COLLECTING PRIMARY DATA

THROUGH OBSERVATION
Sofia Fernandes
HOW TO COLLECT DATA?
There are three main ways to collect primary data:
observation
interviews
questionnaires

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OBSERVATION
If the research question(s) and objetive(s) are concerned with
what people do, then the most obvious way to studying it is
by observing people.
It is the systematic observation, recording, description,
analysis and interpretation of peoples behaviour
There are two types:
Participant Observation: qualitative data; discovering the
meanings that people attach to their actions;
Structured Observation: quantitative data; concerned with
the frequency of actions.

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PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
The researcher attempts to participate fully in the lives and
activities of subject, by becoming a member of their group,
organisation or community.
It has its roots in social anthropology.
Though not very used in business and management research,
it is a valuable tool which can be used also in combination
with other methods.
In Participant Observation, the objective is to have an insight
into the meaning of the actions and behaviour of a certain
group.

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PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
The researcher can assume dierent roles, depending on
whether he informs the others of his purpose. The researcher
can therefore become a part of the group without informing
the other members, or the researcher can reveal his true
purpose
Not informing the participants of the researchers purpose
can present ethical issues

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PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION

As presented in: Saunders et al (2009) 6

STRUCTURED OBSERVATION
It is one of the data collection techniques that can be used in Surveys.
Remember:
Survey is one of the Research Strategies, which include also: Case
Study, Experiment, Action Research, Grounded Theory,
Ethnographic Studies and Archival Research.
Survey is usually associated with the Deductive Approach
(Theory Testing), which is when a theory and hypothesis are
developed in the beginning, and the research strategy will consist of
testing the hypothesis to confirm or refute them.
Other strategies can also be associated with the other approach:
Inductive Approach (Theory Building), in which there is no theory
in the beginning, meaning the data are collected and a theory is
developed by analysing the data.
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STRUCTURED OBSERVATION
Structured observation is systematic and has a high level of
predetermined structure.
The main concern is to quantify behaviour.
Its function is to tell you how often things happen rather than
why they happen.
Besides the direct observation, it is possible to do indirect
observation. For example, online retailers can use indirect
observation to track the search patterns of the potential
customers and find out their buying behaviour.

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STRUCTURED OBSERVATION - EXAMPLE 1 - STAFF BEHAVIOUR AT A RESTAURANT

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As presented in: Saunders et al (2009)
STRUCTURED OBSERVATION - EXAMPLE 2 - BEHAVIOUR IN GROUPS

Saunders et al (2009)
STRUCTURED OBSERVATION - EXAMPLE 3 - EXERCISE
If you were to do research on the behaviour of students with
high grades in a classroom, what actions would you observe?

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STRUCTURED OBSERVATION - ADVANTAGES
It can be used by anyone after suitable training in the use of the measuring
instrument, making it possible for the researcher to delegate this extremely
time-consuming task.
Structured observation may be carried out simultaneously in dierent locations.
This would present the opportunity of comparison between locations.
It should produce highly reliable results by virtue of its replicability: the easier
the observation instrument to use and understand, the more reliable the results
will be.
It is capable of more than simply observing the frequency of events. It is also
possible to record the relationship between events.
The method allows the collection of data at the time they occur in their natural
setting. Therefore, there is no need to depend on second-hand accounts of
phenomena from respondents who put their own interpretation on events.
Structured observation secures information that most participants would ignore
because to them it was too mundane or irrelevant. 12
STRUCTURED OBSERVATION - DISADVANTAGES
The observer must be in the research setting when the
phenomena under study are taking place.
Research results are limited to visible actions from which the
observer must make inferences.
Data are slow and expensive to collect.

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STRUCTURED OBSERVATION - POSSIBLE THREATS TO DATA RELIABILITY

Subject error: if the participants being studied are not acting

under normal conditions. For exemple, observing sta in
departments that are temporarily understaed.
Time error: the behaviour changes throughout the day. For
example, the sta behaviour in a restaurant is dierent if it is
lunch time or the middle of the afternoon.
Observer eect: the person being observed is aware of the
structured observation, therefore changes his or her behaviour.

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CONCLUSION
Participant observation is a method in which the researcher
participates in the lives and activities of the participantes. It is
used to attempt to get to the root of what is going on in a
wide range of social settings.
Participant observation means that the researcher adopts a
number of potential roles.
Structured observation is concerned with the frequency of
events. It is characterised by a high level of predetermined
structure and quantitative analysis.
The main threats to reliability and validity inherent in
structured observation are subject error, time error and
observer eects.
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