Energy and Buildings 128 (2016) 511518

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy and Buildings

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enbuild

Comparison of the overall energy performance of semi-transparent

photovoltaic windows and common energy-efcient windows in
Hong Kong
Weilong Zhang a , Lin Lu a, , Jinqing Peng a,b , Aotian Song a
a
Renewable Energy Research Group (RERG), Department of Building Services Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China
b
College of Civil Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, Hunan, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Semi-transparent photovoltaic (STPV) windows, which can not only admit daylight into space but also
Received 9 March 2016 generate electricity, have been widely used as a part of building components in recent years. This paper
Received in revised form 23 May 2016 compares the overall energy performance between STPV windows and commonly used energy-efcient
Accepted 5 July 2016
windows, viz. double-pane and Low-E windows, in Hong Kong. A new type of see-through amorphous
Available online 7 July 2016
silicon (a-Si) photovoltaic (PV) module was adopted, and this PV module has higher efciency compared
with other commercialized a-Si PV modules with the same visible transmittance. First, a series of testing
Keywords:
were carried out to get the technical parameters of this PV module. Second, the simulation models were
Semi-transparent photovoltaic (STPV)
window
developed theoretically, and power, thermal and daylighting performance of different windows were
Comparative study analyzed by EnergyPlus accordingly together with the input weather data of typical meteorological year
Energy performance (TMY) in Hong Kong. Then, based on the simulated energy uses of the air-conditioning and the articial
Optimum orientation lighting of the room, as well as the power generation of the STPV windows themselves, the overall energy
performance was evaluated. The results indicate that STPV glazing can save up to 18% and 16% total
electricity per year respectively in comparison with the clear single and double-pane glazings in cooling
dominated areas like Hong Kong. The overall energy performance of Low-E glazing and STPV glazing is
very close to each other, which means that STPV glazing is quite energy-efcient. In Hong Kong, southwest
is the best orientation for power generation for STPV windows and south is the optimum orientation for
STPV window installation in terms of achieving the best overall energy performance.
2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction many researchers have studied the performance of STPV windows

In 2012, approximately 90% of electricity consumption was
spent in buildings in Hong Kong [1]. Among various types of build-
ing energy end-uses, space conditioning and lighting are two main
sectors. About 44% of residential electricity and 45% of commer-
cial electricity were consumed by space conditioning and lighting
in the year 2012 [2]. Windows play a vital role in modern build-
ings because they will affect not only the aesthetics, but also
heating/cooling loads as well as the articial lighting of the build-
ing [3,4]. During the last few years, semi-transparent photovoltaic
(STPV) windows, which not only have the characteristics of conven-
tional glazing but also can generate electricity in situ as well, have
been widely used as a part of building components [58]. Therefore,
Corresponding authors.
E-mail address: vivien.lu@polyu.edu.hk (L. Lu).
using both experimental and simulation methods [920].
Miyazaki et al. [21] investigated the energy performance of
STPV windows for an ofce building in Tokyo. The best solar cell
transmittance and window-to-wall ratio (WWR) for all window
orientations with the lighting control were given. Li et al. [22]
conducted eld measurements and simulation studies of a-Si PV
modules. It was found that with dimming controls, STPV panels
could decrease the annual electricity and peak cooling load of the
building by 1203 MWh and by 450 kW, respectively. Lu et al. [23]
evaluated the overall energy performance of STPV window for a
typical ofce in Hong Kong. A number of simulation models includ-
ing power generation model, thermal balance model and indoor
daylighting illuminance model were developed. It was found that
it was able to reduce approximately 65% of total heat gain all the
year round to use STPV window instead of clear glass and southeast
was the optimal orientation regarding overall electricity benets.
Ng et al. [24] conducted research on energy saving potential of STPV

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2016.07.016
0378-7788/ 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
512 W. Zhang et al. / Energy and Buildings 128 (2016) 511518

windows in Singapore. PV windows and other commonly used glaz-

ing were compared in terms of total electricity consumption. It
was found that PV windows performed the best among all types
of windows.
Fung and Yang [25] introduced a heat gain model for STPV glaz-
ing in Hong Kong. Annual total heat gains through STPV glazing
were obtained via this model and the results showed that heat gains
through the STPV glazing were mainly from the solar heat gain and
southwest provided the most heat gains among different orienta-
tions. In Brazil, Didone and Wagner [26] demonstrated that STPV
windows had signicant potential for reducing lighting and cool-
ing energy based on simulation. Olivieri et al. [27] evaluated the
energy saving potential of STPV glazing in Spain. Compared to the
traditional glass, STPV glazing was able to achieve from 19% to 59%
of energy saving. Xu et al. [28] investigated the optimum cell cover-
age ratio of STPV glazing in central China. Results showed that the
change of cell coverage ratio of STPV glazing could not only inu-
ence the electricity generation, but also have a considerable impact
on the electricity consumption of a room. Fig. 1. A generic representative model in case study.
Although considerable research on STPV windows has been
devoted to their thermal performance, rather less attention has
been paid to comparing the overall energy performance between adopted in this paper. Compared with other commercial a-Si
the latest STPV windows and other common energy-efcient win- thin-lm PV modules, the efciency of this PV module is higher
dows in building industry. In general, the thermal, daylighting and (5.9%) considering its high transmittance (20%) under current tech-
power generation performances are closely integrated into the nological level for a-Si [35]. The dimension of this PV module
overall energy analysis. As a typical cooling dominated city, Hong was 0.635 m (width) 1.245 m (height) 0.0097 m (thickness). The
Kong owns abundant sunshine. Therefore, this paper compares the optical characteristics, thermal infrared emissivity and thermal
overall energy performance of STPV windows and commonly used conductivity of STPV glazing were measured by a spectrometer,
energy-efcient windows in Hong Kong. an emissometer and a thermal conductivity measurement instru-
ment, respectively. These measured parameters were imported
into Optics [36] for analyzing optical properties of STPV glazing
2. Methodology and creating a le. The le was then input into the WINDOW pro-
gram, and nally a spectral data le of STPV glazing was created by
In this paper, a new kind of see-through amorphous silicon (a- this software and the properties of STPV glazing was obtained, as
Si) photovoltaic (PV) module and two common energy-efcient shown in Table 1.
glazing, viz. double-pane glazing and Low-E glazing, were chosen Double-pane glazing and Low-E glazing are two kinds of com-
for comparison. Firstly, a series of testing were carried out to get monly used glazing materials for energy-efcient windows in
related technical parameters of this PV module. Then, a case study building industry. Thus they are adopted for comparison in this
was conducted, and thermal balance model, daylighting model and study. Double-pane glazing is made up of two 5.7 mm generic clear
power generation model were developed. With simulation soft- glass. The Low-E glazing applied here is the Solarban 70XL Starphire
ware, power generation, thermal and daylighting of an ofce room manufactured by PPG industries [37]. It is worth noting that in
with differently installed windows were simulated. Finally, overall cooling dominated ofces in subtropical cities like Hong Kong, it is
energy performance was obtained based on electricity consump- better to apply Low-E coating on the internal surface of outer layer
tion from air-conditioning and articial lighting of the ofce room of a glass unit due to its lower solar heat gain coefcient (SHGC),
as well as electricity generation from STPV windows. Based on the compared with the glass unit which applying Low-E coating on the
simulation results, the performance of different windows installed external surface of inner layer [38]. The air cavity space of double-
in various orientations was compared and the optimum window pane windows here is 12.7 mm. The single-pane generic clear glass
installation orientation was recommended in Hong Kong. is also included as a base model. Table 1 also lists the key properties
Two types of professional software Berkeley Lab WINDOW and of glazing adopted in this study from the glazing system library in
EnergyPlus were used in combination to investigate the overall Berkeley Lab WINDOW.
performance of different windows. Berkeley Lab WINDOW is a
software for analyzing the thermal and optical performance of win-
2.2. Description of case studysimulation model
dows made from any combination of glazing layers and gas layers
and it also provides a directly accessible glazing system library [29].
Since this study mainly focuses on the overall energy perfor-
EnergyPlus is a building energy simulation software, which can
mance of different windows, it is not necessary to conduct the
simulate transient heat conduction, daylighting controls, on-site
simulation of a detailed whole building. A generic representative
renewable power system and so on [30]. The results of Energy-
model for Hong Kong ofce rooms was dened for simulation, as
Plus have been validated by previous studies [3133]. Berkeley Lab
shown in Fig. 1. The dimension of the chamber was 2.3 m 3.0 m,
WINDOW offers a link to EnergyPlus so that the spectral data les
and 2.5 m in height. The generic model had only one wall exposed
of different glazing from Berkeley Lab WINDOW could be imported
to the external environment while other surfaces were assumed to
directly into EnergyPlus for simulation.
separate thermal zones with the same conditions. Three identical
windows were installed on the exterior wall. To facilitate the com-
2.1. Properties of glazing materials parison, the size of each window was the same as the PV glazing, so
the WWR was then 0.41. The properties of the building envelopes
A new kind of PV module laminated with see-through a-Si were based on the local standard [39]. An air-conditioning system
solar cells produced by Hanergy Holding Group Limited [34] was was employed in this study and its coefcient of performance (COP)
 W. Zhang et al. / Energy and Buildings 128 (2016) 511518 513

Table 1
Properties of different glazing.

Glazing type Thickness (mm) Visible transmittance Solar transmittance U-value (W/m2 K) SHGC

STPV glazing 9.7 0.153 0.268 5.497 0.471

Clear single glazing 5.7 0.884 0.771 5.818 0.818
Double-pane glazing 24.1 0.786 0.607 2.689 0.704
Low-E glazing 24.1 0.638 0.245 1.618 0.275

Table 2
Key parameters of the STPV glazing.

Parameters Value

Fig. 2. Flowchart of the modeling approach.
was set to be 2.78 [40] so that the electricity consumption of the
air-conditioning system can be obtained. Weather data le of the
typical meteorological year (TMY) in Hong Kong was adopted for
the location and climate [41]. Simulations were also carried out for
different orientations.
2.3. Modeling approach
A comprehensive simulation model was developed to simulate
the electricity consumption of the ofce room that equipped with
different types of windows as well as electricity generation of STPV
windows. The sub-models included thermal balance model, day-
lighting model and power generation model. After obtaining the
simulation results of each model, the overall energy performance of
different windows could be investigated. The owchart of modeling
approach is shown in Fig. 2.
Heat balance method was used in EnergyPlus to obtain the cool-
ing loads of the ofce room. All heat transfer components were
considered in this method [30]. According to the law of energy
conservation, solar energy absorbed by STPV windows is converted
into both electricity and heat, where the heat transfer balance was
changed. Thus, the Integrated Surface Outside Face was adopted
for determining the cell temperature of STPV windows so as to
couple the heat transfer and energy balance.
Although the transmittance of different types of windows had
been obtained, it is also necessary to study its inuence on indoor
lighting energy use. The daylighting model was employed to sim-
ulate the daylighting performance of different windows so that
different types of windows inuence on the light energy use could
be compared. The daylight illuminance reference point was speci-
ed to be 1 m above the oor in the middle of the room [30]. After
the determination of the nal daylight illuminance value, the insuf-
cient illuminance would be supplied by electric lighting to meet
this value. The nal daylight illuminance value of reference point
was set to be 300 lx [42]. Continuous dimming control was adopted
as the control strategy.
Apart from simulating the thermal and daylighting perfor-
mances, EnergyPlus can also predict the power generation of STPV
windows. In this study, Sandia Array Performance Model (SAPM)
was adopted due to its versatility and accuracy for different types
of solar cells particularly for the thin-lm ones [20]. However, since
SAPM is empirically based, a series of indoor and outdoor test-
ing was carried out to determine the parameters of STPV glazing
required by SAPM.
Active area, A (m )
2
0.79
Number of cells in series, Ns 39
Number of cells in parallel, Np 1
Short circuit current, Isc (A) 1.41
Open circuit voltage, Voc (V) 58.6
Current at the maximum power point, Imp , (A) 1.1
Voltage at the maximum power point, Vmp (V) 42.2
Temperature coefcient of short circuit current, 0.0002
Isc (1/K)
Temperature coefcient of current at maximum 0.00005
power point, Imp (1/K)
Temperature coefcient of open circuit voltage, 0.194
Voc (1/K)
Temperature coefcient of voltage at maximum 0.15
power point, Vmp (1/K)
Module efciency,  5.9%
2.4. Parameter measurements for SAPM
Firstly, the electrical characteristics of STPV glazing were tested
in the laboratory using a solar simulator under standard test condi-
tions (STC). The temperature coefcients of the STPV glazing were
also measured by changing its operating temperature from 25 C to
55 C at an interval of 5 C. The key parameters of the STPV glazing
are listed in Table 2. Then a special outdoor test bed was established
so as to obtain the other parameters in SAPM. The STPV glazing was
mounted on a horizontal surface as shown in Fig. 3. The instruments
used in this test are listed in Table 3. The IV curve and the operat-
ing temperature of the STPV glazing as well as the solar radiation
and solar spectrum distribution were measured per minute. The
outdoor testing lasted from July to August 2015. Finally, the param-
eters required by SAPM were either measured or tted and input
into EnergyPlus for simulating the power performance of STPV glaz-
ing. The accuracy of the parameters obtained by this method was
validated in our previous study [20].
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Power performance
Fig. 4 gives information about the monthly incident solar energy
and electrical energy output of south-oriented STPV windows per
unit area in TMY in Hong Kong. The annual incident solar energy
on the south-oriented facade is approximately 673.39 kWh/m2 .
However, there is a signicant difference of incident solar energy
among different months, more in winter and less in summer. The
south-oriented vertical facade received the most and least incident
solar radiation in December and June, at about 93.35 kWh/m2 and
30.51 kWh/m2 , respectively. This is because the latitude of Hong
Kong is around 22.25 , lower than the latitude of Tropic of Cancer
(23.5 ). In summer, the vertical rays of the sun move around the
Tropic of Cancer so that the south-oriented vertical facade receives
less solar radiation. Fig. 4 also shows that the electrical energy out-
put of STPV windows is consistent with the incident solar energy
on the windows. In Hong Kong, The south-oriented STPV windows
generate more electricity in winter than that in summer. The max-
514 W. Zhang et al. / Energy and Buildings 128 (2016) 511518

Fig. 3. Outdoor test bed of PV module.

Table 3
Information of the instruments.

Instruments Manufacturer and model Sensitivity/accuracy

Pyranometer EKO instruments Sensitivity: 6.91 V/(W/m2 )

MS-802 Non-linearity < 0.2% (at 1000 W/m2 )
IV curve tracer EKO instruments 0.5% FS
MP-11
Spectrometer Avantes 2048 Wavelength range: 3001100 nm
Resolution: 0.0420 nm
Integration time: 1.11 ms10 min
Thermocouples RS components Temperature range: 50 to 400 C;
T type thermocouple] Accuracy: 0.2 C;
Datalogger Graphtec Minimum resolutions: 1 V, 0.1 C
GL820 Midi DataLogger

100 4.0
Incident solar energy on the south facade
Electrical energy output 3.5
80
Electrical energy output (kWh/m )
2
3.0
Solar energy (kWh/m )
2

2.5
60

2.0

40
1.5

1.0
20
0.5

0 0.0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Months

Fig. 4. Monthly incident solar energy and electrical energy output of south-oriented STPV windows per unit area.

imum monthly energy output is about 3.4 kWh/m2 in December the southwest-oriented facade is more suitable for STPV window
while the minimum one is around 1.1 kWh/m2 in June. The annual installation in Hong Kong in terms of electricity generation.
electric power outputs of STPV windows in different orientations
were also simulated in this study, as shown in Fig. 5. It is seen
3.2. Thermal performance
that the annual power outputs vary with orientations, and the
southwest-oriented STPV windows produce the most electricity,
Due to the relatively higher U-value of windows or glazing
at around 24.4 kWh/m2 . East is the worst orientation for electric-
facade than other building envelope components, thermal perfor-
ity generation for STPV windows, at about 20.6 kWh/m2 . Thus,
mance of windows or facades is one of the most important factors
in building energy consumption. Assuming that there is no air leak-
 W. Zhang et al. / Energy and Buildings 128 (2016) 511518 515

25.0 40

24.5 Clear single glazing

Double-pane glazing
24.0
Electrical energy output (kWh/m )

Low-E glazing
2

Window heat loss rate (W/m )

30 STPV glazing

2
23.5

23.0

22.5 20

22.0

21.5
10
21.0

20.5

20.0
E ESE SE SSE S SSW SW WSW W 0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Orientations Months

Fig. 5. Annual electrical energy outputs of STPV windows per unit area in different Fig. 7. Monthly heat loss rate of different south-oriented windows per unit area.
orientations.

90
E coating is applied on the glass. These results can be explained:
Clear single glazing (1) adopting multiple-pane glazing with air cavity will decrease
80
Double-pane glazing the U-value of windows so that the heat gain rate of double-pane
Low-E glazing
70 glazing is much lower; and (2) when solar radiation projects on
Heat gain rate of window(W/m )
2

STPV glazing
60
50
40
30
20
10
0 The monthly heat loss rate of various south-oriented windows
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun
Months
Fig. 6. Monthly heat gain rate of different south-oriented windows per unit area.
age through and around the window, windows will gain and lose
heat mainly through a combination of radiation and conduction.
Solar radiation is the main source of window heat gain because
a signicant amount of direct or indirect solar radiation is trans-
mitted or absorbed by windows. Heat transfer through conduction
mainly depends on the temperature difference between either side
of ambient air and glass.
Fig. 6 shows the monthly heat gain rate of different south-
oriented windows in Hong Kong. It is seen that the changes in heat
gain rates of different windows with the months are nearly consis-
tent. The largest heat gain rate appears in November while the least
appears in spring. This is because window heat gain through radi-
ation is typically from the sun, hence, the heat gain rate is higher if
there is more incident solar radiation on the south-oriented win-
dows. STPV windows can signicantly reduce window heat gain
rate compared with clear single glazing and double-pane glazing.
The highest heat gain rate appears in November, in which STPV
windows can reduce heat gain rate by 47.8% and 38.9%, respec-
tively, compared with clear single glazing and double-pane glazing.
However, the heat gain rate of STPV window is 39.9% higher than
the selected Low-E glazing. The gure also indicated that double-
pane glazing can reduce window heat gain compared with clear
single glazing and the heat gain rate will decline further when Low-
glass surface, except for transmitted and reected part, the rest is
absorbed by the glazing materials. Then the temperature of glazing
will increase due to the absorbed solar radiation and the heat is
slowly conducted from the glass to inside due to the temperature
difference or radiated inward by longwave radiation. The Low-E
coating can block most of the incident longwave radiation from
outward and therefore the window heat gain rate was reduced sig-
nicantly when applying Low-E coating on the clear glass. In terms
of STPV windows, some absorbed radiation is converted to electric-
ity via photovoltaic effect so that the heat gain through PV windows
was reduced dramatically.
Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
in Hong Kong is presented in Fig. 7. Since Hong Kong is in a cooling
dominated region, the heat loss through windows is only signicant
in winter. In January, STPV glazing, double-pane glazing and Low-E
glazing reduce the heat loss by 9.2%, 28.2% and 53.1%, respectively,
compared with clear single glazing. This means that STPV windows
do not perform well in reducing the window heat loss. Similarly to
the heat gain of windows, adopting double-pane glazing will reduce
the U-value of windows and therefore reducing the heat loss rate.
When Low-E coating is applied, it will reect most of the heat back
into the room so that window heat loss will further reduce. Thus, it
can be concluded that for hot and humid subtropical climate region,
multiple pane windows and Low-E coating are good ways to reduce
heat loss through windows in winter.
To compare thermal performance of different windows, the
annual electricity consumption from air-conditioning in different
orientations was obtained, as shown in Fig. 8. The selected Low-E
glazing consumes the least electricity from air-conditioning among
these windows. Electricity consumption from air-conditioning of
STPV windows is much lower than that of clear single glass win-
dows and double-pane windows, which means that the thermal
performance of STPV windows is better. This result validates
that adopting double-pane glazing and Low-E coating will further
improve the thermal performance of glazing. It is also found that
the annual electricity consumption from air-conditioning of STPV
windows and Low-E windows does not have signicant uctua-
tions in different orientations. This is due to the block effect of
these two kinds of windows so that the orientations have little
impact on the cooling load. The gure also shows that the ofce
516 W. Zhang et al. / Energy and Buildings 128 (2016) 511518

1100 0.9
Clear glazing
Clear single glazing
Double-pane glazing
Low-E glazing Double-pane glazing
1000
STPV glazing 0.8 Low-E glazing
Electricity consumption from

STPV glazing
air-conditioning (kWh)

900 0.7

0.6
800

0.5
700

0.4
600
E ESE SE SSE S SSW SW WSW W
Orientations 0.3
DA UDI
Fig. 8. Annual electricity consumption from air-conditioning in different orienta-
tions. Fig. 10. DA and UDI at reference point with different south-oriented windows.

1400
100
Clear single glazing Clear single glazing
1200 Double-pane glazing Double-pane glazing
Average daylighting illuminance (lux)

Low-E glazing 90 Low-E glazing

STPV glazing STPV glazing
Electricity consumption from

1000
artificial lighting (kWh)
80

800
70

600

60
400

50
200

40
0 E ESE SE SSE S SSW SW WSW W
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Orientations
Months
Fig. 11. Annual electricity consumption from articial lighting in different orienta-
Fig. 9. Monthly average daylighting illuminance at reference point with different tions.
south-oriented windows.

room equipped with south-oriented windows consumed less cool-
ing energy in Hong Kong.
3.3. Daylighting performance
Apart from air-conditioning energy consumption, articial
lighting is also a big electricity consumer in buildings. As shown in
Table 1, the visible light transmittance of STPV glazing is lower than
that of conventional glazing. As solar radiation is partly converted
into electricity, the daylighting illuminance in the ofce room will
decrease. To investigate the daylighting performance of different
kinds of glazing, the monthly average daylighting illuminance of
different south-oriented windows at the reference point in Ener-
gyPlus was simulated, as shown in Fig. 9. The trend of the monthly
average daylighting illuminance of different kinds of glazing is
consistent with the trend of incident solar radiation on the south-
oriented windows. The visible light transmittance of the glazing
is higher, and then the average daylight illuminance of the room
gets higher. Apart from STPV windows, the monthly average day-
lighting illuminance of all the other windows is always above the
design value of 300 lx. The maximum monthly average daylighting
illuminance of STPV window is 218 lx, which is more than half of
the design value of 300 lx. However, the monthly average daylight-
ing illuminance cannot exactly reect the daylighting performance.
Therefore, in this study, daylighting performance metrics includ-
ing daylight autonomy (DA) and useful daylight illuminances (UDI)
were employed for further illustrating the daylighting performance
of different windows. DA and UDI are dened as the percentage
of annual daytime hours when the illuminance at a given point is
above the recommended value (300 lx in this study) or is within a
specic illuminance range (100 lx2000 lx) [43]. Fig. 10 shows the
DA and UDI at the reference point with different south-oriented
windows. It is seen that the DA of clear single glazing, double-pane
glazing and Low-E glazing decreases in sequence from 81% to 76%,
which means the rooms installed with these windows can meet
the design illuminance in a most period of the daytime. For room
installed with STPV glazing, the DA is lower, only 40%. This indicates
that articial lighting needs to be switched on at around 60% of the
daytime hours. However, the UDI of STPV windows is 72%, higher
than the other kinds of windows. It is worth noted that higher DA
and lower UDI may cause visual discomfort. In this scenario, inte-
rior shading device such as Venetian blind is usually adopted to
decrease the natural daylighting. If the interior shading device is
turned on, the natural daylighting may not be available and arti-
cial lighting might be needed, which will increase the lighting
electricity use as well.
 W. Zhang et al. / Energy and Buildings 128 (2016) 511518 517

electricity consumption from air-conditioning 160

electricity consumption from artificial lighting Clear single glazing
1200 150
electricity generation Double-pane glazing

Net electricity consumption (kWh/m /yr)

Net electriciy consumption per unit area 150 Low-E glazing
1000 140

2
STPV glazing

Net electricity energy use (kWh/m )

2
140
Electricity energy (kWh)

800 130

600 120
130

400 110
120

200 100

110
0 90

Clear single Double-pane Low-E STPV 100

Glazing type E ESE SE SSE S SSW SW WSW W
Orientations
Fig. 12. Annual net electricity use of the ofce room per unit area with different
south-oriented windows. Fig. 13. Annual net electricity use of the ofce room per unit area with various
windows in different orientations.
Fig. 11 presents the annual electricity consumption from arti-
cial lighting in different orientations. It is seen that the common
energy-efcient glazing has better daylighting performance than was adopted in this study. A series of testing were conducted to
STPV windows. In terms of electricity consumption from articial obtain all the input parameters of this PV module. Then, with the
lighting, the ofce room with windows facing SSW (22.5 south developed simulation model and the weather data of TMY in Hong
by west) consumes the least electricity among all orientations. For Kong, thermal, daylighting and power performance as well as over-
example, the room with STPV windows facing SSW can save about all energy performance of different windows were obtained. The
10% electricity energy compared with the same ones facing east. main conclusions are listed as below:

3.4. Overall energy performance 1. The power output of south-oriented STPV windows is consis-
tent with their incident solar radiation. In Hong Kong, the energy
After simulating the annual power, thermal and daylighting per- output of south-oriented STPV windows in winter is much more
formance of the ofce room with different kinds of windows in than that in summer. The orientation for installation of STPV
Hong Kong, the overall energy performance can be obtained. Fig. 12 windows is of particular importance and southwest is the best
shows the annual net electricity use of the ofce room per unit area orientation for power generation.
with different types of south-oriented windows. The net electricity 2. Double-pane glazing and Low-E glazing are two common com-
use includes the consumed and generated electricity of different mercial energy-efcient glazing materials. Adopting double-
windows. It is obvious that the cooling energy dominates the total pane glazing can reduce the U-value of windows and therefore
electricity use among all sectors. The overall energy performance of the window heat gain and loss rate are reduced. The Low-E
Low-E glazing and STPV glazing is signicantly better than the per- coating can block most of the incident longwave radiation so
formance of other two types of glazing. Despite the fact that Low-E that it can reduce not only the solar heat gain of windows in
glazing consumes less electricity than STPV windows, STPV win- cooling dominated area but the heat loss from inward in cold
dows have the best overall energy performance when electricity climate region as well. STPV windows can convert much solar
generation is taken into account. Compared to clear single glazing, radiation into electricity via photovoltaic effect so that the heat
double-pane glazing and Low-E glazing, STPV glazing can save up to gain through STPV windows can be reduced dramatically. STPV
18%, 16% and 1% electricity energy, respectively. Predictably, with windows can signicantly reduce window heat gain by at most
the development of STPV glazing technology, the overall energy 47.8% and 38.9% compared with single clear glazing windows
performance of STPV glazing will further exceed these two kinds of and double-pane windows. However, STPV windows do not have
conventional energy-efcient glazing. Fig. 13 shows the annual net good performance in reducing the window heat loss.
electricity use of the ofce room per unit area with various win- 3. Despite the fact that STPV windows have better thermal per-
dows in different orientations. In some orientations, such as the formance, it will also reduce the daylighting illuminance in the
east and the west, when the STPV windows generate electricity in room. Therefore, the daylighting performance of STPV windows
tiny quantities, their overall energy performance will be worse than is worse than other energy efcient windows. However, with
Low-E windows. Thus, it is seen that the orientation for installation higher UDI, STPV windows are also able to meet the design illu-
of STPV windows is of particular importance. This gure indicates minance in 40% of annual daytime hours. The ofce room with
that south is the optimum orientation for the installation of all kinds windows facing 22.5 south by west consumes the least elec-
of windows in terms of overall energy performance. The south- tricity among all orientations.
oriented STPV windows can save up to 7% total electricity energy 4. The total electricity consumption is mainly lied on cooling elec-
than the east-oriented ones. tricity use. The overall energy performance of STPV glazing
and Low-E glazing is signicantly better than that of clear sin-
4. Conclusions gle glazing and double-pane glazing. With the development
of STPV glazing technology, if the energy efciency and visi-
This paper gave a comparison between STPV windows and ble light transmittance increase, the STPV glazing will become
common energy-efcient windows in terms of overall energy per- the most competitive energy efcient glazing. Whats more, if
formance in Hong Kong. A new kind of see-through a-Si PV module double-pane glazing and Low-E glazing material were integrated
518 W. Zhang et al. / Energy and Buildings 128 (2016) 511518
with STPV glazing, the overall energy performance will also be
improved.
5. In Hong Kong, south is the optimum orientation for win-
dow installation in terms of overall energy performance. The
south-oriented STPV windows can save up to 7% electricity in
comparison with the east-oriented ones. Besides orientations,
geography locations will also affect the overall energy perfor-
mance of STPV windows. The applicability of different glazing
materials integrated with STPV glazing and its performance in
different geographical locations will be a focus of the future
research.
Acknowledgements
The work described in this paper was nancially supported by
the RGC General Research Fund (PolyU 5176/13E), and the Industry
Fund through project 8-ZG2L.
References
[1] The Hong Kong Yearbook, http://www.yearbook.gov.hk/2014/en/index.html
(accessed on 09/03/2016).
[2] Hong Kong Energy End-use Data 2015, http://www.emsd.gov.hk/lemanager/
en/content 762/HKEEUD2015.pdf (accessed on 09/03/2016).
[3] Chang Heon Cheong, Taeyeon Kim, Seung-Bok Leigh, Thermal and daylighting
performance of energy-efcient windows in highly glazed residential
buildings: case study in Korea, Sustainability 6 (10) (2014) 73117333.
[4] Xi Chen, Hongxing Yang, Weilong Zhang, A comprehensive sensitivity study
of major passive design parameters for the public rental housing
development in Hong Kong, Energy 93 (2015) 18041818.
[5] P.W. Wong, Y. Shimoda, M. Nonaka, M. Inoue, M. Mizuno, Semi-transparent
PV: Thermal performance, power generation, daylight modelling and energy
saving potential in a residential application, Renew. Energy 33 (2008)
10241036.
[6] Tin-tai Chow, Chunying Li, Zhang Lin, Innovative solar windows for
cooling-demand climate, Solar Energy Mater. Solar Cells 94 (2010) 212220.
[7] Nikolaos Skandalos, Dimitris Karamanis, PV glazing technologies, Renew
Sustain Energy Rev. 49 (2015) 306322.
[8] Erdem Cuce, Chin-Huai Young, Saffa B. Riffat, Thermal performance
investigation of heat insulation solar glass: a comparative experiment study,
Energy Build. 86 (2015) 595600.
[9] Geun Young Yun, Mike McEvoy, Koen Steemers, Design and overall
performance of a ventilated photovoltaic facade, Solar Energy 81 (3) (2007)
383394.
[10] Jun Han, Lin Lu, Hongxing Yang, Numerical evaluation of the mixed convective
heat transfer in a double-pane window integrated with see-through a-Si PV
cells with low-e coatings, Appl. Energy 87 (11) (2010) 34313437.
[11] K.E. Park, G.H. Kang, H.I. Kim, G.J. Yu, J.T. Kim, Analysis of thermal and
electrical performance of semi-transparent photovoltaic (PV) module, Energy
35 (6) (2010) 26812687.
[12] Jinqing Peng, Lin Lu, Hongxing Yang, An experimental study of the thermal
performance of a novel photovoltaic double-skin facade in Hong Kong, Solar
Energy 97 (2013) 293304.
[13] Jong-Ho Yoon, Jonghwa Song, Sung-Jin Lee, Practical application of building
integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) system using transparent amorphous silicon
thin-lm PV module, Solar Energy 85 (5) (2011) 723733.
[14] Jinqing Peng, Lin Lu, Hongxing Yang, Tao Ma, Comparative study of the
thermal and power performances of a semi-transparent photovoltaic facade
under different ventilation modes, Appl. Energy 138 (2015) 572583.
[15] Wei He, Y.X. Zhang, Wei Sun, J.X. Hou, Q.Y. Jiang, Jie Jil, Experimental and
numerical investigation on the performance of amorphous silicon
photovoltaics window in East China, Build. Environ. 46 (2) (2011) 363369.
[16] Fangzhi Chen, Stephen K. Wittkopf, Poh Khai Ng, Hui Du, Solar heat gain
coefcient measurement of semi-transparent photovoltaic modules with
indoor calorimetric hot box and solar simulator, Energy Build. 53 (2012)
7484.
[17] Jun Han, Lin Lu, Jinqing Peng, Hongxing Yang, Performance of ventilated
double-sided PV facade compared with conventional clear glass facade,
Energy Build. 56 (2013) 204209.
[18] Konstantinos Kapsis, Andreas K. Athienitis, A study of the potential benets of
semi-transparent photovoltaics in commercial buildings, Solar Energy 115
(2015) 120132.
[19] Jinqing Peng, Dragan C. Curcija, Lin Lu, Stephen E. Selkowitz, Hongxing Yang,
Weilong Zhang, Numerical investigation of the energy saving potential of
semi-transparent photovoltaic double-skin facade in a cool-summer
Mediterranean climate, Appl. Energy 165 (2016) 345356.
[20] Jinqing Peng, Lin Lu, Hongxing Yang, Tao Ma, Validation of the Sandia model
with indoor and outdoor measurements for semi-transparent amorphous
silicon PV modules, Renew. Energy 80 (2015) 316323.
[21] T. Miyazaki, A. Akisawa, T. Kashiwagi, Energy savings of ofce buildings by the
use of semi-transparent solar cells for windows, Renew. Energy 30 (3) (2005)
281304.
[22] Danny H.W. Li, Tony N.T. Lam, Wilco W.H. Chan, Ada H.L. Mak, Energy and
cost analysis of semi-transparent photovoltaic in ofce buildings, Appl.
Energy 86 (5) (2009) 722729.
[23] Lin Lu, Kin Man Law, Overall energy performance of semi-transparent
single-glazed photovoltaic (PV) window for a typical ofce in Hong Kong,
Renew, Energy 49 (2013) 250254.
[24] Poh Khai Ng, Nalanie Mithraratne, Harn Wei Kua, Energy analysis of
semi-transparent BIPV in Singapore buildings, Energy Build. 66 (2013)
274281.
[25] Tady Y.Y. Fung, H. Yang, Study on thermal performance of semi-transparent
building-integrated photovoltaic glazings, Energy Build. 40 (3) (2008)
341350.
[26] Evelise Leite Diodone, Andreas Wagner, Semi-transparent PV windows: a
study of ofce buildings in Brazil, Energy Build. 67 (2013) 136142.
[27] L. Olivieri, E. Caamario-Martin, F.J. Moralejo-Vazquez, N. Martin-Chivelet, F.
Olivieri, F.J. Neila-Gonzalez, Energy saving potential of semi-transparent
photovoltaic elements for building integration, Energy 76 (2014) 572583.
[28] Shen Xu, Wei Liao, Jing Huang, Jian Kang, Optimal PV cell coverage ratio for
semi-transparent photovoltaics on ofce building facades in central China,
Energy Build. 77 (2014) 130138.
[29] Berkeley Lab WINDOW, https://windows.lbl.gov/software/window/window.
html (accessed on 09/03/2016).
[30] Energy Plus Energy Simulation Software, http://www.eere.energy.gov/
buildings/energyplus/ (accessed on 09/03/2016).
[31] Y.P. Zhou, J.Y. Wu, R.Z. Wang, S. Shiochi, Y.M. Li, Simulation and experimental
validation of the variable-refrigerant-volume (VRV) air-conditioning system
in EnergyPlus, Energy Build. 40 (6) (2008) 10411047.
[32] Paulo Cesar Tabares-Velasco, Craig Christensen, Marcus Bianchi, Verication
and validation of EnergyPlus phase change material model for opaque wall
assemblies, Build. Environ. 54 (2012) 186196.
[33] Jinqing Peng, Dragan C. Curcija, Lin Lu, Stephen E. Selkowitz, Hongxing Yang,
Robin Mitchell, Developing a method and simulation model for evaluating the
overall energy performance of a ventilated semi-transparent photovoltaic
double-skin facade, Prog. Photovolt. 24 (2016) 781799.
[34] Hanergy Holding Group Limited, http://www.hanergy.com (accessed on
09/03/2016).
[35] Francisco-Jos Moralejo-Vzquez, Nuria Martn-Chivelet, Lorenzo Olivieri,
Estefana Caamano-Martin, Optical characterisation of semi-transparent PV
modules for building integration, in: 29th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy
Conference and Exhibition (EU PVSEC 2014), 22/09/201426/09/2014,
Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2016, pp. 19.
[36] Optics, https://windows.lbl.gov/software/Optics/optics.html (accessed on
09/03/2016).
[37] PPG industries, http://www.ppgresidentialglass.com (accessed on
09/03/2016).
[38] Yu Huang, Jian-lei Niu, Tse-ming Chung, Comprehensive analysis on thermal
and daylighting performance of glazing and shading designs on ofce building
envelope in cooling-dominant climates, Appl. Energy 134 (2014) 215228.
[39] B. Authority, Code of Practice for Overall Thermal Transfer Value in Buildings
1995, Building Authority, Hong Kong, 1995.
[40] F.W.H. Yik, J. Burnett, I. Prescott, Predicting air-conditioning energy
consumption of a group of buildings using different heat rejection methods,
Energy Build. 33 (2001) 151166.
[41] Apple L.S. Chan, T.T. Chow, Square K.F. Fong, John Z. Lin, Generation of a
typical meteorological year for Hong Kong, Energy Convers. Manage. 47
(2006) 8796.
[42] CIBSE, Code for Lighting, Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers,
London, 2002.
[43] Azza Nabil, John Mardaljevic, Useful daylight illuminances: a replacement for
daylight factors, Energy Build. 38 (2006) 905913.