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Computer network is a distributed system consisting of loosely coupled computers and other
devices. Any two of these devices, which we will from now on refer to as network elements or
transmitting elements, can communicate with each other through a communication medium. In
order for these connected devices to be considered a communicating network, there must be a set
of communicating rules or protocols each device in the network must follow to communicate wit
another device in the network. The resulting combination consisting of hardware and software is
a computer communication network or computer network in short. Figure 1.1 shows a computer
network.
The hardware component is made of network elements consisting of a collection of nodes that
include the end systems commonly called hosts and intermediate switching elements that include
hubs, bridges, routers, and gateways so we will call network elements. Network software
consists of all application programs and network protocols that are used to synchronize,
coordinate, and bring about the sharing and exchange of data among the network
elements. Network software also makes the sharing of expensive resources in the network
possible. Network elements, network software, and users all work together so that individual
users can exchange messages and share resources on other systems that are not readily available
locally.
Some of the basic goals that a Computer network should satisfy are:
Cost reduction by sharing hardware and software resources.
Provide high reliability by having multiple sources of supply.
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Provide an efficient means of transport for large volumes of data among various locations
(High throughput).
Provide inter-process communication among users and processors.
Reduction in delay driving data transport.
Increase productivity by making it easier to share data amongst users.
Repairs, upgrades, expansions, and changes to the network should be performed with
minimal impact on the majority of network users.
Standards and protocols should be supported to allow many types of equipment from
different vendors to share the network (Interpretability).
Provide centralized/distributed management and allocation of network resources like host
processors, transmission facilities etc.
1.4.1 Centralized model: It consists of several computers and devices are interconnected, and
can talk to each other. However, there is only one central computer, called the master, through
which all correspondence must take place. Dependent computers, called surrogates, may have
reduced local resources, such as memory, and sharable global resources are controlled by the
master at the center.As shown in fig 1.2
Model
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1.5 Classification of networks
Depending on the transmission technology i.e., whether the network contains switching elements
or not, we have two types of networks:
Broadcast networks.
Point-to-point or Switched networks.
In Static allocation, time is divided into discrete intervals and using round robin method,
each machine is allowed to broadcast only when its time slot comes up. This method is
inefficient because the channel capacity is wasted when a machine has nothing to broadcast
during its allocated slot.
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The different types of Broadcast networks are:
Packet Radio Networks.
Satellite Networks.
Local Area Networks.
Pointto-point or switched, networks are those in which there are many connections between
individual pairs of machines. In these networks, when a packet travels from source to destination
it may have to first visit one or more intermediate machines. Routing algorithms play an
important role in Point-to-point or Switched networks because often multiple routes of different
lengths are available. An example of switched network is the international dial-up telephone
system.
The different types of Point- to-point or Switched networks are:
1.6.1 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): Metropolitan Area Network is a Computer network
designed for a town or city as shown in fig 1.4. In terms of geographic area MANs are larger
than
local-area networks (LANs), but smaller than wide-area networks (WANs). MANs are usually
characterised by very high-speed connections using fiber optical cable or other digital media.
The Typical Characteristics of a MAN are:
Confined to a larger area than a LAN and can range from 10km to a few 100km in length.
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Fig 1.4 Metropolitan Area Network
1.6.2 WAN (Wide Area Network): Wide Area Network is a computer network that spans a
relatively large geographical area. Typically, a WAN consists of two or more local area networks
(LANs), which are depicted, in Fig 1.5 and Fig 1.6. They can connect networks across cities,
states or even countries. Computers connected to a wide-area network are often connected
through public networks, such as the telephone system. They can also be connected through
leased lines or satellites.
A WAN can range from 100km to 1000km and the speed between cities can vary form1.5
Mbps to 2.4 Gbps.
WAN supports large number of computers and multiple host machines.
Various segments of network are interconnected using sophisticated support devices like
routers and gateways.
Usually the speed is much slower than LAN speed.
Highest possible error rate compared to LAN & MAN.
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Fig 1.5 WAN Networks
Topology: The geometric arrangement of devices on the network. For example, devices
can be arranged in a ring or in a straight line.
Protocols: The rules and encoding specifications for sending data. The protocols also
determine whether the network uses peer-to-peer or client/server architecture.
Media: Devices can be connected by twisted-pair wire, coaxial cables, or fiber optic
cables. Some networks communicate via radio waves hence; do not use any connecting
media.
LANs are capable of transmitting data at very fast rates, much faster than data can be transmitted
over a telephone line; but the distances are limited, and there is also a limit on the number of
computers that can be attached to a single LAN.
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The typical characteristics of a LAN are:
Confined to small areas i.e., it connects several devices over a distance of 5 to 10 km.
High speed.
Most inexpensive equipment.
Low error rates.
Data and hardware sharing between users owned by the user.
Operates at speeds ranging from 10Mbps to 100Mbps. Now days 1000 Mbps are available.
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workstation in a point-to-point fashion. All workstations connect to the same cable. Fig
1.8shows
computers connected using Bus Topology. In this type of topology, if one workstation goes
faulty all workstations may be affected as all workstations share the same cable for the sending
and receiving of information. The cabling cost of bus systems is the least of all the different
topologies. Each end of the cable is terminated using a special terminator. The common
implementation of this topology is Ethernet. Here, message transmitted by one workstation is
heard by all the other workstations.
In Ring Topology all devices are connected to one another in the shape of a closed loop, so that
each device is connected directly to two other devices, one on either side of it, i.e., the ring
topology connects workstations in a closed loop, which is depicted in Fig 1.10. Each terminal is
connected to two other terminals (the next and the previous), with the last terminal being
connected to the first. Data is transmitted around the ring in one direction only; each station
passing on the data to the next station till it reaches its destination. Information travels around the
ring from one workstation to the next. Each packet of data sent on the ring is prefixed by the
address of the station to which it is being sent. When a packet of data arrives, the workstation
checks to see if the packet address is the same as its own, if it is, it grabs the data in the packet. If
the packet does not belong to it, it sends the packet to the next workstation in the ring. Faulty
workstations can be isolated from the ring. When the workstation is powered on, it connects
itself to the ring. When power is off, it disconnects itself from the ring and allows the
information to bypass the workstation.
The common implementation of this topology is token ring. A break in the ring causes the entire
network to fail. Individual workstations can be isolated from the ring.
Tree topology is a LAN topology in which only one route exists between any two nodes on the
network. The pattern of connection resembles a tree in which all branches spring from one root.
Fig 1.11 shows computers connected using Tree Topology. Tree topology is a hybrid topology, it
is similar to the star topology but the nodes are connected to the secondary hub, which in turn is
connected to the central hub. In this topology groups of star-configured networks are connected
to a linear bus backbone.
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Electronic mail is a simple, yet potent facility. E-mail is more valuable and useful than the
telephone because by using e-mail we can convey information that is difficult or impossible to
read over the telephone, like reports, tables, charts, images etc.
Using a computer network, it is also possible to organise virtual meeting among people who
are far away from each other and this is called video conferencing. Virtual meetings have other
applications such as in Distance education, getting medical opinions from distant specialists
(remote diagnosis) etc. Multimedia communication can also be used for tele training.
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Type of client /server architecture are:-
1.9.1.1 Non-client/server
In non-client/server architecture, the server is nothing more than a remote disk drive.
The users machine does all the processing. If, many users routinely perform lengthy searches,
this can bog down the network, because each client has to pass the entire database over the net.
At 1,000 bytes per record, a 10,000 record database requires 10MB of data be transmitted.
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A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most important of these are
performance, reliability, and security.
1.10.1 Performance
Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and response time.
Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one device to another.
Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response. The performance of a
network depends on a number of factors, including the number of users, the type of transmission
medium, the capabilities of the connected hardware, and the efficiency of the software.
Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics: throughput and delay. We often
need more throughput and less delay. However, these two criteria are often contradictory. If we
try to send more data to the network, we may increase throughput but we increase the delay
because of traffic congestion in the network.
1.10.2 Reliability
In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by the frequency of failure,
the time it takes a link to recover from a failure, and the network's robustness in a catastrophe.
1.10.3 Security
Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting data from
damage and development, and implementing policies and procedures for recovery from breaches
and data losses.
1.11.1 Resource Sharing: The main aim of a computer network is to make all programs,
equipment, and data available to anyone on the network without regard to the physical location
of the resource and the user. Users need to share resources other than files, as well. A common
example being printers. Printers are utilised only a small percentage of the time; therefore,
companies dont want to invest in a printer for each computer. Networks can be used in this
situation to allow all the users to have access to any of the available printers.
1.11.2 High Reliability: Computer networks provide high reliability by having alternative
sources of supply. For example, all files could be replicated on two or three machines, so, if one
of them is unavailable (due to hardware failure), the other copies could be used. In addition, the
presence of multiple CPUs means that if one goes down, the others may be able to take over its
work, although at reduced performance. For military, banking, air traffic control, nuclear reactor
safety, and many other applications, the ability to continue operating in the face of hardware
problems is of utmost importance.
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1.11.3 Saving Money: Small computers have a much better price/performance ratio than larger
ones. Mainframes are roughly a factor of ten faster than personal computers but they cost much
more. This imbalance has caused many systems designers to build systems consisting of personal
computers, one per user, with data kept on one or more shared file server machines. In this
model, the users are called clients, and the whole arrangement is called the client-server model.
Scalability: The ability to increase the system performance gradually as the workload grows just
by adding more processors. With centralized mainframes, when a system is full, it must be
replaced by a larger one, usually at great expense and even greater disruption to the users. With
client-server model, new clients and new servers can be added when needed.
1.11.5 Increased Productivity: Networks increase productivity as several people can enter data
at the same time, but they can also evaluate and process the shared data. So, one person can
handle accounts receivable, and someone else processes the profit-and-loss statements
(i) Connection establishment: In connection oriented services, before transmitting data, the
sending device must first determine the availability of the other to exchange data and a
connection must be established by which data can be sent. Connection establishment requires
three steps.
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These are:
a) First the sender computer requests the connection by sending a connection request packet to
the intended receiver.
(b) Then the receiver computer returns a confirmation packet to the requesting computer.
(c) Finally, the sender computer returns a packet acknowledging the confirmation.
(ii) Data transfer: After the connection gets established, the sender starts sending data packets
to the receiver.
(iii) Connection termination: After all the data gets transferred, the connection has to be
terminated. Connection termination also requires a three-way handshake i.e.,
(a) First, the sender computer requests disconnection by sending a disconnection request packet.
(b) Then, the receiver computer confirms the disconnection request.
(c) Finally, the sender computer returns a packet acknowledging the confirmation.
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Fig 1.18 show circuit switched network
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Fig 1.19 shows the datagram network with four routers.
In this example, all four packets (or datagrams) belong to the same message, but may travel
different paths to reach their destination. This is so because the links may be involved in carrying
packets from other sources and do not have the necessary bandwidth available to carry all the
packets from A to X. This approach can cause the datagrams of a transmission to arrive at their
destination out of order with different delays between the packets. Packets may also be lost or
dropped because of a lack of resources. In most protocols A virtual-circuit network is a cross
between a circuit-switched network and a datagram network. It has some characteristics of both.
As in a circuit-switched network, there are setup and teardown phases in addition to the
data transfer phase.
Resources can be allocated during the setup phase, as in a circuit-switched network, or on
demand, as in a datagram network.
As in a circuit-switched network, all packets follow the same path established during the
connection.
A virtual-circuit network is normally implemented in the data link layer, while a circuit
network is implemented in the physical layer and a datagram network in the
network layer. But this may change in the future.
1.13.1.1 Hub
It simply broadcast the signal to all device it is connected.
This is the simplest in the family of network connecting devices since it connects the LAN
components with identical protocols. It can be used to switch both digital and analog data. In
each node, pre-setting must be done to prepare for the formatting of the incoming data. For
example, if the incoming data is in digital format, the hub must pass it on as packets; however, if
the incoming data is analog, then the hub passes as a signal. There are two types of hubs: simple
and multiple port hubs, as shown in Figs. 1.20 and 1.21. Multiple ports hubs may support more
than one computer up to its number of ports and may be used to plan for the network expansion
as more computers are added at a later time.
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Fig 1.21 Multi-ported hubs.
Network hubs are designed to work with network adapters and cables and can typically run at
either 10 Mbps or 100 Mbps; some hubs can run at both speeds. To connect computers with
differing speeds, it is better to use hubs that run at both speeds 10/100 Mbps.
In Hub all the traffic on a port is visible on every other port and the bandwidth of the device is
shared amongst all the ports (Broadcasting of signal as shown Fig 1.22). A heavy transfer from
port X to Y will slow down a simultaneous transfer from A to B.
1.13.1.2 A Repeater
A network repeater is a low-level local communication device at the physical layer of the
network that receives network signals, amplifies them to restore them to full strength, and then
re-transmits them to another node in the network.
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Repeaters are used in a network for several purposes including countering the attenuation that
occurs when signals travel long distances, and extending the length of the LAN above the
specified maximum. Since they work at the lowest network stack layer, they are less intelligent
than their counterparts such as bridges, switches, routers, and gateways in the upper layers of the
network stack. See Fig.
1.13.1.3 A Bridge
A bridge is like a repeater but differs in that a repeater amplifies electrical signals because it is
deployed at the physical layer; a bridge is deployed at the data link and therefore amplifies
digital signals. It digitally copies frames. It permits frames from one part of a LAN or a different
LAN with different technology to move to another part or another LAN. However, in filtering
and isolating a frame from one network to another or another part of the same network, the
bridge will not move a damaged frame from one end of the network to the other. As it filters the
data packets, the bridge makes no modifications to the format and content of the incoming data.
A bridge filters the frames to determine whether a frame should be forwarded or dropped. All
noise (collisions, faulty wiring, power surges, etc.) packets are not transmitted.
The bridge filters and forwards frames on the network using a dynamic bridge table. The bridge
table, which is initially empty, maintains the LAN addresses for each computer in the LAN and
the addresses of each bridge interface that connects the LAN to other LANs. Bridges, like hubs,
can be either simple or multi-ported. Figure 1.24 shows a simple bridge, Fig. 1.25 shows a multi-
ported bridge, and Fig. 1.26 shows the position of the bridge in an OSI protocol stack
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Fig 1.25 Multi-ported bridge
Fig 1.26 shows the position of the bridge in an OSI protocol stack
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1.13.1.4 A Switch
A switch is a network device that connects segments of a network or two small networks such as
Ethernet or token ring LANs. Like the bridge, it also filters and forwards frames on the network
with the help of a dynamic table. This point-to- point approach allows the switch to connect
multiple pairs of segments at a time, allowing more than one computer to transmit data at a time,
thus giving them a high performance over their cousins, the bridges.
Traffic between two ports isnt visible on any other port in Switch .The full bandwidth of the
device is available to every port (Fig 1.27 ). For example, if you have a 100Mb/s switch, you can
transfer at 100Mb/s from port X to Y, and separately, at 100Mb/s from port A to B, and at
100Mb/s from Q to R as well. In fact, if your switch is full-duplex, you may even be able to
transfer at 100Mb/s from B to A simultaneously with 100Mb from A to B. (When we upgraded
from a 10Mb/s hub to a 100Mb/s switch, the time to update a particular file over the LAN
reduced from 250 seconds to 11!)
The layer-2 device then puts the source hardware address in a filter table and keeps track
of which port it was received on. This tells the switch where that device is located.
After a filter table is built on the layer-2 device, the device will only forward frames to the
segment where the destination hardware address is located. If the destination device is on the
same segment as the frame, the layer-2 device will block the frame from going to any other
segments. If the destination is on another segment, the frame is only transmitted to that segment.
This is called transparent bridging.
When a layer-2 device (switch) interface receives a frame and the destination hardware address
is unknown to the devices filter table, it will forward the frame to all connected segments. If the
unknown device replies to this forwarding of the frame, the switch updates the filter table on that
devices location. However, the destination address of the transmitting frame may be a broadcast
address, in which case the switch will forward all broadcasts to every connected segment by
default.
Internetworking devices connect together smaller networks, like several LANs creating much
larger networks such as the Internet. Let us look at two of these connectors: the router and the
gateway.
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1.13.2.1 Routers
Routers are general purpose devices that interconnect two or more heterogeneous networks
represented by IP subnets or unnumbered point to point lines. Router consists of routing table
which contain IP address of each interface so that it can transfer packets from one network to
another. Router does routing by using routing protocols like RIP etc. Fig 1.28 show router in OSI
model
1.13.2.2 Gateways
Gateways are more versatile devices than routers. They perform protocol conversion between
different types of networks, architectures, or applications and serve as translators and interpreters
for network computers that communicate in different protocols and operate in dissimilar
networks, for example, OSI and TCP/IP.
Because the networks are different with different technologies, each network has its own routing
algorithms, protocols, domain names servers, and network administration procedures and
policies.
Gateways perform all of the functions of a router and more. The gateway functionality that does
the translation between different network technologies and algorithms is called a protocol
converter. Fig 1.29 shows the position of a gateway in a network.
Gateways services include packet format and/or size conversion, protocol conversion, data
translation, terminal emulation, and multiplexing. Since gateways perform a more complicated
task of protocol conversion, they operate more slowly and handle fewer devices.
Let us now see how a packet can be routed through a gateway or several gateways before it
reaches its destination. We have seen that if a router gets a datagram, it checks the destination
address and finds that it is not on the local network. It, therefore, sends it to the default gateway.
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The default gateway now searches its table for the destination address. In case the default
gateway recognizes that the destination address is not on any of the networks it is connected to
directly, it has to find yet another gateway to forward it through.
The routing information the server uses for this is in a gateway routing table linking networks
to gateways that reach them. The table starts with the network entry 0.0.0.0, a catch-all entry, for
default routes. All packets to an unknown network are sent through the default route.
The choice between a router, a bridge, and a gateway is a balance between functionality and
speed. Gateways, as we have indicated, perform a variety of functions; however, because of this
variety of functions, gateways may become bottlenecks within a network because they are slow.
Routing tables may be built either manually for small LANs or by using software called routing
daemons for larger networks.
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Table 1.3 show comparison between Datagram subnet and Virtual circuit subnet
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Table 1.4 show comparison between Client/Server and Peer to Peer architecture
Table 1.5 show comparison between Star Topology and Tree Topology
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