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emphasis in research and development has been the scaling down, in both physical
size and power level (<100 W), of many EP concepts for future applications on
micro-spacecraft. At the other extreme, the prospect of energetic missionswith
large cargo and piloted payloadsto the planets, which stand to benefit most from
EP, remains futuristic until the required high power levels (100 kW and above)
become available in space.

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4. BASIC COMPONENTS

The ion propulsion system (IPS) consists of five main parts: the power source, power
processing unit (PPU), propellant management system (PMS), the control computer,
and the ion thruster. The IPS power source can be any source of electrical power, but
solar and nuclear are the primary options. A solar electric propulsion system (SEP)
uses sunlight and solar cells for power generation. A nuclear electric propulsion
system (NEP) uses a nuclear heat source coupled to an electric generator. The PPU
converts the electrical power generated by the power source into the power required
for each component of the ion thruster. It generates the voltages required by the ion
optics and discharge chamber and the high currents required for the hollow cathodes.
The PMS controls the propellant flow from the propellant tank to the thruster and
hollow cathodes. Modern PMS units have evolved to a level of sophisticated design
that no longer requires moving parts. The control computer controls and monitors
system performance. The ion thruster then processes the propellant and power to
perform work. Modern ion thrusters can propel a spacecraft up to 90,000 meters per
second (over 200,000

Figure 1 Schematic of typical EP system

miles per hour (mph). To put that into perspective, the space shuttle is capable of a top
speed of around 18,000 mph. The tradeoff for this high-top speed is low thrust (or low

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acceleration). Thrust is the force that the thruster applies to the spacecraft. Modern ion
thrusters can deliver up to 0.5 Newtons (0.1 pounds) of thrust, which is equivalent to
the force you would feel by holding nine U.S. quarters in your hand. To compensate
for low thrust, the ion thruster must be operated for a long time for the spacecraft to
reach its top speed. Ion thrusters use inert gas for propellant, eliminating the risk of
explosions associated with chemical propulsion. The usual propellant is xenon, but
other gases such as krypton and argon may be used.

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5. TYPES OF ELECTRIC PROPULSION

a. Electrothermal propulsion, wherein the propellant is heated by some electrical

process, then expanded through a suitable nozzle.
b. Electrostatic propulsion, wherein the propellant is accelerated by direct application
of electrostatic forces to ionized particles.
c. Electromagnetic propulsion, wherein the propellant is accelerated under the
combined action of electric and magnetic fields.

THRUSTER POWER RANGE SPECIFIC IMPULSE (s)

Electrothermal 100s of watts 300 to 400
Resistojets
Arcjets
Hydrazine kilowatts 500 to 600
Hydrogen 10s of kilowatts 900 to 1200
Ammonia kilowatts to 10s of kilowatts 600 to 800
Electrostatic
Gridded Ion Engines watts to 100 kilowatts 2000 to 10,000
Stationary Plasma Thrusters (SPT) 100s of watts to 10s of kilowatts 1000 to 2500
Thruster with Anode Layer (TAL) 100s of watts to 10s of kilowatts 1000 to 4000
Electromagnetic
Magnetoplasmadynamic (MPD)
Pulsed kilowatts (average) 1000 to 4000
Steady-State 100s of kilowatts to megawatts 3000 to 7000
Pulsed Plasma Thruster 10s to 100s of watts (average) 1000 to 1500
Pulsed Inductive Thruster 10s of kilowatts 3000 to 5000
Electron Cyclotron Thruster kilowatts to 10s of kilowatts 2000 to 4000
Many Others

Table 1 Comparison of different types of electric propulsion systems

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5.1. Electrothermal Electric Propulsion

The electrothermal category groups the devices where electromagnetic fields are used
to generate plasma to increase the temperature of the bulk propellant. The thermal
energy imparted to the propellant gas is then converted into kinetic energy by a nozzle
of either solid material or magnetic fields. Low molecular weight gases (e.g.
hydrogen, helium, ammonia) are preferred propellants for this kind of system. An
electrothermal engine uses a nozzle to convert the heat of a gas into the linear motion
of its molecules so it is a true rocket even though the energy producing the heat comes
from an external source.

1. Resistojets
2. Arcjets

Resistojets

Figure 2 Schematic of a hydrazine Resistojet

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A resistojet is a method of spacecraft electric propulsion that provides thrust by

heating a (typically nonreactive) fluid. Heating is usually achieved by sending
electricity through a resistor consisting of a hot incandescent filament, with the
expanded gas expelled through a conventional nozzle. Resistojets operate by passing
the gaseous propellant around an electrical heater (which could be the inside of tubes
heated radiatively from the outside), then using a conventional nozzle to generate
thrust. The heating reduces the gas flow rate from a given upstream pressure through a
given nozzle area, thus leading to the familiar increase in specific impulse as T.

Various heater configurations can be used in resistojets, such as heater coils parallel to
flow, transverse to the flow and honeycomb type parallel flow passages etc. The heat
losses are controlled by radiation shields, regenerative cooling and thermal insulation.
Hydrogen, ammonia and hydrazine are the typical propellants employed. The input
power ranges from 0.01-30 kW thrust ranges from 0.1-1 N and Isp values range from
250-1000 s. Thrust produced can also be augmented in case of propellants such as
hydrazine which decomposes exothermically to produce high temperature products.

Arcjets

Figure 3 Schematic Of Arcjet

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An arcjet is also an electrothermal thruster that heats the propellant by passing it

though a high current arc in line with the nozzle feed system. While there is an electric
discharge involved in the propellant path, plasma effects are insignificant in the
exhaust velocity because the propellant is weakly ionized. The Isp is limited by the
thermal heating to less than about 700 s for easily stored propellants.

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5.2. Electrostatic Electric Propulsion

The electrostatic ion thruster eliminates the problems associated with the heating of
the propellant, wherein an electric field is used to accelerate the ions to produce thrust.
The thruster is made up of a source-accelerator-neutralizer system (Figure 4) in which
positive ions are produced and then made to accelerate by an electrostatic field
generated by anode and gridded cathode. To maintain a zero-net charge in the thruster,
electrons from neutralizer are added to the exiting positive ion beam. Being a
developed concept in electric propulsion, ion thrusters have very high range of Isp
such as 5000-10000 s and thrusts less than 0.5 N. Vapors of mercury and cesium and
noble gases such as argon, xenon and krypton are used as propellants.

Ion Thruster

Figure 4 Schematic diagram ion thruster

Ion thrusters employ a variety of plasma generation techniques to ionize a large
fraction of the propellant. These thrusters then utilize biased grids to electrostatically
extract ions from the plasma and accelerate them to high velocity at voltages up to and
exceeding 10 kV

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Figure 5 Xenon Ion Propulsion

Ion thrusters feature the highest efficiency (from 60% to >80%) and very high specific
impulse (from 2000 to over 10,000 s) compared to other thruster types.

Hall Thruster

Figure 6 Schematic diagram of Hall Thruster

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Figure 7 Hall Thruster (NASA Glenn R.C.)

This type of electrostatic thruster utilizes a cross-field discharge described by the Hall
effect to generate the plasma. An electric field established perpendicular to an applied
magnetic field electrostatically accelerates ions to high exhaust velocities, while the
transverse magnetic field inhibits electron motion that would tend to short out the
electric field. Hall thruster efficiency and specific impulse is somewhat less than that
achievable in ion thrusters, but the thrust at a given power is higher and the device is
much simpler and requires fewer power supplies to operate.

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5.3. Electromagnetic Electric Propulsion

If ions are accelerated either by the Lorentz force or by the effect of electromagnetic
fields where the electric field is not in the direction of the acceleration, the device is
considered electromagnetic.

Such systems can produce exhaust speeds considerably higher than those of the
electrothermal devices, and thrust densities much larger than those of the electrostatic
thrusters. In this, some electrically conducting fluid, usually a highly-ionized gas, is
subjected to an electric field E and a magnetic field B, perpendicular to each other and
to the fluid velocity u. The current density j driven by the electric field interacts with B
to provide a stream wise body force f = j x B that accelerates the fluid along the
channel.

Magnetoplasmadynamic (MPD) Thruster:

Figure 8 Schematic of Magnetoplasmadynamic (MPD) Thruster

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Figure 9Pulsed MPD Thruster Operating on Argon Propellant at Princeton University

In MPD thrusters, a current along a conducting bar creates an azimuthal magnetic field
that interacts with the current of an arc that runs from the point of the bar to a
conducting wall. The resulting Lorentz force has two components: Pumping: a radially
inward force that constricts the flow. Blowing: a force along the axis that produces the
directed thrust.

Pulsed Plasma Thruster

Figure 10 Schematic of Pulsed Plasma Thruster

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Figure 11 eo-1 pulsed plasma thruster

A Pulsed Plasma Thruster (PPT), also known as a plasma jet engine, is a form of
electric spacecraft propulsion. PPTs are generally considered the simplest form of
electric spacecraft propulsion and was the first form of electric propulsion to be flown
in space, having flown on two Soviet probes (Zond 2 and Zond 3) starting in 1964.
PPTs are generally flown on spacecraft with a surplus of electricity from abundantly
available solar energy.

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6. APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRIC PROPULSION SYSTEMS

Todays most important applications of electric propulsion are on geostationary

telecommunications satellites, such as ESAs Artemis, where the technology is used to
move the satellite from its initial transfer orbit to its final orbit around the Earth and to
maintain that orbit throughout the satellites operational lifetime (10-15 years), by
compensating for the gravitational perturbations induced by the Earth, the Moon and
the Sun. The use of electric propulsion on a modern telecommunications satellite
easily provides a saving of more than 20% in the initial launch mass. The second
important use of electric propulsion is for interplanetary probes, such as ESAs
SMART-1 and Bepi-Colombo missions (to the Moon and the planet Mercury,
respectively), where electric propulsion provides the primary source of thrust for
transporting the satellite to its final destination. The coupling of electric propulsion
with powerful electrical power sources, such as nuclear generators, will open the way
for the exploration of the Solar System and beyond. Large manned and unmanned
space platforms will be gently, but continuously, accelerated to reach the most distant
bodies in our Solar System in acceptable travel times. Human colonization of the
Suns planets and their satellites will be made possible through the use of this
propulsion technology.

Indian Space Research Organisation (Isro) plans to use electric propulsion to power
satellites, thereby increasing their ability to carry heavier communication satellites by
its home-grown rockets. The first of the few satellites would be hurled into space in
2017.

GSAT-4 was an experimental communication and navigation satellite launched in

April 2010 by ISRO. It failed to reach orbit after the rocket's third stage
malfunctioned. GSAT-4 was also to have been the first Indian spacecraft to
employ ion propulsion.[4] Four Hall effect thrusters would have been used for north
south station keeping operations. Two types of Hall effect thrusters are developed by
ISRO Satellite Centre (ISAC) and Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC).

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GSAT-9 is a multi-band communication and observation satellite planned to be

launched by ISRO in 2017 by a GSLV rocket. The satellite will
carry GAGAN navigation payload that will provide GPS services to the security forces
and air traffic control organizations. GAGAN is a regional GPS navigational system
developed by India. The satellite will have a mission life of 12 years. Initially, electric
propulsion will be used only for the station keeping of the satellite, which includes
adjusting the satellite's orbit. This will enable us to increase the life of the satellite by
at least four years and to have more applications aboard a satellite. At present, the life
of a 2,000kg-2,500kg communication satellite of the GSAT class is ten to 12 years.

ISRO is currently developing a powerful rocket called GSLV Mk-III, which can carry
communication satellites weighing four tonnes. The GSLV rocket, which is used and
developed by the agency in its space missions, can carry satellites weighing two
tonnes only. India has been trying to use electric propulsion for a long time, but has
been unable to test the technology since 2010. During the test, a GSLV rocket blew up
soon after launch and destroyed an experimental satellite GSAT-4. Various units of
ISRO are currently developing electric propulsion technology, which will be tested in
a GSAT communication satellite.

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7. FUTURE SCOPE

More and more companies are beginning to use satellites with electric propulsion to
extend the operational life of satellites and reduce launch and operation costs. This
produces savings that can be passed along to consumers. NASA's primary application
of ion propulsion will be for main propulsion on long missions that are difficult or
impossible to perform using other types of propulsion. The Dawn spacecraft,
scheduled for launch in May 2006, will use three NSTAR ion thrusters as main
propulsion. The mission will study Ceres and Vesta, two protoplanets located in the
asteroid belt that exists between Mars and Jupiter. By studying these protoplanets,
which were among the first bodies formed in our solar system, researchers hope to
gain valuable information about the solar system's early development. The Jupiter Icy
Moons Orbiter (JIMO) spacecraft will use an array of high-power ion thrusters as main
propulsion. JIMO will perform an extensive exploration of Jupiter's icy moons
Callisto, Ganymede, and Europa. The spacecraft will investigate each moons
composition, history, and potential for sustaining life. Research in ion propulsion
continues to push the envelope of propulsion technology. Advancements are being
made that allow the thrusters to operate at higher power levels, higher speeds, and for
longer durations. PPU and PMS technologies are being developed that will allow
NASA to build lighter and more compact systems while increasing reliability. As new
power sources become available, higher power thrusters will be developed that
provide greater speed and more thrust. Supporting technologies such as carbon-based
ion optics and ECR discharges may greatly increase ion thruster operational life,
enabling longer duration missions or high-power IPS operation. These technologies
will allow humankind to explore the farthest reaches of our solar system.

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8. CONCLUSION

EP encompasses a large variety of technical solutions and devices which cover a broad
range of sizes, powers, thrusts, specific impulses and efficiencies. Some thrusters have
a long flight heritage and are commercially available whereas others are currently
prototypes under development and testing in laboratories. There is obviously no ideal
or perfect electric thruster for space applications. The technology must be selected
according to the spacecraft design, the budget, the propulsion requirements and the
mission objectives. The primary advantage of EP systems is the propellant mass
economy, especially for missions with a large velocity increment. Electric thrusters
also offer secondary benefits like precision and variability of the thrust, restart
capabilities and long total operational time. Their major disadvantages are the need for
complicated external power sources and the low thrust density levels. This last
characteristic strongly limits near-planet applications, complicates and elongates orbit
transfers, and makes launch and ascent/descent manoeuvres unfeasible. EP is in fact
fully exploited in the domain of interplanetary trips. It even enables missions that
simply could not be performed with chemical propulsion. Suited missions for EP
include heavy cargo missions to the moon and Mars, journeys towards asteroids and
giant outer planets and their moons, as well as sending unmanned probes beyond the
solar system.

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9. REFERENCES

[1] Martnez-Snchez M and Pollard J E 1998, Spacecraft electric propulsionan

overview J. Propul. Power 14 68899
[2] Marco Sabbadini, Electric spacecraft propulsion-ESA. Retrieved 17 February 2007

[3] Brophy J R and Polk J E 1997, Performance of 130 kW MPD thruster with an
external magnetic field and Li as a propellant Proc. of the 25th Int. Electric Propulsion
Conf. (Cleveland, OH) IEPC Paper 1997117

[4] Robert G. Jahn, Physics Of Ion Propulsion, published in 1964

[5] Goebel D M and Katz I 2008, Fundamentals of Electric Propulsion (Hoboken, NJ:
Wiley)

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