209 and 3.210 is show n
in Figure 3 34 .
.
 13 6 S y n ch ro n o u s M ach ines T h eo ry an d M o d e llin g C h aP . 3

Fe

+ j a ;r Mo
T Z 2H
s+K o s

F igu re 3.34 B lock diagranA representation of sw ing equations

In the block diagram , S I*S the L aplace Operator; it replaces #/#f of E quations
3.209 and 3.2 10. A s noted earlier, sym bols FM and M are often used 1 *11 place of 2S .

R E FE R E N C ES

(11 A .Blondel, (<

T Y: T w o-R eaction M ethod for Study of O scillatory Phenonaena
*

111 C oupled A lternators,'' R evue G nrale de f 'E lectricite' V o1. 13, PP . 235-
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(21 R .E .D oherty and C .A .N ickle, Gtsynchronous M achine l and 11,5'A IE E Trans.,

V ol. 45, PP . 9 12-942, 1926.

(31 R .H .Park, GtTw o-Reaction Theory of Synchronous slachines G eneralized

55
M ethod of A nalysis P ad 1, A IE E Trans., V ol. 48, PP . 7 16-727, 1929; P a=
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(41 G . ShackshaR and P.B .H enser, itv odgj of G enerator Saturation for U se 1*l1
Pow er System Studies,''P roc. (London),V o1. 126,N o.8,PP.759-763,
1979.

E51 EPRI Report EL-1424, iD eterm ination of Synchronous M achine Stability

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(61 EPm ReportEL-3359,tlm provem ent 1

@11A ccfcy of Prediction of Electrical
M achine C onstants, and G enerator M odel for Subsynchronpus R esonance
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.

(7) D .C .M acdonald, ZV.I3.J. R eece, and P .J. T urner, <tT urbine-G enerator Steady-
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(8) R .P. Schulz, et a1.,itBenelt ytssessnlent of Finite-Elem ent Based G enerator

qeferences 13 7

Saturation M odel5'' IE E E Trans.5 V ol. P 5V1tS-2, PP . 1027-1033, N ovem ber

1987.

(91 S.H .M iM ich etal.,itsaturation Functions for Synchronous G enerators from

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''
.

Special R eference to E lectric M achines,'' 1lI! M onograph, C am bridge

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7 11 I.M .Canay,Gtcauses of D iscrepancies on Calculation of Rotor Q uantities and

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(231 El-seraf et a1., EiE xperim ental Study of the Satutation and the C ross-
*

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