Project Guide:

Dr.(Prof) Dilip Bhattacharya

Project Group:
1. Tuhin Dutta
2. Tanmoy Dey
3. Soumyajit Kundu
4. Arani Ali Khan
5. Sourav Ghosh
6. Dipanjan Mondal
Acknowledgement
 We deem it a pleasure to acknowledge our deep sense of
gratitude to our project guide Prof. D. B. who directed and
guided us with his advice and constant inspiration which
eased the task of working with a previously unknown
topic and hence technical report.

We wish to reciprocate in full measure the kindness

shown by our H.O.D. (E.C.E dept.) who encouraged us and
inspired us in successfully attending the project classes
and finally completing this technical report.

We also wish to give our heartiest thanks to each other of

our peer group for giving there helping hands throughout
this entire period of time.

Contents
1. Introduction
2. Basic RC Filter
3. Filter components
4. Constant k-Type Filter
5. Insertion Loss Method
6. Maximally Flat Filter
7. Chebyshev Filter
8. Low Pass Filter prototype
9. Impedance and Frequency Scaling
10. Design Specification (Problem)
11. Filter Implementation using Lamped elements
12. Implementation using Micro Strip Line
13. Micro strip Discontinuities

CERTIFICATION
It is here by certified that the project report on RF filter
which is being submitted during the period August 2009
to April 2010 as a complete fulfillment of the
requirement of ECE -783, is a record of the work done by
the candidates, which they have carried under the
guidance of Prof. D. Bhattacharya.

Mr. Santu Sarkar.

Prof. D. Bhattacharya.
Head Of The Department ECE, Director
Academy Of Technology, Academy
Of Technology
Aedconagar, Hooghly,
Aedconagar, Hooghly,
WB , PIN – 712121 WB , PIN
– 712121

Signature-
Signature-
(Mr. Santu Sarkar)
(Prof. D. Bhattacharya)
 Introduction
A filter is a four terminal network which is designed generally by
reactive elements to pass a certain band of frequencies and
attenuate fqs outside this band .The band of frequency which is
transmitted freely through the filter is called the attenuation or
stop band of the filter .The frequency at which the transition from
a stop band to pass band and vice versa occurs called cutoff
frequency.

Usage of filter :

Filters are used in power supply systems, circuit’s fq telephone

circuit, and instruments & in other fields. Filter output is used in a
load.

Types of filter :-

i) Low pass filter- This type of filter allows transmission from

zero to a cut off frequency fc and attenuates all frequency
above fc.

ii) High pass filter-This types of filter allows transmission of fq

above a certain cut off frequency fc , & attenuate all
frequency lying below fc.

iii) Band pass filter-A band pass filter allows transmission of

all fq lying above a fixed minimum frequency f1 and below
a fixed minimum frequency f2.So it allows within the band
(f2-f1) and attenuates frequencies outside this band.

iv) Band stop filter- This filter allows transmission of all

frequency from zero to f1 and from f2 to infinity and
attenuate all frequencies lying within the range (f2 –f1).

Ideal filter characteristic:

 Ideal filters are those that give zero
attenuation and constant impedance in the
pass band and offer infinite attenuation for
all frequencies outside the pass band.

As it is shown in fig. But all practical filters are non ideal.

Filter component:

Basically resistance(R), capacitance(c) & inductance (L) are

used as filter component. In low pass filter resistance,
capacitance& inductance & an op amp is used.

Basic RC filters:

Series RC work as low pass and high

pass filters. The RC low pass circuit and its
behavior are shown here.

So at dc and low frequencies the output voltage

is about the same as the input voltage and at

higher frequencies the reactance’s of

the capacitance decreases resulting in a
decreased output voltage .

So , where

The magnitude of the output voltage is

| |= The ratio of to is the

gain Av of the circuit.

The magnitude of the gain is :

|Av|= | / |=
So for lower fqs ->0 .|Av|=1

So for lower fqs ->infinite .|Av|=0.

So the frq response will be looked as following fig.

This is a frequency response for a low pass

filter. If we change the place of resistance
&capacitance the circuit will behave as high
pass filter. At high frequencies the capacitive
reactance is negligible, so the o/p voltage is
nearly equal to . At lower frequencies the
increased values of voltage drop across C,
causes to decrease.

Here gain Av= V0/Vi=R/(R+jXc) = j CR/1+j CR.

Hence |Av|=|Vo/Vi|= CR/

We know Xc= 1/j CSo if -> 0 so Xc->

infinite means c work as open circuit so Vo
will decrease,Av also decrease.

If ->infinite so Xc-> 0 means c works as

short circuit path.

This fq response curve is shown in following figure.

Different component used in filters:

For RC filter we intentionally use the resistance, but we can also

use inductance. But lowpass filter the W=2*pi*f, f is very low.
Again we know Xl= jWL ,so for const. Xl the expinductance should
be very high. So the inductor should be bulky & very expencive.
Thus resistance is used & power is lossed for the usage of
resistance.But for driving the load power same as input signal
power is required.
So for amplify the power an op- amp is used. Thus we can drive
the load with a same power as like as input signal power. Thus
the circuit configuration will be as follows for lowpass filter.

Here op amp is called active

element. Thus low pass active filter is
formed. But for high pass filter fq is
high, so small inductance is needed.
So there is no need for design bulky
inductor. Thus we can use small
inductors for good compatibility of
the filter. Also the power loss factor
is not worked as like s RC filter,
because inductors so called
resistance is very low. Thus for MHz
fq range usage filter , we prefer
series LC filter .So there is no need
for op-amp.

LC filter network:

To illustrate about LC network we have to introduce K- const

filter. So we discuss T section of low pass filter as shown bellow-
From the general T network we get the expression where z-
parameters are introduced.

When = 0 ,then

= | = 0, then ( )

= | =0 = .

Now, we know for a symmetrical & reciprocal network the

characteristic impedence is

Z0 = Zi1 = Zi2= = .

Where Zi1= and Zi2= . These are the expression for a

symmetrical & reciprocal network.

Here Z11 = Z12 for symmetrical.

Here Z12 = Z21 for reciprocal.

is characteristic impedence for T – section =

is characteristic impedence for – section =

Where =j & =1/j .

Since are reactance’s of opposite sign, the product

is real. The term is imaginary when | | > 1. The cut-off
takes place when the characteristic impedence becomes reactive.
Therefore the transmission from the pass-band to the stop band
occurs when =0 or =-1.

The quantity is called nominal characteristic resistance of

the filter & is denoted by RK , Thus

= RK = = =K.

Here K is a const. The filter is termed as constant K filter. For this

filter two cases occur :-

Case 1 :- Reactance’s of are opposite in signs, so the term

is real & when is less then 1. Then 1+ is also real. So the
characteristic impedence is real and also resistive in nature.
Therefore when the filter is terminated by a load having a value
equal to the characteristic impedence, it will absorb real power
from the source. Since the filter is composed of purely reactive
elements, theoretically all the received power from the source will
be terminated to the load.

Case 2 :- The term is imaginary , when | | > 1. & the

characteristic impedence is reactive. Therefore the transition from
the pass band to the stop band occurs. In the stop-band as the
characteristic impedence is reactive, so the filter is terminated by
its characteristic reactance and it does not absorb the real power
from the source. Thus the power will reflected by the load.

Frequency dependence of characteristic impedence:-

So the characteristic impedence of T section is –

Similarly, characteristic impedence of corresponding - section is

–

= /

= /

Here normalized characteristic impedence / and / is

plotted against . It is observed that is real in the pass band
and reaches zero value at the cut-off frequency. is reactive
after the cut-off frequency , where is grater then unity. The
reactive impedances are multiplied by – j , so that they can be
plotted as real variables.
Filter design by insertion-loss method:

The power loss ratio of a network is defined as the available

or incident power divided by actual power delivered to the load;
thus –

= 1/ .

Where is the input reflection co-efficient for a lossless network

terminated in a resistive load impedance, = . The insertion
loss, measured in decibels, L = .when the terminating
load impedence equals the internal impedence of the generator
at the input end.

In general the insertion loss is defined as the ratio of power

delivered to the load when connected directly to the generator to
the power delivered, when the filter is inserted.

For a passive network it is clear that the reflected power

can’t exceed the incident power and hence one restriction on (ω)
is | (ω)| 1.If the normalized input impedence of the network is

(ω) = (ω) + j (ω)

We have, (ω) = -1) / +1) =[ (ω) -1 + j (ω)] /[ (ω) +1+ j

(ω)]

is an even function of ω and is an odd function of ω.

Hence (-ω) = [ (ω) - 1 - j (ω)] /[ (ω) +1 - j (ω)] =

And thus = = .
It is apparent from this relation that = is an even
function of and must therefore contain only even function of .

= =

Where M and N are real & non-negative polynomials in .

The power loss ratio can now expressed as –

= 1+ = 1+

It shows that, must be an even polynomial in . Since it

equals . Hence we replace = . And denote = P(
. So we get

= 1+ .

Maximally Flat Filter Characteristic :

The power loss ratio for a maximally flat low-pass filter

(Butterworth) is obtained by choosing the polynomial Q equal to
unity and choosing equal to .

Hence = 1+ .

The pass band is the region from to the cut-off frequency .

The maximum value of in the pass band is 1+ .For , the
power loss ratio increases indefinitely at a rate dependent on the
exponent 2N, which is related to the number of filter section
employed.

Equal ripple or chebyshev filter characteristic :

The power loss ratio for equal ripple
filter is chosen as = 1+ .

Where is the chebyshev

polynomial of degree N. In beside’s
fig, characteristic response of equal
ripples and maximally flat filter are
shown.

Ladder circuit for low-pass filter protype:-

For normalized low-pass design where the source impedence

is 1 ohm and the cut-off frequency is =1.However the element
value for the ladder type circuit of the figure below can be
calculated.

Classification and notification of used elements:

Here,
 Generator resistance or conductance

Inductance or capacitance for k = 1 to N.

Load resistance for =shunt capacitor.

Load conductance for = series inductor.

Impedence and frequency scaling:

In the prototype design the source resistance can be

obtained by multiplying the impedances of the prototype design
by . Then, if we assume prime denote the impedence scaled
quantities, we have the new filter component value given by –

For frequency scaling we have to change the cut-off frequency of

a low-pass filter prototype from unity to .Thus we scale the
frequency dependence of the filter by the factor 1/ , which is
accomplished by replacing by .

Thus .

The new element values are determined by applying the

substitution of with , to the series reactances and
suscptances j of the prototype.

Thus,

.
 .

Design specification:

Design a lowpass (Butterworth) filter which has a cut off

fq 4 GHz. At stop band at frequency 5 GHz ,where
minimum attenuation will be 30 db. Assume 50 ohm
environment.

Solution: -

Formula for number of component used is :-

ω= 5GHz ; ωc = 4 GHz ;A = 30 dB.

So by calculating, we get n=16. So number of component used in

the filter is 16.

Using constant prototype method, where prototype began with a

shunt element. So resulting primary circuit look like following:-

The g- parameter values we can calculate. Where, It is seen

that if :-

k is odd , then gk=capacitor

k is even then gk = Inductor.

Formula for g- parameter calculation is :-

gk = 2*sin [(2k-1)*pi/2n]

Where for n=16 and k = 1 ,2,3…….16 . g values can be calculated

.The inductor(L) & capacitor(C) values can also calculated by
impedance scaling (because design is in 50 ohm environment) as
follows:-

C1=0.155pf

L2=1.1548nH

C3=0.7501pf

L4=2.524nH

C5=1.2302pf

L6=3.5090nH

C7=1.5320pf

L8=3.9597nH

C9=1.5838pf

L10=3.8075432nH

C11=1.4036pf

L12=3.07570nH

C13=1.00967pf

L14=1.87544nH

C15=0.4621947pf

L16=0.389929nH

So by using this values PSpice program , we can observe the

response. PSpice program code is given as follows:-
PROGRAMME:-

R1 1 2 50ohm

C1 2 0 0.155pf

L2 2 3 1.1548nH

C3 3 0 0.7501pf

L4 3 4 2.524nH

C5 4 0 1.2302pf

L6 4 5 3.5090nH

C7 5 0 1.5320pf

L8 5 6 3.9597nH

C9 6 0 1.5838pf

L10 6 7 3.8075432nH

C11 7 0 1.4036pf

L12 7 8 3.075470nH

C13 8 0 1.00967pf

L14 8 9 1.87544nH

C15 9 0 0.461947pf

L16 9 10 0.389929nH

R2 10 0 50ohm

Vin 1 0 ac 1v

. AC LIN 200 1 20G

. PROBE

.END
 We get the output response in the PSpice o/p window. If the
response does not match with the desired response, then we
have to iterate the inductor and capacitor values by trial and error
correction method. After correction we have to use the changed
inductor and capacitor values. Thus we get the output response
shown in following figure.

MICROWAVE FILTER DESIGNING

In order to design all type of filters it is very laborites to design
individually different types of filters. So designer designs a low-
pass or high-pass prototype. This prototype filter is transformed in
desired form like band-pass or band-stop filter.

There are three steps to complete a microwave filter.

1. Design the prototype low-pass or high-pass filter with

desired pass-band and stop-band specification.

2. Transform it into desired form band-pass or band-reject.

3. Implement the filter elements using transmission line (using

microstrip or stripline etc).

The frequency and impedance scaling must be done before

implement it.

There are two techniques to design the filter.

 1. Image parameter method.

2. Insertion loss method.

Image parameter method is not suitable for filter designing it is

some time used to design solid state travelling wave amplifier.

Insertion loss method is widely used in microwave filter designing.

We have used this method to design the filter.

Problem(Chebyshev filter):

Design a low pass filter having cut off frequency 4GHz.

Pass band ripple 1dB for Chebyshev filter. Stop band
attenuation 30dB at 50GHz.

Soln.

Chebyshev Filter Design:

Ripple Magnitude:

10log10 (1+am2) = 1 dB

Or, log10 (1+am2) = 0.1

Or, 1+am2 = 100.1

Or, am2 = 100.1 -1 = 0.2589

Or, am = 0.5088

Stop band attenuation at ωx’ :

30 dB = 10 log10 [1 + am2cosh2(n cosh-1 ωx’)]

Or, 3 = log10 [1 + 0.2589 cosh2(n cosh-1(1.25))]

 Or, 3 = log10 [1 + 0.2589 cosh2(n 0.6931)]

Or, 999/0.2589 = cosh2(n 0.6931)

Or, 62.11789 = cosh(n 0.6931)

Or, n= 6.957 ≈ 7.

Therefore, the filter order should be 7. So, the number of

elements is 7.

β = ln[cot (Am/17.37)] = 2.8558 where Am = ripple

height = 1 dB

p1 = sin (∏/14) = 0.22252 p2 = sin

(3∏/14) = 0.62349
p3 = sin (5∏/14) = 0.90097 p4 = sin
(7∏/14) = 1
p5 = sin (9∏/14) = 0.90097 p6 = sin
(11∏/14) = 0.62349
p7 = sin (13∏/14) = 0.22252

q1 = sinh2(2.8558/14) + sin2(∏/7) = 0.0422 +

0.18825
= 0.23045
q2 = 0.65346 q3 =
0.9927
q4 = 0.9927 q5 =
0.65346
q6 = 0.23045 q7 =
0.0422

The g-parameters:

g0 = 1 g1 = 2p1/[sinh(β/2n)] =
(2*0.22252)/0.2054 = 2.167
g2 = (4p1p2)/(q1g1) = 1.111 g3 = (4p2p3)/(q2g2)
= 3.095
g4 = (4p3p4)(q3g3) = 1.17298 g5 = (4p4p5)/(q4g4)
 = 3.095
g6 = (4p5p6)/(q5g5) = 1.111 g7 = (4p6p7)/(q6g6)
= 2.167
g8 = 1.

The lamped element values for cascaded ∏ sections for 50 ohm

terminations are obtained as

Ck = gk/ZLωc and Lk = gk ZL/ωc

C1 = 2.167/(50*2∏*4*109) L2 =(1.111*50)/(2∏*4*109)
=1.7244 pF =2.21026 nH
C3 = 3.095/(50*2∏*4*109) L4 =(1.17298*50)/(2∏*4*109)
=2.4629 pF =2.333 nH
C5 = 3.095/(50*2∏*4*109) L6 =(1.111*50)/(2∏*4*109)
=2.4629 pF =2.21026 nH
C7 = 2.167/(50*2∏*4*109)
=1.7244 pF

Circuit Diagram:

Pspice program for Chebyshev Filter (7 elements):

 Vs 1 0 1V
Rs 2 1 50 ohm
C1 2 0 1.7244 pF
C3 3 0 2.4629 pF
C5 4 0 2.4629 pF
C7 5 0 1.7244 pF
L2 2 3 2.21026 nH
L4 3 4 2.333 nH
L6 4 5 2.21026 nH
R0 5 0 50 ohm
.ac lin 200 1 6GHz
.probe
.end

At cut off frequency, the amplitude of output voltage = 445.065

mV.

Filter Implementation:

Lumped element filter design works well at low frequencies. Two

problem arise at microwave frequency:

i. Lumped element such as inductors and capacitors

are generally available only for a limited range of
values and are also difficult to implement at
microwave frequency.

ii. At microwave frequency the distance between

components is not negligible.

Richard’s transformation is used to convert lumped elements to

transmission line sections, while Kuroda’s identities can be used
to separate filter elements by using transmission line sections.
Because such additional transmission line sections do not affect
the filter response, this type of design is called redundant filter
synthesis.
Richard’s Transformation:

The transformation,

Ω=tan βl =tan (ωl/vp)

The transformation is introduced to synthesis an LC- network

using open and short circuited transmission lines.

The reactance of an inductor can be written as

jXL = jΩL = jL tan βl

And the susceptance of a capacitor can be written as

jBC = jΩC = jC tan βl

The result indicates that an inductor can be replaced with a short

circuited stub of length βl and characteristic impedance L, while a
capacitor can be replaced with an open circuit stub of length βl
and characteristic impedance 1/C.

Cut off occurs at unity frequency for a L.P.F. prototype to obtain

the same cut off for Richard’s transformed filter shows that

Ω = 1 = tan βl

which gives, l=λ/8, where λ is the wavelength of a line at the cut

off frequency ωc. These lines are called commensurate lines.
Kuroda’s Identities:

n 2 = 1 + Z 2 /Z1
Z1

Z2 n 2Z 1 n2

(a)
Z1
n2
Z2
Z1
n2
(b)
1: n 2
Z2 Z1
Z1 Z2
n2 n2
(c)

Z n2 n 2:1

Z1 n 2Z 1

(d)

Lumped element circuit:

g-parameters of the derived circuit are:

g0=1,
g1=2.167,
g2=1.111,
g3=3.095,
g4=1.173,
g5=3.095,
g6=1.111,
g7=2.167, g8=1.

Replacing capacitors by open stubs and inductors by short stubs

using Richard’s transformation, we get
Using Kuroda’s Identities:
After impedance scaling the characteristic impedances are:

1. Z(g1)=67.3, 2.
Z0=194.4,

3. Z(g2)=54.185, 4.
Z0=103.425,

5. Z(g3)=20.92, 6.
Z0=74.495,

7. Z(g4)=16.125, 8.
Z0=71.815,

9. Z(g5)=16.15, 10.
Z0=71.335,

11. Z(g6)=20.265, 12. Z0=

84.205,

13. Z(g7)= 44.305, 14.

Z0=179.95,
 15. Z0=50.

Length of the elements:

l=λ/8

Now λ=c/f= (3*1010)/ (4*109)=7.5 cm

Therefore, l=λ/8=0.9375 cm

w/h ratio calculation:

εe=(εr+1)/2 + (εr-1)/[2√(1+12d/w)]

Z0= (60/√ εe) ln(8d/w + w/4d)

for w/d ≤ 1

120∏/[√ εe + 1.393 + 0.667 ln (w/d + 1.444)] for

w/d ≥ 1.

Z0= 74.145 (for w/d=1 & εr=4)

51.037 (for w/d=2 & εr=4)

For Z0 > 51.037 we use the formula

For Z0 < 51.037 we use the formula

w/d ratios of the filter circuit:

1. Z(g1)=67.3, A= (Z0/60) √(5/2) +
(3/5)(0.23 + .00275)

= 1.9280

w/d = 8eA/(e2A -2)= 1.2149

2. Z0= 194.4, A=5.2774, w/d=0.04085

3. Z(g2)=54.185, A=1.5824,
w/d=1.79547

4. Z0=103.425, A=2.8799,
w/d=0.45193

5. Z(g3)=20.92, B= 377∏/(2 Z0√

εr)=14.154,

w/d=6.9405

6. Z0=74.495, A=2.1176, w/d=0.99124

7. Z(g4)=16.125, B=18.3625,
w/d=9.51497

8. Z0=71.815, A=2.047, w/d=1.0686

9. Z(g5)=16.15, B=18.334,
w/d=9.4974

10. Z0=71.335, A=2.034, w/d= 1.0832

11. Z(g6)=20.265, B=14.611, w/d=

7.21866

12. Z0=84.205, A=2.3735, w/d=0.7584

13. Z(g7)=44.305, B=6.6831,

w/d=2.4884

14. Z0=179.95, A=4.8966, w/d=0.0598

 15. Z0=50, B=5.9219, w/d=2.0531

Microstrip discontinuities
1. Open end discontinuity:Open end discontinuity frequently
occurs in microstrip circuits. The equivalent circuit of an
open end is represented by an excess capacitance COC ,
which can be transformed into equivalent length of
transmission line, ΔlOC .
 COC/w = exp {2.3026∑Ci(εr)[log(w/h)](i-1)} pF/m

ΔlOC/h = (COC/w)(cZomw)/h√εr

ΔlOC/h = 0.412 [(εre + .03)/(εre – 0.258)][(w/h + 0.264)/(w/h + 0.8)]

Calculation of ΔlOC for the open ends:

1. Z(g1)=67.3 & w/h=1.2149

εre=(5/2) + (3/2)/√[1+12(1/1.2149)] = 2.9548

ΔlOC/h = 0.412 [(εre + .03)/(εre – 0.258)][(w/h + 0.264)/(w/h + 0.8)]

= 0.364967

ΔlOC=0.579 mm

2. Z(g2)=54.185 & w/h=1.79547

εre=3.041143

ΔlOC/h=0.3924598

ΔlOC=0.623 mm

3. Z(g3)=20.92 & w/h=6.9405

εre=3.4080106

ΔlOC/h=0.451399421
 ΔlOC=0.71658 mm

4. Z(g4)=16.125 & w/h=9.51497

εre=3.4975

ΔlOC/h=0.4578694

ΔlOC=0.7267 mm

5. Z(g5)=16.15 & w/h=9.4974

εre=3.497012619

ΔlOC/h=0.457837269

ΔlOC=0.7254 mm

6. Z(g6)=20.265 & w/h=7.21866

εre=3.4193

ΔlOC/h=0.452321149

ΔlOC=0.7180 mm

7. Z(g7)=44.305 & w/h=2.4884

εre=3.121643

ΔlOC/h=0.412040534

ΔlOC=0.65405 mm

Filer implementation
We designed LPF using lumped elements at low frequencies, but
two problms arise at microwave frequencies.

First, lumped elements such as inductors and capacitors are

generally available only for a limited range of values. Second,
they are very difficult to implement at microwave frequencies.

There are three types of filter implementation,

 (i) Filter design using stubs.
(ii) Stepped impedance LPF design.
(iii) Coupled line filter.

Stepped impedance LPF:

It is relatively an easier way of filter implementation in micro strip

or strip line. Here series inductors can be replaced as high
impedance (Z0=Zh) and shunt capacitors can be replaced as low
impedance (Z0=Zl) line sections.

It is very popular because it takes less space comparatively other

filter design using stubs.

Disadvantage:

Electrical performance is not good due to approximation involved

into it.

Approximate equivalent circuits for short T.L sections:

We begin by finding the approximate equiv. circuits for a short

length of T.L having either a very large or very small char.
Impedance.

Now the ABCD parameters of length l, having char. Impedance Z0

can be shown as,
 A=cosbl
B=jZ0sinbl

C=jY0sinbl
D=cosbl
Fig:1

Now Z parameters can be obtained as,

Z11=Z22=A/C=-jZ0cotbl ………….. (i)

Z12=Z21=1/C=-jZ0cosecbl ………….. (ii)

The series elements interms of Z paramet

Z11-Z12=jZ0tan(bl/2) ……………..(iii)

Shunt element is Z12= 1/C

Fig:2

T equivalent circuit for a T.L

Sections having bl<<90

Now considering T equivalent circuit,

X/2= Z0tan(bl/2) ………(iv)& B= 1/Z0 sinbl ………….(v)

But it is valid when bl<90. but if we assume a short length of line

i.e bl<45 and a large char. Impedance then equn. (iv) & (v) can
be written as,

X=Z0bl …………….(vii)
 B=0 ……………..(viii)

Fig:3

Now for bl<45 and small char. Impedance,

X=0 ………..(ix)

B=Y0bl …………(x)

Fig:4

The ratio of Zh/Zl should be as high as possible. But if Zh

increases then value of width(w) will be less. So, we have to
consider such a Zh, so that w will be into our reach.

The length of the line can be determined from equans (vii) & (x);
to get the best response near cutoff, these length should be
evaluated at (f=f©).

Now considering (vii) & (x) with the scaling equans. The electrical
length of the inductors can be calculated as,

X=Z0bl=>bl=R0L/Z0(from scaling equans.)

Here Z0=Zh; so bl=R0L/Zh ………..(xi)

And the electrical length of the capacitor,

B=Y0bl=>bl=BZ0=CZl/R0 ………..(xii)
Where R0 is the filter impedance & l and C are normalized
element values of the LPF.

Process of filter implementation for stepped impedance:

1. calculate w/d [where w is the width & d is the

diameter]
2. find bl.(electrical length).
3. find b [b=2Π/λ(g); λ(g)=λ(0)/ε(eff)]
4. Then calculate length (l).

Problem:

Design a stepped impedance LPF having a maximally

flat response and cut off freq of 4GHz. The highest
practical band attenuation 30 db at 5GHz. The
highest practical line impedance is 100 ohm and low
impedance is 20 ohm. [Given ε®=4; d=0.158cm]
consider f=3.5GHz.

SOLUTION:

From the pre computation at 4 GHz cut off,it can be shown that
the order of the low pass filter N=16.

Now we know the prototype values i.e value of g(k) for 16

elements.

Now Zh=100 ohm, Zl= 20 ohm (REF: LUDWIG)

w/d= 8e^A/(8e^2A-2) when w/d<2

……….. (i)

= 2/ Π [B-1-ln (2B-1)+ (ε®-1)/ 2* ε® {ln(B-1) + 0.39-

0.61/ ε®}]
 When w/d>2
……….. (ii)

Now A= Zh/60 {(ε®+1)/2}^1/2 + (ε®-1)/ (ε®+1) {0.23+0.11/

ε®}=2.7896

…
………… (iii)

B= 377 Π/2Zl(ε®)^1/2=14.796
…………… (iv)

Now here for w/d, there are two relations.

But which one will be used for inductor & which one for capacitor
can be done by the following ways [taking w/d=1]

ε(eff)= (ε®+1/2) + (ε®-1)/2 (1/(1+12 d/w)^1/2)

……………... (v)

=2.916 [where ε(eff) =2.916]

Now, Z0 = 60/( ε(eff)^1/2) ln(8d/w +w/4d) where w/d<1

= 85.44

Again, Z0= 120 Π/ ε (eff)[w/d+1.393+0.667 ln (w/d+1.444)]

where w/d>1

…………… (vi)

=51.037 [ where ε(eff)=3.06]

Here for equn (vi), Z0= 85.44 but we have considered

Zh=100>Z0, so for inductor w/d always <1.
But for equn (vii), Z0= 51.037 but we have considered Zl=20<Z0,

So for inductor w/d always>2.

Now for equn. (i), w/d for inductor =0.49. so, w= 0.08cm=.8mm

And from equn (ii) w/d for capacitor =7.335. so w= 11.59mm.

Now we have to calculate the length through the following ways

for inductor and capacitor separately.

For capacitor electrical length,

b=[2 Π*(ε(eff))^1/2 *f]/c …………………. (viii)

For capacitor dielectric, ε(eff)=3.42

So, b=(6.28*1.85*3.5*10^9)/(3*10^10) = 1.3554 [where

bl=CZl/R0 ]

Now for inductor the electrical length,

b= (6.28*1.672*3.5*10^9)/(3*10^10)=1.225 [where ε(eff )

=2.798] [where bl=R0L/Zh ]

now, g1=.196; so for capacitor bl1= .196*20/50=.0784= 4.49ْ

=>l1=.578mm

g2=.58057; so for inductor,bl2= .58057*50/100=.290285=16.64ْ

=>l2=2.36mm

Thus the odd number will be for capacitor and even no. will be for
inductor.

Similarly,

g3=.9428; so for capacitor bl3=(.9428*20)/50=21.618ْ

=>l3=2.78mm
g4=1.2688; so for inductor,bl4=36.37ْ =>l4=5.179mm

g5=1.546; so for capacitor, bl5=.6184=32.74ْ =>l5=4.56mm

g6=1.7637; so for inductor, bl6=.8818=50.55ْ ,l6=7.1983mm

Now in this following way we can find the others length.

Sl. No. Zl or bl(i) w(i) l(i)

Zh
(in (in (in mm)
(in degree) mm)
ohm)
1. 20 0 11.5 0.578
4.5 9
2. 100 2.36
16.6 0.8
3. 20 4 2.78
11.5
4. 100 21.6 9 5.179
18
5. 20 0.8 4.56
36.3
6. 100 11.5 7.1983
7
9
7. 20 5.65
32.7
4 0.8
8. 100 8.12

50.55 11.5
9. 20 5.87
9
10. 100 43.8 7.81183
9 0.8
11. 20 5.206
57.04 11.5
12. 100 9 6.31
45.6
13. 20 3 0.8 3.75

14. 100 54.85 11. 3.8481

59
15. 20 40.4 1.713
0.8
16. 100 44.31 0.8
11.
29.0 59
9
0.8
27.02
11.
13.3 59
1
0.8
5.61
 fig4: Steped impedance filter design
Fig5: Microstrip layout