ee Virtual SHIES & Aviation Navigation Main Menu Tutorial Take Control__—YouDecide _—_Cerfiication Introduction | Basic Navigation | Radio Navigaton | Advanced Navigation | Measurement | Calculations | Aeronautical Charts Reading a Sectional Chart | Aiways | Separation of Ar Traffic and Rules | Aight Planning | Conclusion Calculations Ar Speod / Ground Speed — Taking a 60 mile long road tip by car, the drivers faidy sure that ifthe ‘average speed is 60 miles per hour (mph) forthe Lip, then itwill probably ‘ake approximately one hour for the bip (60/60 = 1). This would notbe as Certain with an airplane because of wind. An alrplane's speed can be grealy fenhanced or diminished by te wind. This is the reason for the consideraton 0f2 speeds: ground speed and airspeed. Ground speed is the speed at hich an airplane is moving with respect the ground, Airspeed is the speed of an airplane in relation tothe air (Think of airspeed as tne speed at torn hich its propulsion system is set to move italong } fan airplane is Tying withthe wind then its ground speed willbe enhanced. That means its ground speed willbe fasier than ils airspeed. fan airplane is fying against the wind then its ground speed wil be reduced. That moans its ground speed willbe slower than its airspeed. an airplane is fying tough stl aie {air with no measurable wind), then is ground speed and airspeed will be the same. Look atthe picture at lft ‘itoring 20 espe our emg 2853 ‘og oe pr our Se See Vectors ‘The term 'veclor"is used to describe a course flown by an aieraf. Plots ask for and air afc controllers issue a heading ora "vector". A \ecior uantiy tepresenis something thathas magnitude and direction, Velocity is an example ofa vector quantity. When fying, the pilat heeds to know the aircrafts speed and ditecion. These combine la form a vector that represents velaclty. Vectors are represented on ‘graph using a line segment drawn to seale to show the magnitude (in this case the aiterafts speed). An arrow is placed atte terminal point to indicate the direction ofthe course. The arcow also diferentates the inital point (starting point rom the opposite end (terminal point Vectors represented on a graph withthe same length and direction are considered to be equal Using vector addition you can compute the result of wo forces that are applied atthe same time to an object. Vector addition is used to solve navigation problems when airplanes fy through maving air. The result of vecor adsiion depends on both the speed and direction of {an aircrafts course as wells the wind vector, Inthe example below, we will consider the effects of the force ofan airplane anc the force of the wind. Vectors can be represented geometicaly using a coordinate system. N For yoars, pilots have loarned to solve wind correction problems graphically by ploting the vectors using paper, ruler, and protractor. Lets take a look atan example. Imagine an aircratis fying with a heading of 5 degrees and a speed of 100 knots. A 20-knot win is blowing due south What wll be the aircrafts groundspeed anc course? We can plotthe velocity through the air as a vector with the length ofthe vector indicating the airspaed and the angle ofthe vector (measured from north) as the headingN ‘Now imagine that the aircrafts fying through a wind blowing due south at 20 knots. We can plot this as a vector with a length corresponding to 20 knots and pointing stright down. Since we wantto add these two vectors. 0 together, plot the wind vector so that its tailis atthe head of the heading veer 70 20 knots/hour 50 2» ‘Speed (knots/hour) N Te sumofthose wo vectors wilave the arts ection and speed across the ground. You can simply draw the new vector running from the tallof he heading vector tothe head ofthe wind vector, Is direction can be ‘measured with a protractor, ana the speed can be determined by measuring he length ofthe vector witha ruler. In his case, we measure a groundspeed of about 85 knots and course of about 85 degrees. you know come trigonometry, you can quickly and accurately ole this problem withoutany drawing or measuring, We know that there sa 45- {degree angle between ourheading and the direction of the wing, We can ‘combine this wih the airspeed and windspeed and the law of cosines to find our groundspeed, Ifyou know some trigonometry, you can quickly and accurately sole this problem without any drawing or measuring. We know thatthere isa 45- ogres angle batween our heading and the direction of he wind. We can ‘combine this wit the airspeed and windspeed and te law of cosines to find our groundspeed. =a? +b?- 2abjeosC)e c= 100" +20. 2(100)20Kc0s45) o=a7 Now that we know our groundspeed, we can use the law of snes to calculate how many dagrees we will have to add to aur heading ta ot our course across the ground, sin B=b (sin Ce sin B= 20 (sin 45/87 B=94 degrees ‘Adding this angle lo our heading gives a course of 54.4 degrees.Flight Distance Calculating fight distance on an seronautical charts perhaps simpler than planning a driving route on a road map. On the aeronautical chartlocate your departure and destination airpors. Using a series of straight ines, plot a course from the departure point tothe destination point bearing in mind the folowing + Flight ostictons for your airraf altitude, fuel tank sizo) + Physical obstructions (such as heights of buildings, towers, mountains, mountain passes) + Ober restlctons (euch as restcted alrspace, restcted airways, assigned airways) ‘Aeronautical charts usually uso asa scale of 1:500,000 (or somotimos writen 1/500,000). This moans that 1 single uniton the chart (which could be inch, foot yard, statute mile, nautcal mile or kilometer) epresents 500,000 of hat same uniton te ground. So, iftve aeronautical chart uses inches, then * inch on the chart equals $00,000 inches on the Earth. Check elsewhere onthe chart to see the conversion scale ofchartaistance to statute or nautical miles. The smaller the scale ofthe chart the less the detall can be shown on the chart. ith chart measurements being equal, 1:250,000 scale will provide greater detall han a chart with a scale ofa 1:1,000,000 because the fist chart will covera smaller amauntof area. Using the conversion scale as indicated on the aeronautical char, calculate the total number of miles tobe flown by muliplying he total number of inenes measured by scale of miles to inches, Flight Time Flight time indicates the actual ime an aireaftis inthe ale fying rom is departure polntto is destination point. The computed fight time is a simple equation of T = DIS or Time equals Distance divided by Speed. Convert te decimal answer io our 60-minutesto-an-hour and the fighttime will be expressed in hours and minutes. Lets say for example, hata plot will fy a small Cessna airerafa distance of 580 miles. ‘The airplane will have an average airspeed of 130 miles per hour maving wth the wind which is blowing at 30 mph. How lang will the fight take? Take the total number of miles and divide itby the ground speed (airspeed + or -wind speed). The quotient wil give the pilot he fight time, Doing tre calculation: 560 /(130 + 30) = $60 /160 = 3.5, Since there are 60 minutes in an hour, the decimal 5 will need to be converted to our 60-minutaso-an-hour clock, To do that, take the answer 3.5 and convert as shawn below'3.5 = 3+ (5 x60 minutes 20.0 = 3 hours and 30 minutes What ihe pilot in the example above is fing agains! the wind? Caleulaling fight time would look like this '560/ (130-30) = 860/100 = 5.8 Then conver! te answer o minutes:5.6 = 5 + (6 x60 minutes) = 5 +36.0= 5 hours and 36 minutes. View an animation that further explores the relationship between wind, course, and heading, Fuel Requirements ‘The plot ofthe aireaft makes the decision of how much fuel cary based upon the following information: « Kirra operations handbook’s specifications fr fuel consumption, weight and balance + Payload weight (cargo, baggage and passengers) + Weight of uel (number of gallons x6 pounds = total weight of uel in pounds) + Weather and winds + Total distance of fight + Average fight speed + Number of miles per gallon averaged by the aireraft carrying the weight for his fight “Typically there i @ legal minimum fue iit that irra must folow when determining how much fue o pump into the tanks. The ‘minimum amount of Kiel required needs to be abe to fuel the following + the aircraft from ts departure sirportio its destination sirportincluding + being ble fo cary outan approach and go-around and + flying to an altemateairportnearby (in case there Is weather impediments atthe scheduled destination airport) + plus the abiliy to fly a 30-minute, holding pattem above the altemate airport + land and tox to the gate To calculate the amount of uel needed fora fight, the pilot uses the following equation: Fuel Flow (gallons per hour)x Time = Fuel Consumed The pilot uses charts found inthe aircraft operation handbook that provides Information about the miles per gallon ofthe alcrat atcertain weights. The weight ofthe fuel is calculated by taking te total numberof gallons and multiplying itby 6 pounds. One gallon of fuel weighs 6 pounds, This is usually fgured into the chars found inthe handbook. Once the plat knows the aircrafts fuel consumption rate for the weightbeing fown and the fight tme, the pilotcan compute the fuel needed forthe fight Look atthe example below.8.5 gph (uel consumption rate) x 1:40 (fight ime in hoursfminutes) need to make sure that at least 14.2 gallons of fuel are pumped into the fuel tanks fortis figh 14.2 gallons The pilot ofthis aircrat wil Fuel Consumption How much and how fastan aircraft uses fuel is known as fuel consumpiion. The same calculation used for determining a car's uel ‘consumption is also used for an aircraft with additonal consideration forthe weight of the payload (passengers andior cargo). All alrcrah have an operator's manual that gives specifcatons such as fuel consumption at ciferent payload weights and fuel amounts, Remember the weight ofthe fuel also needs to fgure into the equation! For example, les say a small aircrafhas a speed range of 120-170 mph and holds upto 40 gallons of uel. Lets say that according tothe aircrafts specifications a full payload and fuel weight he aircraft uses 10 gallons of fel per hour. Take the total amount of fuel (40 gallons) ane divide tha by the numberof gallons used per hour (10) and you wil find tat the aircraft could be flown for 4 hours. Remember tata good pilot wll never ly on fumes, and would slop for re-ueling long before the 4 hours are up. Now les say thatthe same aieratis flying with a fll tank of fuel, but only halfits full payload weight. According o te fuel consumption specifications fortis airrat it will use 8 gallons of fuel per hour. How long will tae able to ly? Do the math: 40 gallons divided by 8 gallons per hour will provide a litle over hours of Righttime,True North / Magnetic North All aeronautical chars are drawn using True North. Al airport runways, however, are marked by their magnetic compass directions o the nearest 10°. Runway 6-23 alan aiportis a Northeast - Southwest runway. tmeans fan airplane lands from the SW heading NE on runway 5 the magnetic compass in the airplane would be showing about 060" for the heading. The diference between the magnetic direction and the tue diracton is called the magnetic variaton. All aeronautical charts show the magnet variation. ‘easterly variation Weaterly varalion iy alone Si To convert fom a rue to magnetic direction many pilots use the saying "Eastis least, Wests bes," This serves as a reminder that one subtracts an ps eastward variation from the tue course to get the magnetic course, Ee Inversely, one adds @ westward magnetic variation to the true course o get the magnetic course. For example, ifthe magnetic varaion is 18 degrees 30 minutes East, aftr ploting one's tue course, the magnetic course ‘a WOuld be the tue course minus 15 degrees § minutes. Pitot also use the saying "North lags and the soutn leads." This serves to remina plots thatif he or she turns the airplane fom a northerly course the compass frst Indicates a turn in the opposite direction, tren lags behing the actual compass heading, This means that when apilotrols out of turn to a diferentheading, one must all out Before te compass reads that desired rd heading. Otherwise the new heading willbe a few degrees more than desired (which would eventually ead one way offcourse). When turning from a southerly heading the compass leads inal, tren shows the desired heading before actualy reaching that heading, ‘Another compass errors caused when the aleplane is accelerated. The compass indicates a tum to the north. When the arplane ecelerates, the compass indicates a tur to the south. From this comes the pilot saying: "Accelerate north, decelerate south” Pilots and air trac contolers need to be aware of such variatons, so as lo maintain a proper course atl imes. At many airparts the compass variation can be significant. In Anchorage, AK the variation is 25° East while in Dallas, TXtho variation is 6° East Howover, Nastwille, TN tre variation is only 1° West 4 | Proview Top sot